term paper of theories

7/29/2019 Term Paper of Theories

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Submitted to :

Miss Maryam

Submitted by :

Bakhtawer Zain(552)

Subject :

Theories of Mass Communication

Assignment topic :

Normative theories

Programme :

Bs Hons Mass Communication

Semester :5

th


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Contents .

Introduction to theoriesIntroduction to Normative theoriesAuthoritarian theoryLibertarian theorySoviet theorySocial responsibility theoryAnalysis of theoriesCriticismConclusion


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INTRODUCTION

Theory is a conceptual representation or explanation of phenomenon. They are stories

about how and why events occur. Kurt Levin defines theory as a way of explaining the

ordering and occurrence of various events. It can also be defined as a set of

systematic generalizations based on scientific observation and leading to further

empirical observation. (Severin and Tankard (Jnr.) 1982).

Characteristics of Theory

These are some of the characteristics of theory and they could also be seen as criteria for a

good theory.

(1) Intellectual Rigour : Every theory is a product of careful analysis and giving great

attention to details. This process ensures that they are testable, verifiable or systematic.

(2) Dynamism: Theories are subject to change; they are seldom constant because they

can be modified or completely repudiated

when new facts emerge.

(3) Predictive power: Theories enable us to make predictions but those predictions are

rarely ever realized with exactitude. Theory is step behind reality.

(4) Economy: A good theory explains many cases with a few statements and with few

exceptions, if any.

(5) Explanatory Power: ability of a theory to be used to explain a puzzling phenomenon.

(6) Internal Consistency : There should be no contradiction in the process. The processes

involved should agree with one another.(7) Heuristic Potential: Should help to see a new thing or new things; or should be useful for

solving problems.

(8) Practical Utility: Theories have usefulness to reality. They can be used to solve real life

problems and issues

Why Study Theories?

Theories help to manage realities. Kurt Levin says that theories enable us to put facts in

perspective, and to predict what will happen, even before the events we are theorizing

about get completed. According to Kaplan, a theory enables us to make sense out of adisturbing situation. e.g. Detectives (Police) always formulate a theory to unravel a case, say

murder case. We also study theories in order to derive intellectual satisfaction


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How Theories are arrived at

Theories are derived through a process known as scientific method. The process includes:

1.Conceptualisation :This is the definition of the subject of inquiry.

You may call it a topic of research.

2.Operationalisation : This involves translation of general concepts into specific variables and

specification of the procedure adopted in research. (From problem statement to generalization)

3.Observation : This is the careful study (observation) of the specified variables from available

data, using any modes of research.

4. Analysis : This involves extracting meaning from the facts observed.

This must be done objectively.

5.Testing: Here, the results of analysis are used to test the hypothesis or research questions

raised in a study.

6. Generalization: The findings from the test are used to make some generalizations, regarding

the subject of inquiry.

7. Theory: Theories are formulated from the generalization made as a result of our analysis and

testing.

8. Law: Theory eventually leads to law after it has been repeatedly tested without being

disproved or substantially modified. Laws are difficult to come by in social sciences because

we study human organization and behavior, which are capricious.

From the foregoing it can be seen that theory and research are closely linked.

Relationship between Theory and Research

It is already seen from the above that theory and research are closely related through the

scientific method. Both theory and research may be seen as two sides of the same coin. Any

scientific assertion needs to have both logical and empirical support; that is, it must make sense

and align with observations in the real world. Theory provides the logical support while

research provides the empirical (observation) support.


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What is Normative Theory :

Normative theories were first proposed by Fred Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur

Schramm in their book called Four Theories of the Press. At first the word Normative

Theory was pronounced in USA during the height of cold war with communism and soviet.

Often it called as western theories of mass media

This is a type of theory that describes an ideal way for media systems to be structured and

operated. Normative theories do not describe things as they are nor do they provide

scientific explanations; instead, they describe the way things shall be if some ideal values or

principles are to be realized. They help to explain the way in which social communication

rules impinge on mass media structures, conventions and performance, and highlight the

consequences of non-convergence between societal communication principles and mass

communication principles.

Normative theories are more focused in the relationship between Press and the Government

than press and the audience. These theories are more concern about the ownership of themedia and who controls the press or media in the country.

Fredrick S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramm presented:

The Authoritarian Libertarian Social Responsibility Soviet Communist

Authoritarian Media Theory

Tracing of Authoritarian theory :

The Authoritarian theory of the press can be traced to the very beginning of printing. At that

time, truth was thought to reside in those who held power-that is, the governing agency.

Thus there was strict control of the press through the licensing of printers by the

throne. Censorship was practiced if the ruler thought that information should be with held

from the masses. Therefore, although the government did not necessarily own the press,

it was looked on as being an advocate of the state. Today many nations will not admit that

their countries are governed according to authoritarian principles, they publicly espouse

libertarian concepts, but behind the scenes authoritarian practices are carried out.

This term was first used by Siebert refers to an arrangement in which the press is subordinated

to state power and the interests of a ruling class. The theory justifies advance censorship and

punishment for deviation from externally set guidelines. Unacceptable attack on authority,

deviation from official policy, or offences against moral codes should be criminal offences.

Under certain circumstances, media are subjected to authoritarian tendencies in democratic

regimes as well, especially in times of war and during internal and external emergencies. Other

media like film, video, etc are subjected to censorship. Even the press, which is free, lost its


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independence and freedom during the emergency (1975-77). The authorities can and do use

the provisions of official secrets act to deny free access to information, thereby hampering the

freedom of press.

According to Siebert, the authoritarian state system requires direct governmental control of

the mass media. This system is especially easy to recognize in pre-democratic societies, wherethe government consists of a very limited and small ruling-class. The media in an authoritarian

system are not allowed to print or broadcast anything, which could undermine the

established authority, and any offense to the existing political values is avoided. The

authoritarian government may go to the step of punishing anyone who questions the state's

ideology.

Assumption of Authoritarian theory :

The fundamental assumption of the authoritarian system is that the government isinfallible. Media professionals are therefore not allowed to have any independence

within the media organization.

Foreign media are subordinate to the established authority, in that all importedmedia products are controlled by the state.

The state, as the highest expression of institutionalized structure, supersedes theindividual and makes it possible for the individual to acquire and develop a stable and

harmonious life Mass communication, then, supports the state and the government in

power so that total society may advance and the state may be viable and attain its

objectives.

The State (the elite that runs the state) directs the citizenry, which is not consideredcompetent and interested enough to make critical political decisions. One man or an

elite group is placed in a leadership role. As the group or person controls societygenerally it (or he or she) also controls the mass media since they are recognized as vital

instruments of social control.

The mass media, under authoritarianism, are educators and propagandists by which thepower elite exercise social control. Generally the media are privately owned, although

the leader or his elite group may own units in the total communication system. A basic:

assumption a person engaged in journalism is so engaged as a special privilege granted

by the national leadership. He, therefore, owes an obligation to the leadership.

The relationship between the state and the media in an authoritarian system can be

illustrated as such


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Concluding point of this theory :

Thus this press concept the mass media, under authoritarianism, have only as much freedom

as the national leadership at any particular time is willing to permit

Libertarian Media Theory (Free Press Theory)

What does Libertarian Media Theory explain?

Fredrick S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramms go on to explain the libertarian

theory, which is also called the free press theory. In contrast to the authoritarian theory, the

libertarian view rests on the idea that the individual should be free to publish whatever he or

she likes. Its history traces back to the 17th century's thinker John Milton, who asserted that

human beings inevitably choose the best ideas and values. In the libertarian system, attacks on

the government's policies are fully accepted and even encouraged. Moreover, there should be

no restrictions on import or export of media messages across the national frontiers. Moreover,

journalists and media professionals ought to have full autonomy within the media

organization.

Is it hard to Intact ?

It is hard to find intact examples of libertarian media systems in today's world. The U.S. will in

many aspects come close, but this country's media system has have tendencies of

authoritarianism as well. As this illustration shows, there is no explicit connection between the

government and the media in the libertarian theory:

Which concept explain libertarian ?

Today the open market place of ideas and the self-righting process define the boundaries of

the libertarian theory of the press. In the seventeenth century John Milton defended the


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concepts of reason and the moral integrity of man in telling right from wrong, good from bad,

and truth from falsehood in a powerful argument for intellectual freedom. Other

exponents of this philosophy were John Stuart, Thomas Jefferson and other who believed

in freedom of expression, rationalism, and natural rights. They saw as the presss function to

inform, to sell, to entertain, to uphold the truth, and to keep check on the government. Press

ownership in countries espousing the libertarian philosophy is likely to be private and shouldbe free from defamation, obscenity, impropriety and wartime sedition.

In which countries Libertarian theory is being practiced ?

Countries practicing the libertarian philosophy today are the United States, Great

Britain, and other western European nations. Other theories related to libertarian

theory are the social responsibility theory and the objective theory of the press.

What is the fundamental right of Libertarian ?

Libertarian theory is based on the fundamental right of an individual to freedom of expression,

which is regarded as the main legitimating principle for print media in liberal democracies. In

its simple form, it prescribes that an individual should be free to publish what he or she likes, it

is thus extension of other rights to hold opinions freely, to express them, to assemble and

organize with others. The free press theory needs no elaboration as is evident from the

first amendment to the American constitution, which states that congress shall make no

lawabridging the freedom of speech or of the press, it is thus simply an absolute right of the

citizen.

Is application of this theory is easy or hard ?

But the application of press freedom has hardly been straightforward. Milton, Stuart Mill and

many others argued that if freedom is abused to the extent of threatening good morals and

the authority of the state, it must be restrained. According to de Sola Pool (1973), no nation

will indefinitely tolerate a freedom of the press that serves to divided the country and to open

the flood gates of criticism against the freely chosen government that leads its.

Moreover, much difficulty has arisen because press freedom has become identified

with property rights (private ownership) and freedom from interference in the market. The

free press theory or the libertarian theory thus protects the owners of media but

fails to give equal expression to the rights of editors and journalists or of the audiences.


This theory takes the philosophical view that man is rational and able to discern between truth

and falsehood and, therefore, can choose between a better and worse alternative. Man is

capable of determining his own destiny, and given all the facts will make the right choice.


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Social Responsibility Media Theory

Who take initiative Social Responsibility Theory ?

An American initiative in the late forties brought forth the social responsibility theory.

Realizing that the market had failed to fulfill the promise that press freedom

would reveal the truth, The Commission on Freedom of the Press provided a model

in which the media had certain obligations to society. These obligations were expressed in

the words " in formativeness , truth, accuracy, objectivity, and balance". Siebert writes that

the goal of the social responsibility system is that media as a whole is pluralized,

indicating "a reflection of the diversity of society as well as access to various points ofview".

What it provides ?

As opposed to the libertarian theory, the social responsibility principle is to provide

an entrance to different mass media to minority groups. The journalist is

accountable to his audience as well as to the government.

Is anyone

Most media systems in Western Europe today come close to the social responsibility theory.

An illustration of the theory puts the mass media and the government on the same level,

signifying an interaction where both parts are allowed to criticize the other:

How it emerged ?

Social Responsibility Theory emerged as a result of conflict between professionalism and

self-regulation of the press and pressure for greater regulation of the media. In response,

Henry Luce, CEO of Time Inc. provided funding for an independentcommission to make recommendations concerning the role of the press. The Hutchins

Commission on Freedom of the press was established in 1942 and released its report in

1947.

Role of Hutchins Commission in the development of this theory :


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The Commission members were sharply divided between those who held strongly

libertarian views and those who supported some form of press regulation. Press regulation

advocates argued that anti-democratic press can easily subvert the market place of ideas

and use the media to transmit propaganda to fuel hatred for their own advantages. (e.g.

Hitler used the media against the Jew). On the other hand, placing the media under a

control or regulation will hinder the freedom of the press.The Commission therefore decided to place their faith in media practitioners and called

on them to redoubled their efforts to serve the public and that the media have certain

obligations to society. These obligations were expressed in the words "informativeness,

truth, accuracy, objectivity, and balance"

What does Social Responsibility Media Theory states ?

This theory states that the media can be used by anyone who has an idea to express but they

are forbidden to invade private rights or disrupt social structures. It emphasizes the

freedom of the press and places responsibility on the media practitioners to abide by

certain social standards. It opposes media regulation but believes that the press is

automatically controlled by community opinion, consumer protest and professional ethics.

It calls on the media to be responsible for fostering productive and creative Great

Communities (Baran and Davis 2003:109), and that media should do this by prioritizing

cultural pluralism- by becoming the voice of all the people not just elite groups or

groups that had dominated national, regional or local culture in the past. It also points out

that the media, in carrying out their obligations, must adhere to the highest ethical

standards.

Basic principles Of Social Responsibility Theory :

Social Responsibility Theory basic principles, summarized by McQuail (1987), include:

To serve the political system by making information, discussion andconsideration of public affairs generally accessible.

To inform the public to enable it to take self determined action. To protect the rights of the individual by acting as watchdog over thegovernment.

To serve the economic system; for instance by bringing together

buyers and sellers through the medium of advertising. To provide good entertainment, whatever good may mean in the cultureat any point in time.

To preserve financial autonomy in order not to become dependent on specialinterests and influences.

The basic principles of the social responsibility theory uphold conflict resolution

through discussion; there is high regard for public opinion, consumer action, and


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professional ethics and jealous guard over private rights and important social

interests. This theory emerged in the United States in the twentieth century, and it is

evidenced today in the Anglo-American nations.

Assumptions of social responsibility theory :

The social responsibility theory is based on the assumption that media serveessential functions in society.

Media should accept and fulfill certain obligations to the society. Theseobligations are to be met by setting high professional standards in

communication of information, truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance.

In accepting and discharging these obligations, the media should be self-regulatorywithin the framework of law and established institutions.

In the public interest, the media should underplay that news which might lead tocrime, violence, and social tension or cause offence to ethnic or religious minorities.

The media should be pluralist, should reflect the diversity of their society and allowaccess to various points of view, including the right to reply.Concluding point of social responsibility theory :

This new theory maintains that the importance of the press in modern society makes it

absolutely necessary that an obligation of social responsibility be imposed on the media

of mass communication

Soviet-Communist Media Theory :

From its name, the Soviet theory is closely tied to a specific ideology; The communist.

Siebert traces the roots of this theory back to the 1917 Russian Revolution based on the

postulates of Marx and Engels. The media organizations in this system were not intended

to be privately owned and were to serve the interests of the working class.

Differentiate between Authoritarian theory and communist theories :

An illustration of the Soviet system would appear to be the same as the

authoritarian model, in that both theories acknowledge the government as superior to the

media institutions:


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However, there is a major difference between the two theories that needs to be clarified: The

mass media in the Soviet model are expected to be self-regulatory with regard to the content of

their messages. Also, the Soviet theory differs from the authoritarian theory in that the

media organizations have a certain responsibility to meet the wishes of their audience. Still,

the underlying standard is to provide a complete and objective view of the world according to

Marxist- Leninist principles.

Is Soviet theory exist today ?

Today, the name of this theory is only of historical interest. Beginning in the mid- eighties and

continuing after the fall of the Soviet Union, Russia has performed a mass media model closer to

the social responsibility principle. The clearest current example of the Soviet media theory is

how the media function in China, where the communist government controls TV, radio, and

newspapers.

Other name of Soviet theory :

The Soviet Theory is also called as the communist media theory. Just as the social

responsibility theory is an outgrowth of the libertarian theory, soviet- communist

theory is an outgrowth of the authoritarian theory. However, whereas according to the

authoritarian theory the press resides outside the government, in the soviet media theory the

press and the state are held to be one. The main purpose of the soviet-media theory is to

ensure the success and continuance of the soviet socialist system and to promote the

objectives of the soviet socialist party. This system is found mainly in the Soviet Union and other

communist countries.

Main purpose :

In soviet media theory the press and the state are held to be one. The main purpose of the

soviet-media theory is to ensure the success and continuance of the soviet socialist

system and to promote the objectives of the soviet socialist party. This system is found mainly in

the Soviet Union and other communist countries.

When Russian media was reorganized ?


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Russian media was reorganized after the revolution of 1917and this theory is derived mainly

from basic tenets of Marx and Engels. It envisages media to be under the control of the

working class whose interest they are meant to serve. Private ownership of the press

or other media is ruled out. The media must serve positive functions in society relating to

information, education, motivation, and mobilization. They must support progressive

movements in the country and abroad.The media according to this theory are subject to the ultimate control of the state are integrated

with other instruments of political life. Within these limits, the media

are expected to be self-regulatory. They must

Act with responsibility

Evolve and follow norms of professional conduct, and

Respond to peoples needs and aspirations.

What it advocates ?

It advocates the complete domination of media by a communist government for the

purpose of forcing those media to serve the party. The main task of the press is to

promote the socialist system and maintain the sovereignty of the proletariat(workingclass)

via communist party.

What it seeks ?

While the soviet-communist theory seeks to use the media to support development and

change towards the attainment of the communist stage, the authoritarian seeks to use the

media to maintain the status quo. But they are similar in subjecting the media to direct

state control. Every issue in Soviet communist must be seen and interpreted in favour of thecommunist party. The four working principles of soviet press are (1) Truthfulness. (2)

Partiality. (3) Commitment to the people. (4) Mass culture.

Difference between Libertarian , Social Responsibility and Soviet theory :

Libertarian and Social Responsibility theories assign economic function to the press while the

Soviet press removes the profit motive since it is an arm of government and financed by

government. Libertarian and Social Responsibility theories expect the media to raise social

conflict to the level of discussion but Soviet theory forbade organization of press structure

along the lines of political conflicts since social societies aspired to become classlesssocieties.


The media as per this theory are not subject to arbitrary interference as in the case of the

authoritarian theory.


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Analysis of theories:

Four major theories behind the functioning of the world's presses :

The Authoritarian theory, which developed in the late Renaissance and was basedon the idea that truth is the product of a few wise men.

The Libertarian theory, which arose from the works of men like Milton, Locke, Mill,and Jefferson and avowed that the search for truth is one of man's natural rights;

The Social Responsibility theory of the modern day: equal radio and television timefor political candidates, the obligations of the newspaper in a one-paper town, etc

The Soviet Communist theory, an expanded and more positive version of the oldAuthoritarian theory.

Fredrick S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramms four Theories of the Press

probably constitute the most well known attempt to clarify the link between mass media andthe political society in modern world. In these theories they introduce the concepts of what

the Press should be and do. Since the theory was presented in 1963, it has been widely

accepted and utilized by media scholars. Nevertheless, a critical evaluation shows that

Siebert's theories are outdated and too simplistic to be useful in today's media research.

What asserted the researchers to study the relationship between media and government ?

Mass media do not operate in a vacuum. This assertion is generally agreed upon, and has led

researchers to study the relationship between mass media and the government.

The first well-known attempt to clarify the link between mass media and the political societywas introduced by Frederick S. Siebert in 1963, and presented in Four Theories of the Press by

Siebert, Peterson, and Schramm. The purpose of the work was to establish and explain four

normative theories that ought to illustrate the press position in relation to its political

environment. By "press" Siebert, means all the media of mass communication,

including television, radio, and newspaper.

Is these theories are still acknowledge ?

Siebert's four theories (the authoritarian, the libertarian, the Soviet, and the socialresponsibility) are still acknowledged by many mass media researchers as the most proper

categories to describe how different media systems operate in the world. Almost every

article and book dealing with philosophical bases for journalism has alluded to this

book Four Theories of the Press , commented on it, or quoted from it. It has definitely made

an impact.


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Is there a need to evaluate them ?

Yes there is a need to evaluate the four theories analytically in order to find out if Siebert's

approach still is the most functional. A critical evaluation shows that Siebert's theories, which

seek to explain the relationship between mass media and the government, are outdated and

too simplistic to be useful in today's media research.

CRITICISM :

Work on categorization of national press systems in the last 40 years has been grounded in the

well-known Four Theories of the Press. Whereas this approach has been strongly criticized by

international scholars for its idealism and its poverty of empiricism, it is still widely taught in

introductory journalism courses across the country, and few theorists have engaged in

grounding the theory with data in international settings. Although journalism is contextualized

and constrained by press structure and state policies, it is also a relatively autonomous cultural

production of journalists negotiating between their professionalism and state control.

The world order has changed greatly in the last decade. Many of the old frameworksincluding

those of the media such as the Four Theories of the Press (Four Theories)are obsolete and

inapplicable for contemporary analysis. The new order has already annulled their explanatory

power. We need new ideas to account for the development of our internationalized and diverse

forms of media. The theories are hardly applicable to the current scenario.

CONCLUSION

Not confined to the extent of theories, the media always faces (and is open to) criticism and

social scientists always keep this debate open as how best media could be used to improve

functioning of civil society and promotion of democratic sense and practices. In their view if

peoples knowledge, understandings, capabilities, and actions are manufactured, its

simultaneously follows that they can be developed, improved, and individualized in proper

(ideal-democratic) circumstances . Among these circumstances, proper communication


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networks are inevitable. Because of new developments, the relationship among the state,

private sectors, markets, and civil society profoundly changed during the 1980s.

In politically and economically advanced societies the change is based on new information and

telecommunications technologies, which affected the media industries in terms of economicrestructuring, and on a new social and political environment, as reflected by media contents.

Training and continuing development of professionalism can be done to advance and nurtur

balanced and impartial news presentation. Professionalism implies standards and procedures,

which means journalists tend to act as responsible members of the political establishment,

upholding the dominant political perspective.

References :

http://www.legalindia.in/theories-of-press

http://www.nou.edu.ng/noun/NOUN_OCL/pdf/pdf2/JLS%20715.pdf
http://www.legalindia.in/theories-of-presshttp://www.legalindia.in/theories-of-presshttp://www.nou.edu.ng/noun/NOUN_OCL/pdf/pdf2/JLS%20715.pdfhttp://www.nou.edu.ng/noun/NOUN_OCL/pdf/pdf2/JLS%20715.pdfhttp://www.nou.edu.ng/noun/NOUN_OCL/pdf/pdf2/JLS%20715.pdfhttp://www.legalindia.in/theories-of-press

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