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TOPIC 6 LEARNING THEORIES

INTRODUCTION TeacherÊs approach in a classroom is dependent on how students learn the content of a subject. Psychologists have studied how learning occurs and has suggested several learning theories. These theories can be divided into behaviour, social and cognitive. Behaviourism learning theory focuses on behaviour and environment, social learning theory focuses on behaviour and thinking while cognitive learning theory focuses on thinking. This chapter describes all these theories and its application in teaching and learning in the classroom. It is hoped that teachers can reflect on their teaching approach and to relate them with theories of learning. This chapter is not only important to teachers but to the students as well to be aware of effective learning style.

Learning Theories TTooppiicc 66

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain behaviourism, social and cognitive learning theory;

2. Discuss Gagne, Ausubel, Bruner and constructivism learning theory; and

3. Explain direct, cooperative and mastery learning.


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BEHAVIOURISM LEARNING THEORY

Have you ever given yourself, or your children a present (such as chocolate or book) when they achieved something (for example getting A in an examination)? According to behavioural psychologists, learning is a change in behaviour that occurred in an individual as a result of experience. This learning process will be experienced by every individual from birth that made it difficult for us to differentiate and separate learning with growth because both are inter-related. Behaviourism focuses on human behaviour that can be observed and measured. Behavioural psychologists believed all things can be observed. We cannot see thinking but we can make observation on human behaviour. From the behaviour we can make a conclusion about what is being thought. Among the prominent behaviourists are Pavlov and Watson classic routine members and Thorndike and Skinner routine operation members.

6.1.1 Pavlov’s Classic Routine Theory

According to Pavlov, every stimulus will cause response. Response means any behaviour as a result of a stimulus. Stimulus is any form of energy that caused response. For example, when teachers hear the bell ringing, will leave the staff room to go to the classroom to see their students. This behaviour is carried to their homes that is when they hear the bell ringing they will leave their room to observe his family members. From this example, the bell is the stimulus while the teachersÊ action is the response. From his study, Pavlov opined that learning can occur as a result of stimulus and response. Learning that occurs as a result of the relationship is known as routine and learning that occurs as a result of this stimulus is known as classic routine. From PavlovÊs experiment on a dog, three stages of routine appeared that are (a) pre routine, (b) while routine and (c) post routine. The result of Pavlov experiment is summarised in Figure 6.1. Several important concepts in teaching and learning process developed through Pavlov classic routine principle include (a) generalisation, (b) discrimination and (c) elimination. (a) Generalisation Generalisation means the same stimulus will produce the same response.

For example, Ali is worried each time when the chemistry test is held. He is also worried each time is biology test is held because both subjects inter-

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related. So his worry in one subject (chemistry) has been generalised to another subject (biology).

Figure 6.1: PavlovÊs experiment

(b) Discrimination Discrimination happens when someone responses to one stimulus but not

to the others. In the study on a dog, it was found that the dog only responded to the bell. In AliÊs case, he was not worried about his English or History tests because both subjects are different from the Science subjects.

(c) Elimination Elimination happens when a conditioned stimulus is not concurrent with

unconditioned response. In PavlovÊs study, when the bell (conditioned stimulus) was not accompanied by food (unconditioned stimulus), the dog eventually stopped salivating when it heard the bell. This is an example of when elimination takes place.


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Elimination Process

Food not given when bell was rung Dog gradually stopped salivating

Relearning

Food was given whenever bell was rung. Eventually, only bell was rung. Dog salivated.

Immediate Rehabilitation

Bell was rung again after a short interval. Dog salivated

Generalisation

Bell was replaced by a similar sound Dog salivated

Meat was given only when the bell is rung. Similar sound was not accompanied by meat.

Dog salivated when it heard the bell.

Figure 6.2: Summary of Pavlov StudyÊs findings

6.1.2 Watson’s Classic Conditioning Theory

Besides Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson is another psychologist who uses the word behaviourism to explain behavioural changes during the learning process. He conducted a study to prove that human emotion can be classically conditioned. He studied a white mouse and an 11-month-old boy, Albert. During his study, he showed Albert the white mouse. In the beginning, the boy did not show any fear towards the mouse. However, when a loud sound accompanied the appearance of the white mouse, the boy started to cry. This was repeated several times that eventually, the boy developed a fear towards the white mouse. Based on his research, Watson suggested that teachers can condition studentsÊ learning experience by controlling the given stimuli and the expected responses. By combining several stimuli, specific responses can be expected in different situations. During the learning process, teachers should choose exciting stimuli.


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6.1.3 Thorndike’s Operant Conditioning Theory

E.L Thorndike is the first behaviourist who introduces the concept of Âoperant conditioningÊ. He conducted studies on animal such as cats, chickens, dogs and monkeys. In his study on a cat which was caged with food outside the cage, he found that the cat made several attempts to free itself. The attempts are called „trial-error‰ learning. Through trial-error learning, the cat showed a lot of reactions; and when it stepped on the cage lock, the cage opened. The cat went out and got the food. When it was put back in the cage, the cat once again made several attempts to free itself. In other words, the cat learned to open the cage through trial-error and repetitions. Through this experiment, Thorndike claims that learning takes place as a result of a combination of S-R stimulus and response. Thorndike asserts that human learning is controlled by what he labels as law of learning. This is divided into three: (a) Law of Readiness, (b) Law of Practice and (c) Law of Effects. (a) Law of Readiness According to Thorndike (1913), when an individual is ready to do

something, it will give him satisfaction. He will be disappointed if he does not get to do it and if he is forced to do it, it will not result in a satisfying learning process. In a nutshell, law of readiness refers to the readiness and the preparations needed before an individual takes an action, which is learning. Readiness can be observed based on three main aspects, psychomotor, affective and cognitive.

(b) Law of Practice According to Thorndike, the link between stimulus and response (S-R) will

be strengthened through repetitive practices. An individual will acquire skills when he practices. For example, if students practice their mathematical formula, they will remember them easily. Law of Practice states that an action can be strengthened through application and will be weakened without practice. Law of Practice is very suitable for memorisation practice.


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Figure 6.3: ThorndikeÊs Law of Learning (c) Law of Effect Law of order stipulates that if an action is followed by exciting changes, the

probability of the action to take place is high. When a response is observed, the link between stimulus and response can be strengthen if an exciting consequence exists. A painful consequence can weaken the link between S-R. For example, if the cat in ThorndikeÊs experiment was electrocuted every time he got out of the cage, he would not have the motivation to free himself. In short, if a behaviour is accompanied by a positive consequence, it will be repeated. Otherwise, it will not be continued.

Teachers can use ThorndikeÊs three laws of learning as effective approaches

to strategise teaching and learning in the classrooms. Some strategies that can be used are:

(i) To provide various stimulus to create exciting learning consequences.

(ii) To give rewards or reinforcement for the right response.

(iii) To provide conducive learning environment.

(iv) To evaluate studentsÊ readiness aspect.

(v) Teachers start teaching only after they are sure that students are cognitively, physically and affectively ready.


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6.1.4 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory

B.F. Skinner agrees with Pavlov but states that actions must be observed for a long period of time and simple actions should mould complex actions. Skinner conducted a lot of studies using animals such as mouse and doves. He created the ÂSkinner BoxÊ in which he studied animal behaviour which according to him can be controlled and the animalÊs responses can be observed, recorded and measured. The study led him to the use of the operant conditioning theory in teaching and learning activities in the classroom. According to Skinner (1953), in the operant conditioning theory, response can be strengthened (repeated) or eliminated (not repeated), if reinforcement is given immediately after the response.

Figure 6.2: B. F. Skinner Reinforcement is something that is done to encourage repetition of actions. According to Rachlin (1991), reinforcement is given, first to satisfy individualÊs need; secondly to reduce pressure and stimulate the brain. Skinner states that there are two types of reinforcement; positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. There are five processes in SkinnerÊs operant conditioning theory; positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, Premack principle and elimination. (a) Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is to provide a reward after a behaviour is observed, resulting in the behaviour to be repeated or strengthen. In a classroom, positive reinforcement is given as a motivation in teaching and learning. Some examples of positive reinforcement that can be given in the classrooms are to praise students when they answer questions, smile, pat studentsÊ shoulders and give presents. Table 6.1 shows another example of positive reinforcement.


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Table 6.1: Positive Reinforcement

Behaviour Consequences Future Behaviours

Students provide good questions

Teachers praise the students

Students provide more good questions

TeachersÊ positive reinforcement may encourage students to produce high quality work. Reinforcements given must be clear and systematic. Only specific behaviours can be given reinforcement. Teachers must also be honest when they give the reinforcement. According to Brophy (1981), effective characteristics of positive reinforcement are (a) honest, (b) immediate, (c) not biased, (d) praise efforts and trial-error, (e) praise specific behaviour and (f) praise spontaneous answer or responses.

(b) Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement is a painful or undesirable immediate stimulus given after a behaviour is observed. For example, a father may scold his son for not doing his homework. As the son is tired of his fatherÊs scolding, the son finishes his homework. The sonÊs behaviour (to finish his homework) helps him to avoid an undesirable stimulus (his fatherÊs scolding). Table 6.2 shows another example of negative reinforcement.

Table 6.2: Negative Reinforcement

Behaviour Consequences Future Behavious

Students did not finish their work in time.

Teachers scold the students

Students finish the next assignment in time.

Reinforcement can be continuous or scheduled. Table 6.3 shows a reinforcement table which can be used to create desired behaviour. This reinforcement table covers continuous reinforcement, fixed-ratio reinforcement and variable ratio reinforcement.


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Table 6.3: Reinforcement Table

Reinforcement Definition Example Response Form Behaviour when reinforcement is

stopped

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcement is given after every response

Watch television

Immediate effect Less concentration and fast elimination of response

Fixed-interval reinforcement

Reinforcement is given after a specific time frame.

Weekly quiz

Response level increases when reinforcement is given but decreases after reinforcement.

Show a little concentration and response shows fast decreasing rate when reinforcement time is over.

Variable-interval Reinforcement

Reinforcement is given after a non-specific time frame

Pop quiz StudentsÊ response can be delayed; may stop for a while after reinforcement.

High concentration and slow decrease rate of response.

Fixed-ratio reinforcement

Reinforcement after a set of fixed number of responses

Paid job according to rates

Quick responses; stop for a while after reinforcement

No reinforcement value as the value vanishes when the same reinforcement is given

Variable ratio reinforcement

Reinforcement after a non-fixed number of responses

Machine that produces tickets when money is inserted.

High response rate even after reinforcement

Remain high.

(c) Punishment Punishment is a process to weaken or reduce the possibility of repeating undesirable behaviour. Punishment is a negative effect that leads to the decrease of the number of the behaviour. Table 6.4 shows another example of punishment.


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Table 6.4: Punishment

Behaviour Consequences Future Behavious

Students are noisy in the class

Teachers warn the student Students stop making noise in the class.

Punishment can be divided into two; presentation punishment and removal punishment.

(i) Presentation Punishment Presentation punishment takes place when a stimulus causes a change in studentsÊ behaviour. This type of punishment does not involve anything physical but could scare the students. For example, field run, demerit system, extra homework.

(ii) Removal Punishment Removal punishment relates to elimination of stimuli. For instance, parents or teachers withdraw a privilege when a student does not behave accordingly. An example of removal punishment is no television for a week because a student does not do his Mathematic homework.

To make punishment more effective, some improvements must be considered. These include:

(i) Punishment must be immediate, immediately after an undesired behaviour is displayed.

(ii) The person punished must know why he is being punished.

(iii) Punishment is given with the intention to change oneÊs behaviour and not as a payment for his behaviour.

(iv) Punishment must be consistent. If A is caned three times for his undesirable behaviour, B must also be caned three times for the same undesirable behaviour.

Some believe that punishment can create prolong emotional disturbance and carries ethical considerations. A very harsh punishment can be labeled as abuse and continuous punishment can develop negative behaviour such as isolation, low self-esteem. It can also disturb oneÊs emotional development in the long run.

(d) Premack Principle

The main concept of Premack principle is to link an undesirable activity with a desirable one in order to reinforce behaviour towards the


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undesirable activity. Premack principle is also known as ÂGrandmaÊs RuleÊ which is based on the statement „you can go out and play once you finish your vegetable‰. As teachers, we can alternate interesting activities with less interesting ones to enhance studentsÊ learning rate. For example, after a Mathematic lesson, students can play a computer game.

(e) Elimination

Elimination takes place when a behaviour is extinguished as no reinforcement is given. This can be overcome if:

(i) Reinforcement for the behaviour can be identified.

(ii) Reinforcement is no longer used.

(iii) Teachers can face elimination process as its benefits are not immediate.

SkinnerÊs learning theory can be applied during teaching and learning process in the classrooms based on the following principles:

(a) Positive reinforcement must be systematic.

(b) Rewards must be suitable to studentsÊ age. Selection of rewards can be based on the level of difficulty of the expected behaviour.

(c) Negative reinforcement may be deemed as punishment, thus, teachers have to be careful when giving them.

(d) Teachers should prioritise repetitive practices and responses.

1. Prepare the following information for the four behaviourism theories.

Pavlov Watson Thorndike Skinner

Traits

Example

Similarities

Differences

2. Explain with examples how teachers apply positive and negative

reinforcements in the class.

ACTIVITY 6.1


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SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social learning theory was introduced by Albert Bandura (1986, 1977, 1998, 2000). It was renamed as ÂSocial cognitive theoryÊ by Bandura himself (Moore, 2002). Social learning theory stipulates that social, cognitive and behavioural factors play important roles in learning (Santrock, 2001). While cognitive factors will influence studentsÊ expectations of their success, social factors including studentsÊ observations of their parentsÊ behaviour and achievement, will influence their behaviour. Social learning theory believes that humans are active creatures, able to choose and use developmental processes to relate events and communicate. Human behaviour is not determined by inner power and individual historical development or passive actions towards oneÊs environment. In many cases, humans are selective and not a passive entity who can be influenced by his surroundings. Humans need and influence each other. Some examples of social psychologists include Albert Bandura, Walter Mischel, Julian Rotter and Martin Seligman. Albert Bandura (1925- ), is a psychology professor at Stanford University and he proposes ÂReciprocal Determinism ModelÊ and ÂImitation Learning TheoryÊ.

Figure 6.5: Albert Bandura

(a) Reciprocal Determinism Model Bandura proposes reciprocal determinism model which consists of three

main factors, behaviour, personal (cognition) and environment (see Figure 6.5). These factors interact and influence learning. Bandura believes that oneÊs behaviour is a result of the interaction between personal (cognition) factors and his environment.

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Figure 6.6: Reciprocal Determinism Source: Santrock, 2001 Educational Psychology, pg 256

(b) Imitation Learning Theory Bandura conducted a study with Walter (1963), on the effects of childrenÊs

behaviour when they watched a video showing adults hitting, kicking and sitting on a Bobo doll and punching while screaming ÂsockerooÊ. Badura showed this video to kindergartenÊs kids. They were then asked to go to a playroom where there was a doll that looked like Bobo. When the children saw the doll, they imitated the actions they watched on the video. According to Bandura, when a personÊs action is imitated, that person becomes a model to the imitator.

According to the theory, imitation can be done in several ways:

(i) Direct imitation. For example, teachers demonstrate how to make a paper plane and students follow the steps

(ii) Imitation process through restricted and non-restricted behaviour. For example, children imitate cheering on the field which is a non-restricted behaviour there. However, if they cheer in the class while a teacher is teaching, he will scold and tell them that cheering is a restricted behaviour in the classroom.

(iii) Imitation process through elicitation that emerges when we observe otherÊs behaviour. For example, if we get to know our neighbour has noodles for dinner, the need to eat noodles for dinner emerges.

Imitation process follows four specific steps; observation, storage, production and motivation.

(i) Observation; when someone wants to imitate another, he will first the model and try to remember steps taken by the model.


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(ii) Storage; modelÊs steps will be stored in the studentsÊ memory.

(iii) Production; imitated behaviour is produced in suitable situation.

(iv) Motivation; if the imitated behaviour receives reinforcement (motivation), imitation continues.

(Reference: http//www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/bandura.html)

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Cognitive psychologists believe that learning is an active mental process to gain, store, memorise and apply knowledge. The focus of cognitive psychologistsÊ research is on the process of individualÊs active mind to understand his environment. The way a person thinks about his situation, including his belief, expectations and feelings, influence the facts that he learns as well as the way he learns them. Cognitive psychologists believe that the acquired knowledge is the result of a learning outcome and the power of knowledge that motivates someone to learn (Woolfolk, 1998). Anderson et al. (in Woolfolk, 1998) claims that: Instead of being passively influenced by environment events, people actively choose, practice, pay attention, ignore, reflect and make many other decisions as they pursue goals. Older cognitive views emphasise the acquisition of knowledge, newer approaches stress its construction. Similarly, Slavin (1997) states that learning is an active mind process focusing on important information, ignoring unimportant information and using present information to make choices. To understand learning from cognitive perspective, the following sections will explain gestalt psychology, Kohler experiment and information processing model. Former cognitive psychologists include Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler (also known as Gestalt psychologists). Kohler in his study on a chimpanzee named Sultan, has discovered ÂinsightÊ.

6.3

Elaborate with examples the steps in the imitation process.

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Cognitive psychologistsÊ believe towards learning is also known as the Gestalt Learning Theory (Banks & Thompson , 1995). Other cognitive psychologists such as Edward Tolman, develops latent learning theory which is learning without reinforcement, also used by Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, David Ausebel and Robert Gagne. Cognitive psychologists now believe that learning involves two important mental process; perception and conceptual development. Gagne sees these learning processes as individual steps to process information. Ausebel, on the other hand, proposes receptive and meaningful learning. Bruner proposes conceptual development and discovery learning.

6.3.1 Gestalt’s Learning Theory

Gestalt psychology belief has become the foundation to the development of cognitive psychology. Gestalt psychology was founded in Germany. Gestalt is a German word means pattern or configuration. However, gestalt belief is more than this. Gestalt members believe that in studying subjects from psychological aspects through simple observations of their personality, we have to look at the pattern as a whole. Gestalt theory can be summarised as Âthe whole is greater than the sum of its partsÊ. Kohler, one of the gestalt psychology founder, through his research on a chimpanzee (Sultan) has proposed the concept of ÂinsightÊ. Insight means spontaneous and complete problem solving. However, people need time to think because they have to study factors related to the environment and link them to their past experiences. In his study, Kohler, put a hungry chimpanzee (Sultan) in a cage. Outside the cage, there are a banana and several pieces of bamboo of different lengths. Sultan tried to get the banana using a short bamboo and failed. Sultan sat still for a while, studying the bamboos and thought of the alternatives he had to solve his problem. Suddenly he got an idea. The moment he had the idea is known as an ÂinsightÊ. He used the short bamboo to get a long one and used the long one to get the banana.


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Figure 6.7: Insight Kohler, Koffka and Wertheimer have founded gestalt psychology. Gestalt psychologists discuss a lot on perceptions and conceptual development. There have proposed principles related to organisational perceptions and human expectations. Even though gestalt psychology is no longer in practice, many of its ideas are used and developed by cognitive and humanistic psychologists.

6.3.2 Information Processing Model

Information processing is the humansÊ mental activities related to receiving, memorising and producing information (Woolfolk, 1998). Information processing model is similar to a computer model (see Figure 6.8). It composes of sensory memory, short-term/working memory and long-term memory. (a) Sensory Memory Sensory memory is a short-term memory on humanÊs sense. The duration of

information storage is 1 3 seconds. If the information is not processed, it will disappear.

(b) Short-term Memory Short-term memoryÊs capacity is small. The duration of information storage

is between 5 to 20 seconds. Information is processed, screened, arranged or synthesised to be sent to the long-term memory storage. One of the ways to keep new information is by rehearsing. For example, in teaching and learning, teachers stop for a while, ask questions about the fact explained; once the students have responded, the teachers repeat the explanation.


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(c) Long-term Memory Long-term memoryÊs capacity is big. It stores information longer, from a

few minutes to several years. In terms of content, it can be divided into three categories: episodic memory, semantic memory and procedural memory.

(i) Episodic memory

Episodic memory is the memory about events that a person experiences throughout his life, complete with time and place. For example, falling off a bicycle.

(ii) Semantic memory

Semantic memory is a memory about ÂmeaningÊ, which includes concepts, facts, laws, schemes or images. For example, memorising the meaning of ÂsemanticÊ.

(iii) Procedural Memory

Procedural memory is the memory on how to do things, especially on continuous physical activities. For example, remembering how to ride a bicycle, if one has not ridden one for sometime.

Figure 6.8: Information Processing Model Source: Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Gagne, 1985


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Differences between sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory are as follows.

Table 6.5: Differences between Three Levels of Memory

Traits Sensory Memory Short-term Memory Long-term Memory

Receiving information

Pre-observation Need observation Need repetition

Maintaining information

Not possible Continuous observation/ repeating

Repetition/ Drills/ Arrangement

Capacity Big Small No limit

Losing information Not used - Disturbances - Too many - Archaic

-May not happen - Disturbances - Archaic

Duration of memory 1 3 seconds 5 20 seconds Several minutes to several years

Remembering Automatic Need searching process.

6.3.3 Gagne’s Learning Theory

Robert M. Gagne was born in 1916 and is an experimental psychologist who has the experience in research on learning and has involved in educational practices and problems. Gagne has written a lot of paper works and books on applied psychology. Many of GagneÊs ideas revolve around task analysis that shows how learning takes place hierarchically. This means that learning moves from the easiest stage to the most complex. Gagne has identified eight stages of learning. Every learning can only be achieved if students acquire the earlier stages first. These stages are shown in Figure 6.9

1. Explain the opinion of cognitive psychologists about learning.

2. Discuss what is meant by episodic and semantic memories.

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Figure 6.9: GagneÊs learning stages (a) Signal Learning An individual learns to respond to signs. For example, when someone

yawns, we get the sign that he is sleepy. When a father comes home looking dejected, the children get the sign that he doesnÊt want to be disturbed. Learning takes place through behavioural conditioning. For example, when a teacher enters a classroom, all students will rise and greet him. In this case, the studentsÊ behaviour has been conditioned.

(b) Stimulus-Response Learning Reinforcement process is important to strengthen the link between the

stimulus and response. Reinforcement must be consistent so that the positive response can be maintained. For example, if Ali is praised for his good efforts, he will repeat the behaviour to get more praises.

(c) Chaining Learning Chaining learning is used in skills learning such as games, music, electronic

and mechanical. Chaining is a series of behaviours revolving around completing a given task.

(d) Verbal Association Learning To state some principles, students need language skills to link facts, data

and concepts. Verbal association is a network of language. It requires language skills that have been learned before.

(e) Multiple Discrimination Learning This is learning how to discriminate things which have been learned

according to some characteristics to ease the process of categorising and storing. At the same time, students will be able to differentiate stimuli or important information as compared to unimportant ones and respond


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accordingly. Multiple discrimination learning is very important in the learning process. Students will get to differentiate important information from the unimportant ones and this will make information coding easier for long-term memory storage.

(f) Concept Learning Conceptual development begins with verbal association and discrimination,

that is identifying the right characteristics of certain concepts. Students can develop a good concept after developing a perception and observation on an object, person and event. Students need to be exposed to many clear examples so that they can develop a right concept.

(g) Principle Learning This learning involves 2 or more related concepts in an order or network.

The learning needs the use of formula, principle and generalisation. (h) Problem Solving Learning This learning involves the use of principles, formula, generalisation and

conceptto solve problems in a new situation. There are several steps in problem solving that is; identifying the problem, finding information, developing hypothesis, making choices and making conclusion.

Gagne (1974, 1977) and Gagne & Briggs (1979) have proposed a direct learning model which is based on the information processing theory where all eight phases of teaching are compared to the 8 phases of learning (Slavin, 1997). These phases of teaching and learning are shown in Figure 6.10.


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Figure 6.10: GagneÊs learning and teaching phases GagneÊs learning and teaching principles can be used in teaching by focusing on two main things:

(a) GagneÊs learning theory stresses that a learning system must begin from the easiest to the most difficult. Before teachers teach a high order skill, they have to ensure that students have acquired the basic skills for the new lesson.

(b) To make learning effective, Gagne suggests teachers to plan teaching that covers the suggested steps, covering the 8 phases of teaching that interact with the 8 phases of learning.

Explain how you can teach a topic using GagneÊs learning and teaching principles.

ACTIVITY 6.4


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6.3.4 Ausebel’s Learning Theory

David Ausebel (1963, 1977), proposes a learning theory which claims that humans gain knowledge mainly through receptive learning and not through discovery learning and this is known as Expository Learning Model. Ausebel also proposes meaningful verbal learning which includes the importance of verbal information, ideas and the relationship between ideas which is known as Advance Organiser Concept. However, rote memorisation is not considered as meaningful learning. (a) Expository Learning Model. Expository Learning Model stresses teaching in the forms of organised facts

which are explained completely in specific order. Ausebel claims that learning should develop in a deductive form from general to specific or from principles to examples (Woolfolk, 1998).

(b) Advance Organiser Advance Organiser is introduced by Ausebel to ensure that studentsÊ

schemata are compatible to learning materials so that optimum learning can take place. One of the strategies to ensure this is by starting the lesson based on Âadvance organiserÊ. It is a structure that explains the relationship between the concepts to be delivered on that particular day.

The function of an advance organiser is to explain to teachers and students

about things that need to be understood during a particular lesson. Advance organiser can also link new concepts to the concepts already acquired. Therefore, there are three main use of advance organiser; to signal what is important in the lesson, explain the relationship between concepts and activate studentsÊ minds to remember related concepts.

Ausebel learning and teaching principles can be used by focusing on the following two issues:

(a) Ausebel suggests teachers to use receptive learning or expository teaching model because teachers can deliver complete information in a specific order.

(b) To use advance organiser in teaching to encourage students to remember learned concepts, link them to the new ones and remind them about important information during specific lessons.


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6.3.5 Bruner’s Learning Theory

Jerome S. Bruner was born in 1915 and he was an influential psychologist in the USA. Bruner proposes that human mental development is divided into three stages:

(a) Enactive (0-2 years)

(b) Iconic (2-3 years)

(c) Symbolic (5-7 years)

Figure 6.11: Jerome S. Bruner (a) Enactive At this stage (0-2 years) children will move to an object that attracts their

attention. Therefore, they use their body parts to solve problems because at this stage, children havenÊt developed the ability to communicate using a language. An object will be held to understand its meaning.

(b) Iconic At this stage (2-4 years) children have developed the capability to picture

things in their mind. They are able to store some images. Children are also able to mention objects not in front of them which indicates a development of Âmental imageÊ.

(c) Symbolic At this stage (4-7 years) children are capable to use symbols such as words

and language to relate experiences which marks the beginning of symbolic reasoning.

Explain how you can teach a topic using AusebelÊs teaching and learning principle.

ACTIVITY 6.5


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BrunerÊs Discovery Learning Bruner proposes discovery learning. In this type of learning, students will be introduced to a phenomenon. For example, students are asked to study why there is water outside a glass that contains ice. Students will study based on different resources such book from the library, group discussions, discussions with teachers, observations and experiments. When an answer is discovered, it will be discussed in the class.

6.3.6 Constructivism Learning Theory

According to Borich and Tombari (1997), in their book Educational Psychology: A Contemporary Approach (p.177) Constructivism is an approach in which learners are provided the opportunity to construct their own sense of what is being learned by building internal connections or relationships among the ideas and facts being taught. Based on the above definition, it may be concluded that constructivism is also known as ÂconstructedÊ understanding. In addition, according to Woolfolk (1998), in his book Educational Psychology, „Constructivist perspectives View that emphasises the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information‰. Based on this statement, it is clear that constructivism learning theory requires studentsÊ active roles in understanding and providing meaning to the information learned. (a) History of Constructivism Approach

Constructivism is not a new concept. It is originated from a philosophical field and has been used in sociology, anthropology as well as in cognitive

Are BrunerÊs developmental stages similar or different from PiagetÊs? What are the similarities and differences?

SELF-CHECK 6.1

Explain how you can teach a topic using BrunerÊs learning theory.

ACTIVITY 6.6


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psychology and education. In 1710, the first constructivist philosopher, Giambasta Vico stated that „⁄ one only knows something if one can explain it‰ (Yager, 1999). Immanuel Kant supports this view and states that humans are not passive information receiver. Students for example, receive information actively as they link new with assimilated earlier ones and make the information theirs by making interpretations about it (Cheek, 1992). Constructivism perspective has further developed through studies by Piaget, Vygotsky. Gestalt psychologists, Bartlett, Bruner, Von Glaserfeld, Anderson, Dewey, Papert and Confrey. Meaningful learning, according to John Dewey (1966), involves learning by doing; which later can help students to think and develop understanding about the problems which need to be solved. Dewey was the pioneer of progressivism movement in education. Earlier, we have seen Jean Piaget (1951) brings the concept of cognitive development in his translation ÂPlay, Dreams and Imitation in ChildhoodÊ. Vygotsky in his ÂMind in SocietyÊ is linked with constructivism perspective in child mind development. Since the past decade, AmericanÊs teaching and text books are formulated to encourage thinking process, problem solving and developing the ability to learn. This is the constructivism movement that has taken place in America which takes into consideration DeweyÊs and BrunerÊs ideas. In our local context, we have seen the beginning of this movement in the learning of Science and Mathematics which tries to encourage constructivism perspective.

(b) Constructivism Learning and Teaching

Learning and teaching using constructivism approach can be implemented by focusing on these issues:

(i) Let students give their opinion about a concept

(ii) Let students share their perceptions

(iii) Encourage students to respect othersÊ opinion

(iv) Respect studentsÊ opinion

(v) Conduct student-centred teaching

(vi) Prepare hands on and minds on activities

(vii) Prioritise studentsÊ scientific and thinking skills

(viii) Encourage students to reflect on their learning processes


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(ix) Ask students to link former ideas with new ones

(x) Encourage students to develop hypothesis

(xi) Not giving direct information to students

(xii) Let students interact with teachers and other students

(xiii) Focus on studentsÊ needs, skills and interests

(xiv) Encourage students to work in groups.

(xv) (Ramlah & Mahani, 2002) In a nutshell, there are different teaching and learning theories which have been studied by different psychologists. These theories can be used by teachers to facilitate their teaching and learning process. In addition, teachers need to understand the different approaches which can be used based on these teaching and learning theories.

TEACHING-LEARNING APPROACH

This section explains three commonly used approaches in teaching and learning.

Figure 6.12: Teaching-Learning Approaches

6.4

In constructivism approach. Teachers need to encourage students to be active. Explain the characteristics of teachers who practice constructivism.

ACTIVITY 6.7


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6.4.1 Direct Instruction

Direct instruction is a goal oriented approach which is structured by teachers (Slavin, 1997). At times, this is the most effective and efficient way of conveying information. This approach is suitable if each student need to acquire certain information and skills. It is not suitable if the learning requires research and discovery activities. Steps in this approach are:

(a) Teachers state the objectives of the lesson as well as the purpose of the lesson.

(b) Teachers review the prerequisites needed to understand the topic. Teachers have to conduct revisions if students havenÊt mastered the required concepts and skills.

(c) Teachers present new material by teaching, providing examples and demonstrating.

(d) Teachers conduct learning probes by asking students questions to determine their level of understanding and to correct and misconceptions.

6.4.2 Cooperative Learning

Vygotzky (1896-1943), described cooperative learning as „⁄group learning activity organised on the socially structured exchange of information between learners in groups and in which each learner is held accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated to increase the learning of others.‰ Cooperative means working together to achieve a common goal. While cooperative learning is using small groups of students in the teaching process, so that they can work together to maximise self-study and help other students as well. In a cooperative learning group, students are given two responsibilities: to learn the materials given and to ensure other members learn the materials too. Consequently, a student works for his own benefit as well as for the benefit of his group members. The perception of students in cooperative learning is that they can only achieve their learning objective, if the other members study as well. In cooperative learning, they discuss and assist one another to understand a particular subject, and in the process they motivate each other to work hard in their studies.


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Figure 6.13: Cooperative Learning: Learners are divided into smaller groups to achieve

their objective Source: www.edb.utexas.edu/mmresearch/Students96/Doolittle

Here, the learning process occurs in a heterogeneous group, that is the group members should differ in terms of capability, interest, race and religion (Slavin, 1991). Cooperative learning usually happens in a group with a combination of intelligent and slow learners. In the group activity, the clever students should work towards helping the slower students because at the end of the day, the marks of each individual in the group will become the marks for the whole group. In cooperative learning, learners are divided into smaller groups, whereby each group will be given an objective to achieve. Learning are structured in such a way, that the group objective can only be attained when all members complete the tasks given to them by the teacher. The studentÊs final grade takes into consideration the scores of each individual in the group. The characterictics of cooperative learning are as follows:

(a) Face-to-face interaction

(b) Positive cross dependency

(c) Responsible for own self learning

(d) Collaborative skill is necessary so that group members can function well together

(e) Ensure each member understands the process of a group and learns about group dynamics.

(Woolfolk, 1998: 349)


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6.4.3 Mastery Learning

Mastery learning is an approach based on the assumption that learners can achieve learning objectives if they are taught well within sufficient time (Bloom et al. in Woolfolk, 1998:334). Mastery learning approach has been in practice for quite some times, traceable to the era of Comenius, Pestalozzi and Herbert (Bloom 1974). However, its use in the modern era is mainly based on BloomÊs work. Mastery learning application is based on learning models proposed by Benjamin Bloom (1968) and modified by Block. Mastery learning is a student centred approach and normally conducted in groups. However, there are times when students need to do individual learning. To use mastery approach, teachers need to divide a learning unit into smaller topics. Each topic should have several specific objectives. ÂMasteryÊ means achieving at least 80% in test scores for each objective. Teachers need to inform students about the objectives and the criteria needed to achieve them. Students who do not achieve the minimum score or who get the minimum score but are not satisfied with their performance, can choose to revise the topic before they move to the other topics. In mastery learning, teachersÊ role is to provide guidance or additional teaching to students who have not understood the smaller topics. There are several ways how these can be done. Teachers for example, can arrange for peer-coaching. If there is not enough time or teachers, teachers can adapt mastery teaching in normal classrooms. This can be done by stating the objectives of the lesson at the beginning of the class. After the lesson, teachers give a test to evaluate studentsÊ mastery of the topic. Students who have achieved the stated mastery level can be given reinforcement activities such as computer simulation tasks, research project or creative problem solving.

In cooperative learning, students are required to work in a heterogeneous group. Explain the characteristics of cooperative learning.

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• This topic had discussed on several learning theories and the application of these theories in classroom teaching and learning.

• The theories which have been discussed are Pavlov and WatsonÊs classic conditioning theory, Thorndike learning theory, SkinnerÊs operant conditioning theory, AusebelÊs learning theory, BrunnerÊs learning theory, and constructivism learning theory.

• The application of these theories in teaching and learning is discussed through direct teaching-learning approach, cooperative and mastery learning.

Discrimination

Premack Principle

Social Learning Theory

1. Explain with examples the steps in imitation process.

2. Explain cognitive psychologistsÊ opinion about learning.

ACTIVITY 6.9

teori pembelajaran

Documents

theories of learning

learning process

learning theories topic

separate learning

mastery learning

behaviourism learning

cognitive learning theory

social learning theory