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Temperature and Humidity Effects on Particulate Matter
Concentrations in a Sub-Tropical Climate During Winter
German Hernandez1, Terri-Ann Berry
1, Shannon L Wallis
1 & David Poyner
1
Abstract. High concentrations of particulate matter (PM) in the atmosphere have been associated with
degradation of human health. Auckland is the most populous city in New Zealand, with a humid subtropical
climate (characterised by hot and humid summers and mild winters) and is one of the most remote cities in
the world. Analysis of the weather conditions and PM10 concentrations in Auckland can provide an
understanding of how weather conditions impact PM10 concentrations in isolated systems. This study looks
at the impacts of Temperature and Relative Humidity (RH) on localised PM10 concentrations in an urban
area of Auckland over the winter period.
This study has shown that the ratios of PM1:PM10 and PM2.5:PM10 were 64% and 87% over the study
period. Temperature was observed to have a negative correlation with PM10 over a diurnal timescale. RH
generally showed a positive correlation with PM10 up to a threshold value of 75% RH, beyond which the
correlation ceased. RH affects the natural deposition process of PM, whereby moisture particles adhere to
PM, accumulating atmospheric PM concentration. With increasing humidity, moisture particles eventually
grow in size to a point where ‘dry deposition’ occurs, reducing PM10 concentrations in the atmosphere.
There were a number of occasions where PM10 remained low even while RH increased and further
investigation showed these events coincided with periods of rainfall.
Keywords: particulate matter, weather conditions, pollution
1. Introduction
Air pollution measured as particulate matter (PM) has been shown to be detrimental to human health [1],
[2]-[4] and lead to increased mortality rates [5], [6]. World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends a long-
term guideline limit of 20 µg/m3 PM10 (annual average) to provide a minimum level of protection against
long-term health risk [7].
Although some studies suggest that PM2.5 is the more harmful fraction of PM10 [8], [9] in New Zealand,
PM10 is the major air pollutant monitored to provide an indicator of general air quality conditions. The NZ
National Environmental Standards (NES) for Air Quality have adopted the WHO guideline limit for PM10
(with a daily limit for PM10 of 50 µg/m3) [10]. In 2013, a review of annual average PM10 concentrations
across New Zealand indicated that there were eight areas which exceeded the NES limit [11]. Of these, three
regions were in excess by 21-35% and 5 regions by 1-10%.
As the largest city in NZ, Auckland has some areas that occasionally exceed the annual average PM10
limit (4 out of 8 years between 2006 and 2013 recorded PM10 levels between 21 and 30 g/m3, [12].
Auckland is predicted to reach a population of 2 million by the early 2030s [13] and accordingly there is no
certainty that the PM10 limit will not be exceeded again in the future.
Auckland is located in the North Island of New Zealand and has a population of around 1.5 million, 32%
of the country’s population. The metropolitan area has a population density of 2,700 people per square
kilometre. According to the 2013 Census there were around 470,000 households in Auckland [14]. The
number of cars on Auckland’s roads was 1.02 million [15] Currently, 85% of trips in Auckland are made by
private car, and around 15,000 extra cars join Auckland’s roads every year [16]. Auckland has a subtropical
Corresponding author. Tel.: +64022 137 1876
E-mail address: [email protected]
International Proceedings of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering, V0l. 102 (2017)
DOI: 10.7763/IPCBEE. 2017. V102. 8
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climate with warm, humid summers and mild, damp winters. Table 1 provides a summary of key weather
data for Auckland [17].
Table 1: Average Weather Statistics for Auckland
Average summer daily temperature 23oC Mean annual rainfall 1,240 mm
Average winter daily temperature 14oC Mean annual wind speed 3.9 m/s
Due to Auckland’s isolated position in the South Pacific, air arriving at the coastline is relatively pure
and unpolluted [18]. However, numerous natural and anthropogenic inputs, mainly from mainland and
coastal areas, can deteriorate air quality. The primary sources of PM10 in Auckland during winter are as
shown in Table 2. PM10 levels are nearly four times higher in winter than in summer [19].
Table 2: Primary Sources of PM10 in Auckland
Source Examples % Contribution during Winter
Domestic Wood fires during winter 72%
Industry Metal finishing, mining, construction 7%
Transport Domestic and public 21%
Various studies have shown that PM10 concentration is not simply a product of emission source
concentration, but is also influenced by diffusion conditions. Diffusion of particulate matter is in turn
affected by both geographical and meteorological conditions. Meteorological conditions that can affect
PM10 include wind, temperature, precipitation and relative humidity [20]-[22].
In this article, the influence of Temperature and Relative Humidity on PM10 concentrations in
Auckland has been studied. Variations in PM10 concentrations were analysed during the winter months,
July–September 2016. This data was used to determine how PM10 concentrations in Auckland were affected
by the meteorological conditions.
2. Materials and Methods
Auckland is located in an isthmus in the northern part of New Zealand, as can be seen in the map in Fig.
1. The city has a humid, subtropical climate with warm, humid summers and mild winters.
Auckland is surrounded by around 3,100 kilometres of coastline [23] with the Tasman Sea to the west
and the Pacific Ocean to the east. The only developed neighbouring country to Auckland is Australia, more
than 1,700 kilometres away. PM concentrations occurring in Auckland are therefore more likely to originate
from within the country than from overseas sources.
Fig. 1: Map showing Auckland and its proximity to Australia
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Unitec has over 16,000 students. The main campus is located on a 55 hectare site within Mount Albert,
an inner city suburb centred on a volcanic peak. The campus is surrounded by residential housing and is
located approximately six kilometres southwest of the Central Business District (CBD). The southern
coastline of the Waitemata Harbour is situated approximately 0.7 km to the west of the Unitec campus. The
campus is bordered by Oakley Creek along its western side for 1.3 km. The creek separates the campus site
from Great North Road which is a major traffic thoroughfare to the western suburbs of Auckland. The
northern boundary of the campus is bordered by the Northwestern Motorway over approximately 200 metres.
The Northwestern Motorway is the major western route and secondary northern route out of Auckland.
Data was collected over the eight week period during July to September 2016. Analysis was carried out
at 5 minute intervals for the testing period. Particulate matter analysis was performed by two dust profilers
(Aeroqual AQM PP8) to provide continuous and simultaneous measurement of PM10, PM2.5, PM1, and
TSP (Total Suspended Particulates). Each profiler comprised an optical particle counter which converts
counts to mass fraction via a proprietary algorithm. The sensor head range is PM1 0-200 µg/m3; PM2.5 0-
2000 µg/m3; PM10 0-5000 µg/m3; TSP 0-5000 µg/m3, with accuracy of < ±5 µg/m3 + 15% of reading. The
profilers were located at Unitec, at 3.3 metres height above the ground. The distance to the nearest building
was approximately 15 metres. This location was chosen both for minimal influence from nearby buildings
and to avoid tampering or vandalism. The profiler comprises an optical particle counter that converts counts
to a mass fraction via a proprietary algorithm stored in the system firmware (Aeroqual, Auckland, NZ).
Weather station data was obtained from an on-site weather station, mounted 10m above ground level.
Details of the weather data monitoring equipment is summarised in Table 3.
Table 3: Weather Station Equipment Details
Parameter Monitoring equipment Range Accuracy
Wind Vaisala WXT530 0 to 60 m/s < ±3% at 10m/s
Relative Humidity Vaisala WXT530 0 to 100% RH < ±3% RH at 90% RH
Temperature Vaisala WXT530 -52 to +60°C < ±0.3°C at 20°C
Rainfall OTA OSK15180T tipping bucket rain
gauge2
N/A <2% at rainfall intensity of
100mm/hr
3. Results & Discussion
Concentrations of particulate matter in the atmosphere (PM1, PM2.5 and PM10) were monitored on site
at the Unitec campus over an eight week study period, together with corresponding atmospheric conditions.
The resulting weekly averages were calculated over the study period. Table 4 compares the maximum,
average and minimum values with the highest and lowest weekly averages.
The New Zealand National limit for annual average PM10 values, which is based on the WHO guideline
limit, is 20 µg/m3. From Table 4 it can be seen that average weekly PM10 values remained below this limit
throughout the study period. This could be attributed to New Zealand’s generally high level of air quality or
Unitec’s location within a relatively suburban residential area, away from highly polluting sources, such as
the city centre.
The daily average PM10 concentrations were also calculated and ranged between 1.91 µg/m3 to 10.72
µg/m3 over the study period, which is less than the National Environmental Standards of 50 µg/m3.The
relative proportions (based on weekly averages) of particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5 and PM1) are shown in
Fig. 2. The PM2.5:PM10 ratio was 87% while the PM1:PM10 ratio was less, at 64%. Previous findings
identified ratios of 72% and 61% respectively [24] and 64% for PM2.5:PM10 [25], which may indicate
slightly elevated relative levels of PM2.5, possibly due to seasonality and the use of solid fuel burners in
Auckland.
The weekly average concentrations of PM1, PM2.5 and PM10 were all observed to follow similar trends
across the study period. Spearman’s Rank Analysis was used to determine the degree of correlation between
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PM10 and other particle sizes. Comparing PM1 and PM2.5 values with PM10 values across the study period,
the Spearman’s Rank Coefficient was 0.9686 and 0.9925 for PM1 and PM2.5 respectively. This is consistent
with the findings of Li [24].
As the relative proportions of particulate matter fractions remained fairly constant during this study and
also because PM10 is the main air pollutant monitored in New Zealand, this study will focus on the analysis
of PM10 with respect to meteorological impacts.
Table 4: Summary of air quality measurements and ambient meteorological conditions on campus
PM10
(µG/M3)
PM2.5
(µG/M3)
PM1
(µG/M3)
TEMP
(°C)
RH
(%)
Max Value 74.74 73.16 62.97 19.6 92.7
Highest Weekly Average 8.73 7.73 5.62 13.76 77.11
Average 6.01 5.22 3.84 12.1 74.48
Lowest Weekly Average 3.75 3.26 2.51 9.49 66.97
Min Value 0.48 0.31 0.18 3.7 40.4
Fig. 2: Relative proportions of various size fractions of particulate matter
PM10 concentrations were further analysed to establish a weekly pattern, as shown in Fig. 3, to help
understand reasons for variability. As expected, higher concentrations were observed during the week, when
most activity occurs on campus. The levels reached a maximum on Fridays and were lowest on Saturdays.
This could be explained by the fact that many Aucklanders like to “get out of the city” for the weekend,
leaving Friday evening and returning Sunday.
Fig. 3: Daily trends in average [PM10]
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Fig. 4 shows the average concentration of PM10, across five separate timeframes (e.g. early morning
from 0.00 – 5.55 hr) for each of the days of the week. The diurnal profiles were fairly consistent, with one
exception observed on Tuesdays. The average on Tuesdays was remarkably high during the late evening
(19:00 – 23:55). The authors cannot find any likely explanation for this observation. However, there is a
laundry service on campus (Taylors) which may have a particular operation on this day.
The ratio of PM2.5:PM10 was also analysed over the same time periods, averaged for each of the days of
the week. There was a consistent trend observed throughout the week, with the ratio at its highest during the
early morning and late evening (average 89% and 91% respectively) and lowest around the middle of the day
(average 83%). This could be due to the increased traffic volumes that tend to occur during these periods.
Fig. 4: Average PM10 values (g/m3) over five time periods (during 24hrs) for each day
Fig. 5 also shows that there is a morning peak in PM10 concentrations between 7am and 9am, coinciding
with the peak morning traffic period. Between 5pm and 7pm, there is a rapid increase in PM10
corresponding to the evening peak traffic period. An even sharper increase in PM10 concentrations is
observed from 7pm, with concentrations remaining high until 11pm. This can be explained by increased
wood burning during the winter evenings.
Fig. 5: Daily Variation in PM10 Concentration (typical week day)
For comparison, Figure 6 shows daily variation in PM10 concentration across a typical Saturday during
the study period. As expected, the peak morning increase observed during the weekday diurnal profile does
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not appear on the weekend graph. However, an evening peak in PM10 is observed, which again may be
explained by an increase in wood burning.
3.1. Temperature
Temperature, together with PM10 concentrations, was studied over a 24 hour period to determine the
degree of influence temperature has on PM10 levels throughout a typical day.
Fig. 6: Daily Variation in PM10 Concentration (typical Saturday)
The diurnal profiles in Fig. 7 show there is a negative correlation between the two parameters.
Temperatures reach a maximum during the daytime while PM10 concentrations tend to be at their lowest.
Conversely, while temperatures reach a minimum overnight, PM10 levels are at their highest. Spearman’s
Rank analysis was used to verify the degree of correlation. The Spearman’s Coefficient was calculated to be
-0.45, indicting a moderately negative correlation. This finding is consistent with those of Barmpadimos [20]
The effect of increased daytime temperatures on PM10 concentrations may be explained by the process
of thermally-induced convection. As the ground heats up during the day, gusts and winds increase, leading to
increased diffusion of particulate matter [26]
The negative correlation observed at night time may be due to a number of factors. At night, decreasing
temperatures create a temperature inversion which acts as a cap, inhibiting diffusion of particulate matter.
Condensation of volatile compounds and increased wood burning are other possible causes for increased
PM10 concentrations at night. According to Auckland Council (2015), burning wood for home heating is the
primary contribution to pollution concentrations during winter.
Fig. 7: Daily Variations of PM10 concentration with ambient external temperature
3.2. Relative Humidity
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A positive correlation was observed between the daily variations in Relative Humidity (RH) and PM10
concentrations. As shown in Fig. 8, higher values were observed during the night time and early morning,
with lower values occurring during the afternoons. Spearman’s rank coefficient for the period shown is 0.6,
indicating a strong, positive correlation.
Although the diurnal profile shows a positive correlation between RH and PM10, a lag between when
PM10 concentrations fall and when RH falls was observed. Specifically, while both PM10 and RH increase
up to a point, PM10 suddenly drops dramatically for a period while RH continues to climb and then falls
around 9 to 12 hours later, before repeating the pattern again. This rapid drop in PM10 tends to coincide with
when RH reaches a value of around 75%.
Barmpadimos [20] made a similar observation, stating that while PM2.5 concentrations increased while
humidity was low, once humidity reaches a high enough value, PM2.5 concentrations decreased. This
decrease is attributed to the particles accumulating mass due to moisture which ultimately leads to dry
deposition of the particles to the ground.
It was noted that there were some periods where this correlation did not occur at all. While RH continued
on a diurnal pattern, there were periods where the level of PM10 concentrations appeared to be suppressed.
On further investigation, it was found that these events occurred during periods of significant rainfall. This
may be explained by the process of wet deposition, whereby particulate matter is removed from the
atmosphere by inclusion or solution in precipitation, causing PM10 levels to decrease, while RH increased.
Fig. 8: PM10 variations with RH over a four-day timeframe
4. Conclusions
Meteorological conditions and PM levels in Auckland were monitored over an eight week period in
winter. The results were analysed to establish relationships between RH and Temperature with PM.
There was a strong relationship between the concentrations of PM for different particle sizes.
Spearman’s coefficient for the correlation between PM1 and PM10 was 0.9686, and 0.9925 for the
correlation between PM2.5 and PM10. The average weekly PM10 values over the study period remained
below the NZ national limit of 20 µg/m3. The daily average values ranged between 1.91 µg/m3 to 10.72
µg/m3, which is less than the National Environmental Standards of 50 µg/m3.
Temperature was observed to have a negative correlation with PM10 over a diurnal timescale. RH
generally showed a positive correlation with PM10 up to a threshold value of 75% RH, beyond which the
correlation ceased. There were a number of occasions where PM10 remained low even while RH increased
and further investigation showed these events coincided with periods of rainfall.
It was realised during the course of this study that it can be difficult to analyse meteorological variables
in isolation. Future studies will consider the additional impacts of wind speed, wind direction and rainfall on
PM10 concentrations. As these variables form part of a complex system the combined effects of these
variables will also be considered. Future studies will also consider analysis over a longer time period.
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5. Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Building Research Association of New Zealand (BRANZ) for providing
funding for this project. Also thanks to Andrew Schunke (Chester Consultants, Auckland), Gregor Steinhorn
(Unitec, Research Pathway) and Surya Narain (Unitec, Engineering Pathway) for their invaluable assistance.
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