Tefko Saracevic 1

Mediation anduser modeling

“Knowledge is of two kinds. We know a subject ourselves, or we know where we can find information upon it.”Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

tefkos@rutgers.edu; http://comminfo.rutgers.edu/~tefko/

Central ideasBut what when we do not know where to

find it? And we still seek information? Then we may find somebody who does know –

a searcher who knows how to go about finding it – mediated searching or mediation

User information seeking is fundamental to mediation

User modeling – a key process forsearchers

To do that: art of interviewing

Tefko Saracevic 2

ToC

1. Mediation2. Information seeking3. User modeling 4. Art of interviewing

Tefko Saracevic 3

1. MediationUser – searcher – information retrieval system

Tefko Saracevic 4

Definitions …in an information context

Mediation:A process where an intermediary – a searcher –

acts on behalf of a user who seeks information

Mediator:A person who intervenes in the

information search process of anotherInformal mediators: friends, family …Formal mediators: searchers, teachers …

Thesaurus:arbitration, intercession, conciliation, intervention,

negotiation

Tefko Saracevic 5

Mediation involves

Human – human interaction interaction between user & searcher

Human – computer interaction interaction between a searcher & IR system

Feedback between the two involving the user during the process

Professional mediation involves diagnosing the user’s problem and identifying what interventions would be helpful

Tefko Saracevic 6

Role of mediation as an overreaching process

Mediation involves a number of things user modeling

representation of an information need & specification of user characteristics affecting searching

searching presentation of results to user

Goal: Meeting user expectations Mediation is both a communication & a

related intervention process

Tefko Saracevic 7

In addition – mediation may also involve

Counseling, explainingamong others, helping in evaluating output

Guidance in follow up & finding further information sources

Teaching about searching and sourcesElimination of ambiguity, reducing

vaguenessInfluencing attitude

Tefko Saracevic 8

2. Information seeking

User quest for information - fundamental to everything

Tefko Saracevic 9

Tefko Saracevic 10

Definitions …

Information as we consider it includes objects in the world potentially conveying

information what is transferred from people or objects to a

person’s cognitive system components of internal knowledge in people’s

mind

To seek information people seek to change their state of their knowledge

Information is anything that can change person’s knowledge (Belkin, 1978)

Tefko Saracevic 11

Definitions …

Information seekingProcess in which humans purposefully engage in

order to change their state of knowledge (Marchionini, 1995)

A conscious effort to acquire information in response to a need or gap in your knowledge (Case, 2002)

The process of construction within information seeking involves fitting information in with what one already knows and extending this knowledge to create new perspectives (Kuhlthau, 2004)

Tefko Saracevic 12

Main direction

In information seeking studies (and there were many):

What factors – variables – are involved when people seek information? Translation: What is really going on when we go about

finding information about something? In everyday life we really do not care – we just go on

doing it – but as professionals we have to understand the process in order to deal with it

The question has many sub-questions such as

in relation to what are people seeking information? how is information seeking (as a broader process)

related to information search (as a narrower process)?

Tefko Saracevic 13

In pursuit of main direction

A number of models have been developed enumerating factors & relationships involved

A few theories have been proposed suggesting explanations

Number of studies have connected information seeking to specific aspects of great interest to searching and user modeling: tasks in information seeking information seeking & the search process

Tefko Saracevic 14

Task

Information seeking is not an end in itself It serves a work task

task is a process in relation to which information is needed

Tasks have been categorized from simple to complex (and a number in-between) complex tasks have a number of sub-tasks the more complex a task the complexity of

information needed increasesImplication: user modeling & searching

should be oriented toward tasks

Tefko Saracevic 15

Information seeking & searching

Several studies connected information seeking with the search process posited information seeking as a broader

context (process) for a more specific process of searching

Exemplify factors – variables – involved showing that there is more to searching than

we think usually

Tefko Saracevic 16

E.g. Kuhlthau model of the information search process (ISP)

Originally studying pupils & undergraduates but subsequently looking at other user groups as well, Kuhlthau (1991, 2004) formulated a six-stage information search process (ISP), each stage representing differing needs, behaviors, and cognitive and affective states

Tefko Saracevic 17

Kuhlthau six stages

1. Initiation: user “becomes aware of a lack of knowledge or understanding”

2. Selection: user needs to “identify and select the general topic to be investigated”

3. Exploration: user needs to “investigate information on the general topic in order to extend personal understanding”

4. Formulation: user forms “a focus from the information encountered”

5. Collection: user needs “to gather information related to the focused topic”

6. Presentation: user completes the search and presents findings

Tefko Saracevic 18

Kuhlthau model (cont.)

Each stage – task - in the information search process incorporates three realms:

1. Affective (feelings)2. Cognitive (thoughts)3. Physical (actions)

Implication: these aspects to be considered in user modeling & searching

i.e. there is more to searching than mere searching

Tefko Saracevic 19

The iterative search process – starts & ends with inf. seeking tasks ( copy from Hembrook et al. 2005)

3.User modelingEssential part of mediation

Tefko Saracevic 20

Tefko Saracevic 21

Definition

User modeling is a process of identifying, understanding, and defining user information needs, context, requirements, and preferences, together with factors or attributes in the profile of the user that affect subsequent search for information

Tefko Saracevic 22

Definition …in addition

But user modeling should also deal with identifying user’s conceptions about how the information system or resource works, together with related expectations, with possible explanations on how it really works and what could be really expected

User modeling in searching

User modeling is a qualified dialog & discourse between a searcher & a user seeking information to determine the information needs of a user in order for the searcher to be an effective interface between the user & literature “literature” = recorded knowledge in many forms

Tefko Saracevic 23

Tefko Saracevic 24

in other words

In user modeling you identify not only everything about the information

need and question at hand but also a number of other factors inherent

with the user that may be a guide or even be decisive in selection of resources, search strategy and tactics, evaluation and provision of results

and use the occasion to verify user conceptions and expectations and possibly provide reality explanations – there could be a mismatch

Tefko Saracevic 25

User modeling is user+

Identifying elements about a user that impact interaction, selection of resources searching, types of retrieval …

Three general categories: information requirements (need, context …) user profile: general user characteristics &

attributes user mental model of system/resource &

expectations

Tefko Saracevic 26

Information requirements – ask!

Informational questions a searcher should ask: what is the problem, task at hand that generated

a need for information? what is the context, environment of that?

what information is needed for that problem/task? what is the question?

what will the information be used for? what are any requirements, restrictions on the

type of information needed? what information resources were already utilized?

any history of previous efforts? results?

Tefko Saracevic 27

Information requirements (cont.)

Cognitive, affective state of user: how much does the user know about the topic

of the question at hand? how uncertain is the user? how much wanted, how fast? tolerance for amount, variety of information?

Tefko Saracevic 28

User profile – to establish – affects a lot of selections in searching

Demographic data about the user that may be relevant for search education subject, level

relation to problem/task at hand job, profession, position, if relevant age group, if relevant gender, if relevant language skills, if relevant other factors, as specific to a given

information need & question

Tefko Saracevic 29

User stereotypes

Based on relating other users’ behaviors to the current user’s (e.g. Amazon recommendations)

exhibiting similar needs & information behavior

At times user stereotypes are applied in user modeling common characteristics of a group of users &

their needs e.g. third graders, PhD dissertation students, patent

attorneys a question on black holes by an astronomer

requires search of different resources than a black hole question by a twelve grader

Tefko Saracevic 30

stereotypes (cont.)

Study and application of user stereotypes is used in computer science & other fields to design & adapt components of an information

system to user requirements e.g. interface design recommender systems apply in machine learning

Looking for characteristics that may be applied in personalization of automated processes

p.s. term "stereotype” is a bit loaded, thus other related terms are being used as well e.g. recommender

Tefko Saracevic 31

User mental model of system, resource

Conceptions that user has about the system, resource, mediator … at hand for the submitted need what does the user think the system can

accomplish? what are the expectations?

Used to compare, match with reality of system possibilities and expectations may affect user changing other aspects

© Tefko Saracevic 32

On user modeling

Searching is always done in a context of information seeking by a user (or a group of users) – the user certainly treats it that way understanding user’s information seeking is

necessary to place the role & define the conduct of a given search – central to user modeling

Information seeking has many dimensions User modeling is your effort to understand

and effectively apply relevant dimensions in a search

Tefko Saracevic 33

these are not graphic models of user modeling, (unless???) but they are fun …

4. InterviewingHow to? Categories of questions

Tefko Saracevic 34

Related to reference interview

Long standing concern in librarianship A basic & major professional skill of

reference librariansLiterature on the topic quite large

but mostly prescriptive, some theories from communication

Tefko Saracevic 35

Interviewing users

Broader context: Interview and interviewing as treated in a number of fields theories from communication

interpersonal, social interaction

theories and practices from sociology - among main methods

theories and practices from journalism ethical concerns

Tefko Saracevic 36

Characteristic of user interview

Purposive by both participants user has goal, searcher has goal

Restricted to given subject(s)Relies on questions - answers for

diagnosisSituation bound; social encounterPossible counseling aspectsConnected to informational outcome

level, quantity, type ...User evaluates encounter, outcomes

Tefko Saracevic 37

Variables

Same characteristics at hand as in all interviews A number of variables involved in interviews

meaning that there are many elements that are capable of changing & varying

and that they affect outcome

These are the elements that the searcher has to consider “worry about” & deal with to positively affect the

outcome

Interviews may be subject to communication accidents & failures – watch out!

Tefko Saracevic 38

Tefko Saracevic 39

Variables to consider

User Problem, task Inf. need Subject knowledge Intent Demographics

Searcher Communication skills Knowledge

subject inf. resources

Affective Intent

IR systems; library• Inf. resources• Situation, access• Policies, rules, $$$$

Results – outcomes• Effectiveness, validity, reliability

What is user’s information need? - Diagnosis

Taylor’s classification of information needs: Visceral - unexpressed

user has a need but it is vague Conscious - within mind

user has a relatively well formulated need in mind Formalized – statement

user has expressed the need in a statement, question, example

Compromised - as presenteduser has presented a need to a system – query

Searcher has to analyze them

Tefko Saracevic 40

Types of questions asked in an interview:

Closed questions “Do you want articles in English only?”‘yes - no’; ‘this-that’ answers

Open questions‘tell me more about project ...”elicits descriptive answers & encourages user to talk

Neutral questionsgetting the background situation (how the

information need was generated), the gap or missing piece of understanding, and the uses, or how the user plans to use this information

Tefko Saracevic 41

Role of questions - answers

Clarify, expand, and perhaps repair the need or question as it is initially presented by the user

Provide basic information for user modelingPrepare for selection of files or resourcesEstablish user priorities & evaluation

criteriaPrepare for translation of need, question

into an appropriate query or queriesDo a good job

Tefko Saracevic 42

Art of interviewing – purposive social interaction

Situational factors setting, physical environment rules, regulations, ethics appearance, demeanor

Communication skills semantics; language expression, delivery nonverbal communication turn taking encouragement; backchannels

Social factors establishing confidence rapport

Tefko Saracevic 43

Art of interviewing (cont.)

Strategies opening moves

setting an agenda, stage progression in stages exploration, guidance maintaining focus. re-focusing feedback, re-iteration closure

Content, questions from categories in next slides role of explanation of choices

Tefko Saracevic 44

What are they talking about at interview & during/after searching?

Context

Terminology

System explanations

Search tactics

Tefko Saracevic 45

User problem, taskRequest, inf. needExpectations

Concepts & termsBoundariesRestrictions

How, what, when ..Features, files, resources

Selection, variation terms, logic, files

Mistake correction

Talking about … (cont.)

Tefko Saracevic 46

Review & relevance

Actions

Backchannels

Social/ extraneous

Review, evaluation tactics, terms, sources ...

Relevance judging; feedback

Description of activitiesExplanations

Communication prompts, fillers, acknowledging ..

Social discourseFormalities

Counseling, enabling

Users often do not have well defined problem well expressed or specific question ideas what inf. or resources exist or may be useful what to do next, as to information or sources

Counseling: help in definition, focusing advice on action

Enabling: instruction on use, technology, structure of resources ...

Tefko Saracevic 47

Conclusions

Mediation: a complex process Requires varied knowledge & skills of

intermediaries: communication, interviewing diagnosis, counseling information resources, their validity & capabilities systems, networks

Intermediaries – searchers - role changing But: GREAT FUN & SATISFACTION

Tefko Saracevic 48

© Tefko Saracevic 49

thank youM. C. Escher

can you figure out people walking up & down the steps?

Tefko Saracevic 50

you can find more on the site of M.C. Escher Foundation & in many lectures on geometry, psychology, illusions. As far as I know, this is the first time they are used in a lecture on user modeling. Why not?