Technological ResearchMaurice E. Stansby 1 and John A. Dassow

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Top leftDr. W.T. Roubal , chemist at the Pioneer Research labora-tory, explains the use of equipment for following oxidationof fish oils to an interested group of open house visitorsin 1970.

Bottom leftCharles Butler, chemist at the Seattle Technologicallaboratory, demonstrates in 1948 the use of the fish liversampler devised by F. Bruce Sanford.

RightMax Patashnik , chemical engineer , is shown operating adevice that is separating the flesh of rockfish from theskin an bones. Photo taken at the Utilization ResearchDivision in 1974.

PACIFIC COAST PRIOR TO 1933

Biological research on fisheries in thePacific Northwest had an earlybeginning in the 1880s under thepioneering efforts of Gilbert andothers. What was happening in fisherytechnology at these early stages? Whenthe U. S. Commission on Fish and

1/ Former Director, EnvironmentalConservation Division, Northwest andAlaska Fisheries Center; presentaddress: 5105 N . E. 75th Street,Seattle , WA 98115.

2/ Northwest and Alaska FisheriesCenter , National Marine FisheriesService , NOAA, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E.Seattle , WA 98112.

Fisheries was set up in 1871, its firstCommissioner , Spencer Fullerton Bairdhad an appreciation of the need fortechnological investigations. Undercontract from the Commission , researchwas undertaken in New England explore the nutritive value of fish.Baird also initiated efforts to adapttechnological discoveries from Europeto fisheries in the United States.Unfortunately, Baird died before thistype of work had been extended to thePacific Coast. Baird' s successors hadno interest in fishery technology anddecreed that all such work in theagency should cease. It was felt thatif the U. S. Department of Agriculturewas interested, it could carry outresearch on fish or fishery productsalong with its investigations on otherfoods. The Department 9f Agriculturewas interested and began in a limitedway some work on fishery products.

At first such work was limited to smallfield operations on the Atlantic coastmostly from Washington , D.C. In 1913,the Bureau of Chemistry in theDepartment of Agriculture made fishstudies an additional function of theiregg and poultry laboratory atPhiladelphia , which was under thedirection of Mary Pennington. The taskwas assigned to Ernest D. Clark and L.H. Almy, who worked on fish in theirPhiladelphia laboratory while carryingout summer field studies , some in thePacific Northwest. In 1916 Clarkestablished a small laboratory inSeattle where research was conducted onstorage of frozen and iced fish and onproblems encountered in thetransportation of fish. In 1921 thePhiladelphia laboratory was closed andthe Department of Agriculture s work onfish was discontinued.

Meanwhile, in 1917 Lewis Radcliffebecame Chief of the Division ofStatistics and Methods of the Bureau of

Fisheries , succeeding Alvin Alexander,who had been in charge since 1903.Unlike Alexander , Radcliffe feltstrongly that technological researchshould be conducted by the Bureau. a result, in 1918 the first Bureau ofFisheries laboratory was established intemporary quarters in San PedroCalifornia , under the direction ofLeslie Lingle. After Lingle resignedin 1921, Harry Beard became laboratorydirector, assisted by Arthur Wells andone or two temporary assistants.However, budgetary problems becameacute, forcing closure of thelaboratory in 1924.

Other technological activities wereperformed on the Atlantic coast by theBureau of Fisheries , starting in 1919when a temporary field station wasopened in Gloucester, Massachusetts.Later a small permanent laboratory wasopened in Washington, D. , whichoperated during the 1920s but wasclosed about 1930. In the late 1920s,the principal technological station ofthe Bureau of Fisheries was inReedville , Virginia , and the work therewas concerned with menhaden fish mealand oil. In 1931, the personnel ofthis station , most of whom worked inWashington , D. , were transferred toGloucester , Massachusetts , and from1931 to 1935 the Gloucester Laboratorywas the principal technologicallaboratory of the Bureau of Fisheries.In 1935 it was closed , and allpersonnel transferred to a newlaboratory at College Park, Maryland.

1933 THROUGH 1941

When plans were being formulated in thelate 1920s for a new building inSeattle to house Pacific coast Bureauof Fisheries activities , space was

included for technologicalinvestigations. It was hoped thatafter completion of the building fundswould be available to employ a stafffor the technological operation inSeattle. Becaus~ the budget did notinclude special funds for such work,two employees , Roger Harrison and Anderson were transferred in May 1933from the Gloucester Laboratory to begintechnological research at the newMontlake laboratory.

Harrison , who was in charge of the newSeattle Technological Laboratory, was agraduate of Washington State Universityand had worked as a chemical engineerat the U. S. Department of Agriculturein 1926-28 before transferring to theBureau of Fisheries in 1928. He workedon improvements in the manufacture offish meal in Washington and at theBureau s field station in ReedvilleVirginia , until 1931 when thelaboratory was established atGloucester. There he worked withAnderson on scientific experiments investigate factors , such as dryingtemperature, in the manufacture of fishmeal.

Anderson , a gradua te of the College ofFisheries , University of Washingtonwas a fishery technologist , had workedin industry for a fish meal equipmentmanufacturer and had participated inthe design and installation of fishreduction plants in California , Norway,Iceland , Hawaii , and British Columbiafrom 1922 to 1930. After a year inWashington , D. , he went to Gloucesterin 1931 to work with Harrison on thefish meal manufacturing project. also worked on extraction proceduresfor obtaining oil from low-oil-contentfish livers.

Upon their arrival in Seattle in 1933,it was not surprising that Harrison andAnderson gave first attention

problems connected with by-products ofthe fishing industry. Not only wasthere prior interest and experience inthis field , but several urgent problemsalong these lines were awaitingsolution in the Pacific Northwest andAlaska. Waste from salmon canneryoperations was not being fullyutilized , and there was growinginterest in utilizing what had onlythen been recognized as a valuablesource of vitamin A-- low-fat-contentfish livers , such as those fromhalibut.

One of the researchers ' first proj ectsconcerned utilization of salmontrimmings; the result was thedevelopment of a method for extractingoil from edible portions of salmonsuch as tail and collar trimmings,which could be added to subsequent lotsof canned salmon when the oil contentof the raw fish was below average.This practice soon became widespreadand is still used today by the salmoncanning industry.

Other proj ects conducted on by-productsduring the first few years of operationincluded: 1) working out , incollaboration with the Food and DrugAdministration , standards of qualityfor halibut liver oil , 2) developingimproved procedures for extracting oilfrom low-oil-content fish livers , 3) incollaboration with the PoultryDepartment of Washington StateUniversity, investigating thenutritional properties of dogfish sharkmeal for poultry, 4) designing a small-scale fish reduction unit for use at aBureau of Fisheries salmon hatchery at

Quilcene Washington for renderingspent carcasses of salmon,5) investigating the problem ofoverheating and oxidation of oil instored fish meal and developing methodsto reduce such changes.

In 1936 the first step was taken towardexpanding the research into fieldsinvolving preservation of fish forhuman consumption. This consisted ofinitiation of an industry-supportedfellowship for exploring the use of aproduct derived from oat flour (Avenexmade by Musher Co. ) to extend the coldstorage life of frozen fish. This workcontinued for several years. Althoughthe Avenex treatment failed to worksuccessfully for fish , this study onpreservation ultimately led to abroadening of the scope of research atthe laboratory.

In 1937 the laboratory acquired theservices of several Works ProgressAdministration (WPA) supported chemistson temporary assignments that continuedfor . five years. Employed under thisprogram at various times were: JacobAsh , Charles Butler , Robert CarlsonWilliam Clegg, and Louis Simonson.Several subprofessional positions , bothfull- and part-time were alsoestablished under the WPA program.These temporary additions to the staffgreatly increased the amount ofproductive work that was accomplished.

In 1937 Anderson was transferred Washington , D. , and in February 1938the vacancy he left was filled byMaurice Stansby, a chemist transferredfrom the College Park laboratory toSeattle. During 1940 two additionalfull-time, permanent positions wereacquired, one for a chemical engineerfilled by William Hamm, and one for achemist , filled by Harris Magnuson.Stansby was transferred in 1940 to belaboratory director of the newlyconstructed Fishery Products Laboratoryat Ketchikan , Alaska, and the vacancyhe left was filled by F. Bruce Sanforda chemist who had been employed at anoil company which processed fish andother oils Stansby started severalprograms at the Seattle laboratory

concerned with rancidity development infrozen fish , before his departure toKetchikan. Sanford began studies onthe chemistry and stability of vitaminA in fish liver oils , a proj ect thatcontinued for about 10 years.

In 1937-38 a pilot plant wasconstructed at the Seattle laboratorywhich permitted large-scaleexperiments , particularly in theby-products field. The cost of thisfacility was provided by the PublicWorks Administration (PWA), and itillustrates how, in the past, minimalfunding could still result insignificant accomplishments. Only$2, 000 was granted for the pilot plantconstruction , but after the 25 x 40 ftwood frame building had been erected,it was found that remaining funds weresufficient to install plumbing, a steamboiler , and several other small piecesof equipment. Salaries of two full-time professional employees , one half-time typist, and one quarter-timescientific aide , plus all operationalexpenses in 1937, amounted to onlyabout $9, 000. During 1938 another$1, 600 from PWA and WPA permittedfurther work and additions to theplant, including construction of atunnel dryer and a brine freezer.

The fishery by-products program, whichwas continued by Harrison and Hamm,included work on spontaneous combustionof fish meal and on improvement ofanalytical methods for determining oilin fish meal. The WPA-sponsoredemployees worked on proximatecomposi tion determinations of PacificNorthwest fish (much of this was doneover a 10-year period by William Clegg)and on development of freshness testsfor salmon. Work was performed byMagnuson on solubility of fish protein.

A very large program, developinginformation needed for U.S. utilization

of Alaska king crab, was performedunder Harrison in 1940 and 1941 (seediscussion under Exploratory Fishing).

Considerable work was conducted toimprove methods for the chemicalanalys is of fish and fishery produc ts.Harrison was appointed referee by theAssociation of Official AgriculturalChemists to develop new analyticalmethods for the determination of theoil content of fish meal. Stansbydeveloped new methods for both thedetermination of rancidity of the oilin fish and for the determination ofvolatile bases as a freshness test forfish.

Personnel --During this initial periodof technological investigations at theMontlake laboratory from 1933 to 1941,it is interesting to note how manyindividuals worked on the program insome capacity and later went on to longand productive careers in fishery work,either within this agency or with otherinstitutions.

Andrew W. Anderson progressed throughposi tions in the Washington office , asfounder and head of the Market NewsService , Chief of the Branch ofCommercial Fisheries (1943-56), andthen as Assistant Director , Bureau ofCommercial Fisheries (1956-61). Afterhis retirement from the Bureau, heworked for a few years as fisheriesattache in Copenhagen for the U.Foreign Service. He lived nearPoulsbo Washington. (Died in April1982 )

Lyle Anderson worked at theTechnological Laboratory at Montlake asa Musher Foundation Fellowship Studentfrom 1935 to 1936. He later worked atthe Fishery Products Laboratorystarting in 1940 and was Director ofthe Seattle laboratory from 1942 to1945. He then became a fishery

technologist in private industry, andfor many years he has been in charge oftechnological work at BioproductsCompany in Warrenton , Oregon.

Charles Butler worked as a WPA chemistat the Seattle Technological Laboratoryfrom 1937 to 1938 and then as MusherFoundation Fellow in 1938. From 1939to 1943 he worked in the fishingindustry (Columbia River PackersAssociation , Astoria , Oregon, andAlaska Fish Oil Extraction Company atKetchikan). He was employed in theBureau of Commercial Fisheries from1943 to 1967, rising from chemist toDirector of Technological work atHonolulu (1948) to Chief , TechnologicalSection (1954-59); he served asAssistant Director of the IndustrialResearch Division in Washington from1962 to 1966. He retired in 1967,living first in Florida , then inHendersonville North Carolina, andfinally in Alexandria , Virginia, wherehe died in January 1979.

John Dassow worked at the SeattleTechnological Laboratory as a WPAchemist in 1940. He then was employedat the Fishery Products Laboratory atKetchikan , Alaska (1940-45) and aschemist at the Alaska Fish OilExtraction Company at Ketchikan (1945-46) . He returned to the Seattlelaboratory as a part-time chemist in1946 where he also pursued academicstudies at the University ofWashing ton. He was employed at theSeattle Technological Laboratory part-time as a NDGA Fellowship student. was appointed chemist at the Seattlelaboratory in 1948 and served asLaboratory Director at the Ketchikanlaboratory from 1950 to 1955. He hasbeen working since as Deputy Directorof the Technological Laboratory (nowcalled Utilization Research Division)of the Northwest and Alaska FisheriesCenter in Seattle. He retired

in April 1982.

Lauren Donaldson worked on a part-timetemporary appointment under RogerHarrison from 1934 to 1936. Dr.Donaldson has gone on in his field fishery biology to become aworld-famous authority on the biologyof salmon. He recently retired asprofessor at the College of FisheriesUniversi ty of Washing ton , but continuesto live in Seattle.

William Hamm worked as a chemicalengineer at the Seattle TechnologyLaboratory from 1940 to 1944. He leftto become Director of the Bureautechnological laboratory in PuertoRico. He died in the early 1950s whileworking as a chemis t at Van CampSeafood Company at Terminal Island,California.

Roger Harrison served as the firstdirector of the Seattle TechnologicalLaboratory and then transferred to theWashington office as Chief of theTechnological Section in 1942. He leftthe Bureau of Fisheries in 1944 andwent on to a series of positions inindustry and other governmentalagencies as follows: in charge ofresearch at Halibut Liver OilProducers , Seattle 1944-58; Agency forInternational Development , Korea1958-62; and Chief Technologist forFisheries Department, U.N. Food andAgriculture Organization of the UnitedNations, Rome, 1962-69. Since hisretirement he resides in La MesaCalifornia.

Robert Rucker was a National YouthAdministration student assistant at theSeattle Technological Laboratory in1936. He was at Western Fish DiseaseLaboratory, Seattle, 1945- , where hewas Laboratory Director for part ofthis time.~ He retired in 1975 andresides in Seattle.

Bruce Sanford began work as a chemistat the Seattle Technological Laboratoryin 1940. Beginning in 1952 he servedas a scientific editor for Seattlescientific publications , eventuallybecoming editor for scientific papersfor all of the technologicallaboratories. Sanford retired in 1971and still lives in Seattle.

Maurice Stansby worked as a chemist atthe Seattle Technological Laboratoryfrom 1938 to 1940 and then wasLaboratory Director at the KetchikanFishery Products Laboratory, 1940-42;at the Seattle TechnologicalLaboratory, 1942-66; at the FoodScience Pioneer Research Laboratory,1966-72; and Director of EnvironmentalConservation Division, Northwest andAlaska Fisheries Center , 1972 toNovember 1974. Since November 1974 hehas been working in the CenterDirector s Office Northwest and AlaskaFisheries Center.

Summary of 1933-Accomplishments During this 9-yearperiod, 1933-41, under Roger W.Harrison as laboratory director, mucheffort went into developing thelaboratory, its facilities , andpersonnel to a point where efficientoperations were possible. Theconstruction and outfitting of thepilot plant building was a maj oraccomplishmen t . Al though the budgetfor regular funds during this periodonly permitted an expansion of two tothree full-time permanent staffHarrison overcame the problem inadequate staffing by arranging forWPA temporary employees and cooperativeand fellowship people. By the end of1941 and counting such individuals, thestaff numbered nine persons. The workconducted during this period resultedin 13 research papers. The principalfields of research and accomplishments

included the by-products work, in whichsalmon oils and halibut liver oils werecharacterized as to chemicalcomposition and vitamin content; fishliver oil extraction methods wereimproved; properties of dogfish mealwere determined and manufacturingmethods improved; and methods ofut ilizing salmon trimmings to make oilfor adding to canned salmon weredevised. In food fish studiesknowledge of location and handlingmethods of king crab was developed sothat a new industry was established;long-term studies on characterizationof chemical composition of fishes ofthe Pacific Northwest were initiated;and new chemical methods were developedfor analysis of fish and fisheryproduct s.

1942 THROUGH 1954

In 1942 Roger Harrison was transferredto Washington , D. , to serve as chieftechnologist for the Bureau ofFisheries. Maur ice Stansby returnedfrom Ketchikan to replace Harrison asdirector of the Seattle TechnologicalLaboratory. The work programmingchanged drastically to cover importantwartime activities , and the budget andstaff size increased considerably toaccomplish the expanded obj ectives.Although the WPA project which hadprovided a maj or part of the perso~nelwas phased out in 1942 , by the end ofthat year the new programs had raisedthe number of full-time personnel to14; by the end of 1943, when thewartime proj ects reached fullimplementation , there were 20individuals on the staff and 16 of themwere full-time professionals. Newproj ects included the investigation offeasibility of substitute containersincluding such aspects as whether using

fiber cases instead of tin, for icedfillets , would substantially reducecooling time in ice , and how much thethickness of tin plate on cans could bereduced without causing major corrosionproblems with different species ofcanned fish. Areas where u. s. exportshad been cut off by the war wereespecially critical. In addition topotential tin shortages , a shortage ofagar , obtained from Japanese seaweedwas feared. Investigations onsubstitutes for agar from otherse.aweeds showed that a productconsiderably inferior to agar could beextracted from Gracilaria seaweed.Fortunately, the war ended beforeeither the stock-piled tin or agar wereexhausted. Another proj ect wasconducted to investigate preparation ofdehydrated fish. A process wasdeveloped and the producttest-marketed.

The Laboratory s vitamin A proj ect wasexpanded. Meetings were held withrepresentatives of the vitamin Aindustry and standardized analyticalmethods were adopted for stockpilingvitamin A from fish livers. To augmentthis process , Bruce Sanford developed arapid , portable , fish liver samplerwhich was adopted by the fish liverind us try.

As an offshoot of the earlier king crabinvestigations , some of the fisheryengineers, notably Carl Carlson, workedwi th laboratory technologistsprincipally Charles Butler , and

represented the government in designand operation of the Pacific ExplorerThis vessel was a government- financedfactory ship modified from a World WarI 8, 800-ton vessel , the Mormacreywas converted to a fac tory ship,capable of freezing fish or shellfishcutting fillets , and reducing waste tofish meal and oil. Although the vesselperformed satisfactorily, it was not

completed un til after the end of WorldWar II. At that time, however, therewas no longer the urgent need foradditional protein food that wouldjustify operation of the vesselespecially when considering the adverseeconomic aspects which made aprofitable venture impossible.

Several employees of the Seattlelaboratory were detailed to othergovernmen t agencies in connectionwartime activities. Frank Piskura long detail and Maurice Stansbymuch shorter one at the Chicago

Quartermaster Corps Laboratory inconnection wi th use of fish by thearmed forces. R. Paul Elliott wasdetailed to work wi th the ArmyVeterinary Corp in New England inconnection with development ofspecifications for fish.

withspent

In 1946 and 1947 an addition was madeto the pilot plant , doubling its size.In the new addition , cold storage andquick freezing facilities wereinstalled, increasing research onfreezing and storage of fish. Expandedfacili ties for dressing and handlingfresh fish were also provided.

Between 1947 and 1954, after phasingout the wartime activities , theprograms changed again. In 1947,wartime budgets were eliminated,resulting in a 50% ,reduction in thestaff at the Seattle TechnologicalLaboratory. Fortunately, a $48, 000grant allowed the rehire of somedisplaced personnel to work on aproject involving utilization ofAlaskan cannery waste. Methods weredeveloped whereby substantial portionsof the waste , formerly discarded Alaska, were frozen and shipped tohatcheries in the Pacific Northwest foruse as fish feed. The laboratory alsoworked in Gollaboration with the Bureauof Fisheries ' Hatchery Division to

improve the nutritive value of fishfeed.

A new program evaluated thecomposition, especially the vitamincontent , of fish meal. This work,conducted by Neva Karrick and others,provided information that enabledpoultry feeders to realize the fullvalue of fish meals when applying newlyintroduced computerized formulation offeeds.

In 1948 with funds of the FisheryEducation Section of the Bureau ofFisheries , a new periodical beganpublication Commercial FisheriesAbstracts (CFA). Maurice Stansby waseditor and the staff of the SeattleTechnological Laboratory preparedabstracts on commercial fishery topicsfrom important scientific journals.This publication continued to beprepared at Seattle and mailed to usersthroughout the world for more than 25years.

Starting in 1951 the laboratory beganconducting technological work on fishesfrom fresh water such as the GreatLakes. This work first involvedevaluation of the cold storage life offreshwater species. Work also startedon determining the chemical compositionof freshwater species of fish.

In 1953 research was begun, in a smallway, on chemical derivatives to be madefrom fish oils and on methods forfractionation of fish oils. This workwas greatly expanded in 1955.

Personnel --From 1942 to 1954 inaddition to staff continuing from thepreceding period (Butler; Dassow, forpart of the period; Sanford; andStansby), many new employeesparticipated in the program. Theseincluded William Clegg, chemist, whohad previously worked on temporary

appointments and who carried out muchwork on proximate composition of fish.Mabel Edwards, a laboratory aide, begana career assisting Neva Karrick onvitamin B complex assays. R. PaulElliott worked both as a microbiologistand on Commercial Fisheries AbstractsMartin Heerdt, employed as a fisherytechnologist , carried out research onfish preservation , but after spendingconsiderable time in a sanitariumrecovering from tuberculosis , Heerdtdiscontinued his active laboratory workand spent most of his working hourspreparing abstracts. In 1954 heprepared 150 abstracts , over 50% morethan any other staff member.

Dr. G. Ivor Jones , a chemist worked onproblems involving utilization ofsalmon cannery waste. Neva Karrickbegan a long career as chemist wi th theLaboratory in 1947. She worked firston ut ilizing salmon cannery waste , thenon vitamin content of fish hatcheryfeed.

Lynne McKee , wi th long experience inthe salmon canning industry, carriedout work during World War II onlowering the tin content of cans usedfor fish. He later worked on otherproblems in canning fish. DavidMiyauchi , a chemist , was employedduring this period and worked on manychemical aspects of preservation offish. Katheryn Osterhaug, a homeeconomist , was employed to develop newrecipes for fish. George Pigott , a

chemical engineer worked on theproblems of utilizing salmon cannerywaste and on corrosion of canscontaining fish. Frank Piskur, achemist, was on the staff for a shorttime during this period but then wenton to assignments elsewhere in theagency including Director of theBureau s College Park Laboratory, andAssociate Regional Director in Alaska.

Bruce Sanford continued his chemicalinvestigations on vitamin A, which hehad begun in 1940. With chemicalsynthesis of vitamin A achieved in thelate 1940s , however , the production ofthis vitamin from fish livers ceased.Sanford then turned to other endeavors,becoming increasingly active in editingscientific papers, which occupied mostof his time for the remainder of hiscareer. In 1954 he published his firstpaper in this field

, "

Planning YourFishery Research Paper. He alsofounded and edited a new governmentjournal Fisheries Industrial Research.

In 1942 Victor Scheffer , on loan fromthe Alaska Fur Seal Investigation(suspended because of the war) began a

year proj ect on American sources ofagar. He was assisted by Vincent Senn,a newly appointed chemist. The fieldwork was conducted at Scripps Instituteof Oceanography at La Jolla,California.

Roy Stevens was employed to carry outmany of the duties connected with thepublishing of Commercial FisheriesAbstracts , and he served as assistanteditor during this period.

David Wieg was employed in 1949 as alaboratory aide , and since that time hehas assisted with a wide variety oflaboratory investigations. He continuesin this capacity.

In 1954 the staff of the TechnologicalLaboratory included the following full-time employees: Maurice Stansby,chemist. and Laboratory Director; BruceSanford , chemist; Neva Karrick,chemist; William Sumerwell biochemist;David Miyauchi , fishery productstechnologist; Kathryn Osterhaug, homeeconomist; Roy Stevens , fisheryproducts technologist; Patricia Teraochief clerk; David Wieg and MabelEdwards , laboratory aides; Mildred

Martin, procurement clerk; MargaretBrown , secretary; Marj orie Zachow andMarj orie Pearse, clerk typists.

Part-time employees included: MartinHeerdt, William Clegg, Robert DollEdward Gruger , and Murray Andrews, allchemists; Rosemary Schairer , clerk-stenographer; Lois Elgin, homeeconomist; and Harriet Starr and MarianMacFarlane , laboratory aides.

In 1942 , the budget for the Laboratorywas about $29, 000, with five full-timeemployees. By 1945, when wartimeactivities had peaked the budget hadreached about $64,000. Seventeen full-time employees were on the staff. 1947 massive reductions of wartimeposi tions and budgets took place , andthe ~eattle laboratory lost one-half ofits personnel. This resulted in anannual budget of $34, 000 and eightfull-time staff members. The impact ofthe sudden drop in the budget andpersonnel was softened by thepreviously mentioned grant of $47, 600for a 2- to 3-year research proj ect onutilization of salmon cannery waste.Although quite a few staff members hadto be terminated, several were retainedfQr the special proj ects. In themeantime, other contributed funds wereobtained from the RefrigerationResearch Foundation , from the fishhatchery section of the Bureau ofFisheries , and from the Continental CanCompany. By 1954 the annual budget hadrisen to about $61 000 and there were14 full-time staff members.

Summary of 1942-Accomplishments --Under Maurice Stansbyas Director , the Laboratory spent about5 years with maj or emphasis on specialwartime projects and 8 years onpeacetime proj ects. This was a periodof great expansion in the size andscope of the work. It also resulted ina tremendously increased output of

research and other publications.During this period , 140 papers werepublished , an average of more than per year. Facilities were improved byexpanding the size of the pilot plantbuilding and providing freezer and coldstorage equipment. Accomplishmentsrelated to wartime activities includedproviding information , services , and insome cases personnel details, tonumerous wartime agencies such as theWar Production Board , the Office ofPrice Administration , and the ArmyQuartermaster Corp; developing asuccessful method of producingdehydrated fish; and developingequipment for sampling fish livers.

During peacetime , the laboratory staffdevised a method for getting currentliterature to the fishing industry bypublishing the monthly CommercialFisheries Abstracts ; devised asuccessful means for utilizing Alaskansalmon cannery waste which was adoptedby industry; established the vitamin Bcontent of fish meals; conductedresearch on cold storage properties andchemical composition of fresh waterspecies of fish in the absence offacilities in the Great Lakes area; andconducted the first research onfractionization of fish oils andpreparation of chemical derivativesfrom them.

1955 THROUGH 1965

Beginning in 1955 the SeattleTechnological Laboratory receivedsupplementary funding from importrevenues under the Sal tons tal l-Kennedy(SK) Act. This provided up to $200, 000per year in addition to regularfunding. After 1960, as the value ofthe research from the special SKfunding became apparent , a portion of

the SK funds were replaced each year byadditional regular funding so that by1965 the SK funds were reduced to$70, 000, but regular funding hadincreased to $316, 000, making a totalbudget of nearly $400, 000. Aconsiderable portion of thesupplementary SK funds was used forcontract research at universities.This brought new ideas into the overallresearch programs and providedadditional research findings.

The pr incipal research areas covered bythe new funding were in fish meal; infish oil research , especially atSeattle; and in developing standards ofquality for using the newly inauguratedinspection of fishery products program.

Much of the work carried out oncontract at universities was carriedout at the universities of Minnesotaand California. The University ofMinnesota was chosen for a major partof the fish oil research because thelargest and best qualified oil researchlaboratory in the country was HormelInstitute , a part of the University ofMinnesota located at Austin Minnesota.Additionally, since the most immediatenew use for fish oil was apt to be foriron ore concentration and 60% of alliron ore was mined in Minnesota, theSchool of Mines and Metallurgy of theUniversity of Minnesota was the mostexperienced in this field.

The University of California wasselected for another major portion ofthe work because the Institute ofMarine Resources and the Department ofFood Science and Technology, parts ofthe University, were best qualified forwork on research on oil in fish mealand oil in fish flesh. Maj or aspec tsof the program required experiencedlaboratory work which the University ofCalifornia was able to provide. Otheruniversities and research laboratories

where smaller portions of the work werecarried out included the University ofWashington s College of Fisheries;Oregon State University s Department ofFood Technology; the Phillip R. ParkResearch Foundation at Terminal Island,California; the University ofWisconsin s Department of PoultryScience and Wisconsin Alumni ResearchFoundation; and the Mayo Clinic.

Fish Oil Research A maj or researchthrust during the decade beginning in1955 was to obtain backgroundinformation on the chemistry of fishoils and to develop new uses for them.Fish oil work proceeded alongindustrial and nutritional lines. the industrial area many new uses wereinvestigated , including use of fish oilderivatives for ore flotation , for

insecticides , for chemicalintermediates to be used in making avariety of other products, and forother purposes. A considerable part ofthe industrial oil application programconcerned the use of fish oil compoundsfor concentrating low grade iron ore.Work was conducted cooperatively withthe University of Minnesota College ofMines and Metallurgy. A practicalprocedure was developed and has beenused in some foreign countries. Thisprocedure will be available for futureuse in this country after the higher-grade taconite ores , which use thecheaper magnetic process have beendepleted.

A number of chemical firms used theprogram s findings to produce newindustrial products from chemicallysYnthesized fish oil derivatives. Mostof these uses are proprietaryapplications for which no informationis available.

The nutritional investigationsprimarily examined the potential ofpolyunsaturated fish oils and fish oil

fa tty acids for use as cholesteroldepressants. Based upon rat feedingtests performed under contract by theUniversity of Minnesota s HormelInstitute, it was found that fish oilsand fish oil fatty acids are severaltimes more effective, weight forweight, than vegetable oils, such ascorn oil, in lowering serumcholesterol. Furthermore , in a 15- to20-year study by a Seattle heartphysician , Dr. Averly Nelson (1972),the animal tests were confirmed asapplying to human subj ects. Of thosepatients Who followed the prescribeddiet high in seafoods nearly threetimes as many survived longer thanheart pa tients on the ordinary(control) diet.

Other tests in the Seattle program onmedical applications of fish oilssuggested that they are valueless incuring wounds and burns. This studywas performed at the Mayo Clinic todetermine whether the use of fish oilin ointments facilitated healing, ashad been believed for many years.

Perhaps the main benefit of the fishoil program was the accumulation ofbasic information on the chemistry andnutritive value of fish oils, aboutwhich very little was known beforethese studies were made. Much of thegeneral information has been summarizedin a book by Stansby (1967), and muchof the nutritional and pharmaceuticalinformation is given in a review byStansby (1969).

Standards Program --Under the standardsprogram , detailed specifications wereestablished for most of thecommercially important species of fishwhich are handled in the fresh orfrozen state in the Pacific Northwest.These standards provided the means forinaugurati~n of a federal voluntaryinspection service in the Pacific

Northwest. Research on the quality offresh and frozen fish , and on thedevelopment of standards wascoordinated by John Dassow and includedfreezing and preservation studies byRichard Nelson and development ofquality criteria and methodology forgrade standards by Max Patashnik , WayneTretsven , and others.

Other Programs --Studies on thechemistry and microbiology of freshchilled fish were expanded in 1961 withthe initiation of a major researchproj ect on the feasibility of extendingthe storage life of chilled fish bylow-dosage irradiation. This study wassupported by the Atomic EnergyCommission under its national foodirradiation research program. Tenpapers and several conLkact reports bythe program leader David Miyauchi , andco-workers John Spinelli and Dr. MelvinEklund were published on theirradiation pasteurization studies.Other contributions included 12 paperson fresh fish quality determination andfrozen fish inspection methodology, andsix papers by George Pigott summarizinghis comprehensive study of iron sulfidediscoloration in canned tuna.

A program on the proximate compositionand sodium and potassium content, ofsaltwater fish of the Pacific Northwestand of the Great Lakes and otherfreshwater species was completed duringthe 1955-65 period. Much of this workwas conducted by Claude Thurston at theSeattle Technological Laboratory. published 15 scientific papers on thiswork.

Personnel --During the decade ending in1965 , a considerable number of newpersonnel were added to the staff inconnection with the SK and irradiationprograms.

Harold Barnett carried out research on

preservation and processing, workingpart~cularly wi th hake.

John Dassow, in his capacity assupervisory fishery productstechnologist , was in charge of the workon the development of grade standardsas well as all the work on thepreservation of fish. The latterincluded the fish irradiation projectwhich was being expanded. It alsoincluded the various programs on thepreservation of fresh and frozen fishand working with the fishing industryto assist them in problems in handlingand processing fish.

John Dyer, a chemical engineer workedto develop practical methods for fishoil fatty acid fractionization.

Dr. Melvin Eklund carried outmic robiological research , especiallystudies of Clostridium botulinumproblems in irradiation preservation offish.

Erich Gauglitz, Jr. , headed the proj ecton preparation of chemical derivativesfrom fish oils.

Dr. Edward Gruger , until 1 July 1965,headed the organic chemistry programwhich dealt with fish oils. He thenwas detailed to the cooperative programwith the Food Science and TechnologyDepartment, University of California atDavis where he began thesis researchon antioxidant mechanisms in fish oils.

Dr. Herman Groninger was proj ect leaderfor biochemical research investigationsconcerned with spoilage of fish.

Alice Hall , a chemist worked oncharacteristics and utilization ofdogfish and other shark species of thePacific and Atlantic coasts.

Patrick Hunter, an engineering

technician , assisted in the refining offish oil , especially in connection withmolecular distillation to producepalatable fish oil.

Clifford Houle worked on fatty acidderivatives from fish oils.

Barbara Kemp worked on the fishirradiation project, particularly onchemical , and corresponding flavorchanges that occurred in irradiation-pasteurized fresh fish. She also didresearch on the chemistry of shark andPacific whiting (hake) proteins.

Neva Karr ic k, in her capac i ty assupervisory chemist , was in charge ofthe programs on fish oils and otherchemical aspects classified as basicresearch.

George Kudo carried out research onsharks. He also was detailed to thebiological laboratory to act as anobserver on Japanese fishing vessels.

Lawrence Lehman, organic chemist,worked on the proj ec t to developchemical derivatives of fish oil fattyacids.

Lynne McKee carried out work to assistthe fishing industry with problems offreezing and canning crab. With JohnDassow, she carried out the firsttechnological work on the processingproblems in the mechanized shrimpindustry, following the introduction ofthe first mechanical peeler on thePacific coast in 1956 in WestportWashington. On several occasionsMcKee was also detailed to assist withproblems in east coast and Gulf ofMexico fisheries.

Dr. Donald Malins was detailed toAberdeen , Scotland, where he worked atthe University of Aberdeen and atTorrey Research Station , to carry out

work on biopa thways in lipids.

David Miyauchi was the proj ect leaderfor the expanding program onirradiation of fish being financed bythe Atomic Energy Commission. personally carried out research on theradia tion process While supervisingsubproj ects dealing with foodchemistry, food mic robiology, andClostridium botulinum problems.

Richard Nelson , a chemical engineer,supervised several proj ects on foodpreservation and processing, includingicing and refrigeration of fish at seaobjective measurement of qualitychanges in iced halibut , anddevelopment of quality standards forfrozen fish.

Max Patashnik, a chemical engineercarried out research on the measurementof quality changes in halibut , salmonand bottomfish; and the application ofthis research to development of qualitystandards. Patashnik did the initialand later , detailed research on theproblems of mushy texture in PacificWhiting, the relationship to theprotozoan parasites , and the effect ofhandling and icing practices aboard thevessels.

Gretchen Pel roy headed the subproj ec ton food mic robiology under theirradiation program.

Paul Robisch , a chemist, carried outmiscellaneous chemical analyses fordifferent programs. He also assistedStansby in a program on odor andflavor.

Dr. William (Ted) Roubal returned froma 2-year detail at the University ofCalifornia at Davis where he had beencarrying out research on oxidation offish oils. He received his doctoratewhile at Davis. After his return to

Seattle he began research on fish oiloxidation employing the new techniquetha t involved the use of an ElectronParamagnetic Radiation (EPR)instrument.

Dr. Virgina Stout , a chemist , carriedout research on synthesis oforganophosphorous fish oil derivativesas products Which might be useful in anumber of ways , such asfire-retardants , pesticides , and

lubricants.

John Spinelli, a chemist , worked on thefood chemistry portion of theirradiation proj ect. This involvedresearch on storage changes in icedfish which occur very early beforeactual spoilage has taken place. important phase of this study was onthe chemistry of the autolyticprocesses , the relation of earlyquality and flavor losses to nucleotidedegradation , the decrease of inosinemonophosphate , and the accumulation ofhypoxan thine.

Pa tricia Terao continued her positionas administrative officer for thelaboratory. This involved such dutiesas budget planning and personnelappointments. Because of her longassociation with the laboratory, shetook on other duties such as preparingmany of the in-house annual reports.She also was in charge of answeringgeneral technological inquiries whichdid not require a detailed scientificreply.

Dr. Claude Thurston worked at thelaboratory as a chemist from 1955 to1961. He had been a professor ofchemistry at Walla Walla University atCollege Place , Washington , and left become the director of food research atLoma Linda University. Dur ing his 6years wi th the Technological Laboratorya t Seattle , he carried out a tremendous

, ,

amount of work on the proximatecomposition, and sodium and potassiumcontent of fishes of the Pacific coastand also some work on freshwaterspecies. He was assisted by severallaboratory aides and organized the workto obtain a maximum amount of results.There is little that is not known aboutproximate composition of most PacificCoast species as a result of the vastamount of data and published paperswhich were obtained during Thurstonrelatively short tenure.

Wayne Tretsven conducted research onquality changes in fish wi th emphasison the effects of handling, bleeding,icing, and washing fish aboard thevessel and in the plant. His earlymic robiological studies includedproblems of fillet contamination in theplant. Later work on halibut qualityemphasized hand ling problems aboard thefishing vessel.

Dr. John Wekell , a chemist , worked the chemistry and separation ofglyceryl ethers from the flesh andlivers of fish.

Dave Wieg, phys ical sc ience aideassisted John Spinelli in his foodchemistry research.

Until 1961 Bruce Sanford worked as partof the Technological Laboratory staff.During this time he did editorial workalmost exclusively, initially for theSeattle Technological Laboratory butlater for all Bureau TechnologicalLaboratories throughout the country.In 1961 this work was set up as aseparate function from the SeattleTechnological Laboratory, and it wpsdesignated as the Special ScientificUnit (SSU). It included both editoralactivities and the preparation of themonthly publication CommercialFisheries Abstracts.

Summary of 1955-Accomplishments --Under Maurice Stansbyas Director , the TechnologicalLaboratory activity expanded in budgetand staff. The scope for the work waswidened with a considerable portion oftime spent on a crash program onchemistry and utilization of fish oils.During this period, 201 scientificpapers and 23 books were published. addition , a total of 80 papersresulting from contract and cooperativework financed by the Seattle laboratorywere also published.

A maj or contribution from the researchof this period was the compilation ofinformation on the chemistry andnutritive value of fish oils. Muchadditional information was obtained onthe proximate composition and mineralcontent of fish. The first research onirradiation as a means for preservingPacific Northwest species of fish wasconducted. Considerable research wasalso performed to obtain informationrequired to establish standards forfish.

1966 THROUGH 1981

Organiza tion andObjectives --During 1966 theTechnological Laboratory wasreorganized. Under Maurice Stansby,formation of the Food Science PioneerResearch Laboratory became a separateresearch unit. The personnel andresources of the TechnologicalLaboratory were assigned to either thePioneer Research or the TechnologicalLaboratory with a revised researchprogram. Dr. Maynard A. Steinberg,formerly with the GloucesterTechnological Laboratory, was appointedDirector of the Seattle TechnologicalLaboratory in August 1966.

At this time, it was obvious thatfactors other than reorganization madea complete review of the laboratoryprogram essential. As the newDirector, Dr. Steinberg had strongideas about the importance ofcontinui ty in research obj ectives relation to the scientific interests ofthe staff. The reorganized laboratoryhad retained, of course, theresponsibility for applied research onthe practical problems of preserving,processing, and utilizing fisheryresources. The comprehensive researchon the chemistry of fish oil from ananalytical and industrial perspectivewas completed. New problems appeared:contaminants in fishery products , andthe need to expand the horizons offishery preservation. These problemsincluded more than radiationpreservation (supported by the AtomicEnergy Commission) and emphasized thepotential for research on othertechniques for extending the keepingquality of traditional fresh fishspecies. Ideas for using fish speciesthat were previously rej ected by thePacific coast trawl fishery needed moredevelopment to follow up the early workby Dassow and Patashnik wi th Pacificwhiting. In 1968 the new objectives ofthe laboratory were defined at aprogram review as follows: (1) todevelop scientific knowledge to improvethe preservation processing, andutilization of fishery resources; and(2) to apply and demonstrate industry the improved process methodsand concepts for efficient utilizationof the total resource , with a primaryemphasis on food production.

The laboratory was organized into sixsections including four researchprograms , inspection , andadministration: 1) Chemistry of FisheryProducts--Erich Gauglitz, Jr. , programleader , wi th Dr. Virginia Stout, Dr.Herman Groninger, John Dyer Lawrence

Lehman, Clifford Houle , Dr. JohnWekell , ~nd Barbara Kemp (later Koury)as research staff; 2) Preservation andEngineering--Richard Nelson programleader , wi th Max Pa tashnik, Dr. WayneTretsven , Alice Hall , George Kudo,Harold Bennett , and Pat Hunter asresearch staff; 3) RadiationPreservation of Fishery Products--DavidMiyauchi , program leader, with JohnSpinelli , Gretchen Pel roy, Fuad Teeny,John Seman, Dave Wieg, and Laura Lewisas research staff; 4) RadiationPreservation Microbiology--Dr. MelvinEklund , program leader , with FrankPoysky ; 5) Inspection--Morris Rafn,supervisor, and inspector GeorgeBerkompas , at Bellingham;6) Administration--Laboratory DirectorDr. Maynard Steinberg, AssistantLaboratory Director John Dassow,Administrative Officer Patricia Teraoand four secretaries--Margaret HodginsGretchen Lindberg, Isabell Diamant , andDolores DeWitt. Total staff was 33 andthe budget was about $380, 000, notincluding contract research funds forthe radiation preservation research(funded by the Atomic Energy Commissionfrom 1961 to 1969).

During the 1970s , the laboratory wasdesignated the Pacific UtilizationResearch Center (PURC) with Dr.Steinberg as director. Thetechnological research in Alaska , underJefferson Collins , was relocated toKodiak in 1971 and assigned to PURCafter a somewhat confusing period ofseparate regional responsibility.Administratively this unification wasvery important in re-establishingAlaskan field research tacklingproblems of technological concern the Northwest and Alaska fisheries.The budget increased to more than$900, 000 by 1976; however, the staffremained at 35, including a scientificstaff of three at the KodiakUtilization Research Laboratory.

October 1976 , PURC became theUtilization Research (UR) Division ofthe Northwest and Alaska FisheriesCenter , with continuing emphasis onincreasing the utilization of fisheryproducts. In August 1979 Dr. Steinbergretired and John Dassow was ActingDivision Director until the newDirecto r , John Spinelli , was appo in tedin February 1980. By early 1981, thetotal staff had decreased (withretirements in recent years of Dr.Tretsven , Dyer , Miyauchi , andPatashnik) to 29, including three atthe Kodiak Utilization Research Unit--Jefferson Collins , Dr. Kermit Reppond,and Dennis Markey. In addition , twoNOAA Corps officers, Lt. Jim Conrad andLt. Cdr. Allan Kissam , were on detailto the Division s Preservation ResearchProgram.

Chemis try of FisheryProducts --Increasing emphasis wasdevoted to the factors affecting therecovery, modification, and utilizationof fish oils for food purposes. Therecovery of oil derived from theisopropanol process for fish proteinconcentrate (FPC) production wasstudied as part of the nationalresearch program on FPC and, in1971-72, in relation to the pilotproduction problems of FPC and oil atthe experimental FPC plant in Aberdeen,Washington. Both species and processvariables were examined; however, majoremphasis was on the potential recoveryof high-grade oil from menhaden andanchovy.

It turned out that the recoveryseparation of isopropanol , oil,and soluble proteins was a muchdifficult problem at the pilotproduction plant than at thelaboratory. John Dyer was detailed tostudy this problem with fatty fishspecies at the Aberdeen plant , butbecause of related problems in the

andwa ter

more

extraction of the oil from fatty fishas compared to the Pacific whiting, theengineering task became far toocomplex. For example, a maj or problemwas eliminating the intractable andseemingly immovable emulsions thatformed in the lines and heatexchangers , but this was essential tokeep the process operating. Obviouslya new engineering approach was neededto solve oil recovery problem withfatty species. The national FPCprogram and the Aberdeen FPC plant wereterminated during 1972-73, ending theresearch on improved methods ofextracting and refining the oil frommenhaden and anchovy in the isopropanolFPC process.

The cooperative research and liaison ofthe Seattle staff with the FPC plantwas remarkably unproductive in terms offinished results in relation to ourplans and expectations. The effort andexperience led to new directions andproductive research in the 1970s onother processes for fish proteinsmodified proteins, and proteinderivatives. In addition , the processdifficulties and lower yields that wereencoun tered provided a broadertechnological understanding of thelimitations of the FPC process.

Research on levels of organiccontaminants in fish oil was initiatedin 1966 with maj or emphasis on analysesfor DDT in menhaden and otherindustrial fish oils and meals. Theeffort was broadened within a few yearsto include fish species of both theAtlantic and the northeast Pacific.Other chlorinated pesticides such asdieldrin were determined. Thedeveloping concern over polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs) in the environmentnecessitated studies on its level infish and shellfish of both the Atlanticand Pacific. With the continuedcooperation of the menhaden industry,

the laboratory obtained seasonalsamples of raw fish , meal, and oil forseveral years.

The long-range studies with theAtlantic menhaden industry presentednumerous problems in obtaining theneeded samples. The analys t , Dr.Virginia Stout, and the proj ectsupervisor , Erich Gauglitz, wereconcerned with the problem of obtainingcooperation with an industry which wassensitive both to the need for unbiasedsampling and analysis of a mostundesirable contaminant , and to theimplications of the findings. When theresults of the survey were finallypublished in 1981 they formed anhistorical note on the problem ofenvironmental contaminants and thecha~ging impact on a sp~cific fishery.The decline in DDT usage was reflectedin lower DDT levels in menhaden oil;however , data on PCB levels through1976 showed a continuing moderate levelin menhaden from most areas. Pacificspecies showed no problems wi th organiccontaminant levels with the exceptionof fish from areas affected byagricultural runoff such as southernCalifornia coastal waters.

A major study of mercury levels in foodfish was initiated following the 1970reports of high mercury levels in tuna,swordfish , and fr eshwa ter fish fromindustrially contaminated waters.Major surveys were conducted on problemspecies such as halibut and sablefishin which high mercury levels (above the0 . 5 ppm U. S . Food and DrugAdministration guideline) appeared tobe related primarily to age and size ofthe fish , and to a lesser extent , to

the area.

In the history of the technologicallaboratory, it should be pointed outthat this detailed study of mercurylevels in fish and the accompanying

heal th and economic implicationsrepresented an unprecedented highdegree of industry and governmentcooperation. Fishermen, buyers, andprocessors were eager for the truth onmercury levels in the problem speciesbut were concerned that prematurerelease or confusing information couldhave dire effects in the marketplace.Looking back, the program worked quitewell. An interesting sidelight is thatin later years after the detailedanalytical work was done , legalconsiderations dictated an increase inthe FDA mercury guideline to 1. 0 ppm, alevel that would have ameliorated muchof the short-term economic effects onindustry in the few years of greatconcern. The work has graduallybroadened in scope to include othertrace metals of public health concerne.g. , lead, cadmium, and chromium.

Preservation and Engineering --Withthe decreasing effort in development ofproduct quality standards, a greateremphasis was given to the effects ofhandling, chilling, and preservingtechniques on the quality of fish andshellfish.

The field studies on preserving andhandling halibut at sea by WayneTretsven and Richard Nelson in theearly 1960s and the detailed laboratoryanalyses on quality criteria by MaxPa tashnik had shown the real need forclosely related vessel and laboratoryexperiments. A better understanding ofthe physical-chemical changes in thefish flesh during chilling and freezingwas the result, and this affected thecontinuing preservation research onother species.

Studies were concerned with 1) liveholding and shipping of Dungeness crab2) factors affecting water-holdingcapacity of fish tissue and methods ofmeasurement, 3) quality of chilled and

frozen Dungeness and king crab meat4) quality of iced halibut and methodsof determining and measuring qualitydifferences for marketing, and5) improved methods of chilling andholding fresh whole and dressed fish byuse of modified atmosphere and modifiedrefrigerated seawater (RSW) wi th carbondioxide. The RSW research includedseveral species of fish--salmon,rockfish , cod~-in the early studies. In1968, work on increasing theutilization of rockfish and Pacificwhiting was initiated with new studieson the techniques and applications ofmechanical flesh separation from skinand bone.

In 1968 Minoru Okada, a visitingbiochemist wi th the Tokai FisheriesRegional Laboratory, Tokyo, Japanarrived for a 10-month cooperativestudy of Japanese minced fishtechnology on Pacific coast species.Okada s pioneer ing research on mincedfish

, ("

surimi") and fish cakekamaboko ) had helped to increase the

production of these processed productsin Japan to astonishing levels--morethan a billion pounds a year. Hisvisit and the Seattle laboratoryin terest in this new technologyinitially resulted from a brief visitby John Dassow to the Tokai Laboratoryin 1966. The need to evaluate newprocesses for utilizing species likePacific whiting and rockfish and, inlater years, walleye pollock was thereal incentive. From that year to thepresent , minced fish , and numerousramificatio~s of the concept ofmechanically separated fish fleshbegan to dominate much research at theSeattle laboratory and several othertechnological laboratories in theUnited States. Research on theproperties and utiliza tion of mincedflesh in fishery products and processedmeat products by David Miyauchi andGeorge Kudo continued to the present

but wi th emphasis changing to speciesproblems. A total of 89 papers andthree patents were published on variouspreservation and engineering proj ectsduring 1966-76, a period of many newideas for utilization as well aspreservation.

With the passage of environmentalprotection and clean water legislationin 1969-72, a major study of thecharacterization, measurement, andtreatment of fish and shellfishprocessing effluents was conductedduring the early 1970s. A primary goalof this research was to provideobj ective data on the characteristicsand physical-chemical treatment of theeffluents. The efforts includedcooperative industry studies at anumber of processing plants in theNorthwest and Alaska and provided abase for liaison with the EnvironmentalProtection Agency, as well as advisoryservices with industry, and local andstate officials in environmentalcontrol. Active field research ineffluent treatment was terminated in1976.

Inevitably, the cooperative fieldstudies on effluent characteristicsanalysis, and treatment by RichardNelson and Harold Barnett of Seattleand Jefferson Collins in Kodiakestablished a new field of expertise inthe laboratory that has been incontinual demand.

Resource Development of FishProtein Derivatives --The research onproblems of FPC production in 1971-72led to continuing protein studies underJohn Spinelli, culminating in thedevelopment of and a public patent toSpinelli for the aqueous phosphateprocess for fish proteins. Work onimproving the func tionalcharacteristics of purified muscleproteins resulted in a series

100

studies by Dr. Herman Groninger andRuth Miller on the preparation andproperties of chemically modified(acyla t~d) fish proteins. Theextension of this field to modifiedforms of protein by Spinelli and Kouryalso suggested the preparation ofdrum-dried proteins wi th optionalpretreatment of the fish or use ofcereals for co-drying with fishmixture. A major obj ective in thisresearch which continues to thepresent , is the development of aqueouspretreatments of minced flesh anddrying techniques that minimize costsand eliminate solvent processes forprotein production from lean species.

One aspect of these studies on thepurified proteins was the recognitionof the importance of th~ functionalcharacteristics, such as thegel-forming and emulsificationproperties , not only to proteinisolates but to the quality changes offresh and frozen fish. This work inthe 1970s on functional proteinsresulted in two additional pa tents and18 scientific papers , and remains anac tive area in the laboratory.

Radiation Preservation ofFishery Products --This maj or researchprogram was supported by the AtomicEnergy Commission (AEC) Division ofIsotopes Development from 1961 through1969 and included a comprehensive studyof the feasibility of radiationpreservation of fresh fish andshellfish. With his background on theresearch in measuring quality changesin fresh and chilled fish , DavidMiyauchi, the proj ect leader,established a strong emphasis on therelationship of the sensory changes inthe irradiated fish to the earlychemical changes , as shown inSpinelli' s research on correlation offlavor loss to the decrease in level ofinosine monophosphate. Research

included chemistry and microbiology ofthe early and late changes related tothe freshness and spoilage of freshfish , the measurements of acceptabilityby both subjective and objectivecriteria , the effects of prehandlingand radiation at sea , the importance ofpackaging and quality control inextended storage and shipment testsand the determination of preference atthe consumption level. One of thefinal studies was the testing andexperimental installation of ashipboard irradiator aboard thefisheries research vessel MillerFreeman This research was conductedby Fuad Teeny, who irradiated fivespecies at sea in various stages ofrigor. Teeny and Miyauchi demonstratedin the later quality and storage teststhat the shelf life of irradiatedpasteurized fish was significantlylonger for the pre-rigor fish than forthe post-rigor fish. In addition toaccomplishing the contract objectives,the studies provided numerous spinoffbenefits for other research in basicquality determination, flavor changes,effects of additives, control of dripand water-binding characteristics , and

var iables of preference determination.

The data and reports proved to beparticularly valuable because of theexcellent documentation on changes inthe control of un treated fish andshellfish along with the irradiatedproducts. At the time the contractstudy was terminated , the approval ofthe radiation pasteurization processfor fresh fish and shellfish by theFood and Drug Administration was inabeyance. It is useful to record thatit now appears , in 1981, that FDAapproval is imminent--almost 10 yearslater. A total of 29 reports andscientific papers were published on thespecific phases of the contractresearch up to 1972.

Radiation PreservationMicrobiology --Early studies on theradiation pasteurization of fresh fishand shellfish and the profound effec on the survival and subsequent growthof the microflora led to a majorinvestigation , supported initially bythe AEC and currently by the U. S. ArmyResearch Office, under Dr. MelvinEklund, on the survival, outgrowthtoxigenesis , and possible control ofClostridium botulinum in radiationpasteurized fishery products.Following completion of thetechnological and chemical studies onradiation pasteurization, the researchon ~. botulinum was expanded to includeany perishable fishery product, such asheat-pasteurized and smoked products.

The definitive research by Dr. Eklundand his small project staff on botulinum in relation to radiationpasteurization was applied in a mostpractical way to the problems of thehot-smoked fish industry. Of greatestimportance was the need to show thespecific limitations of temperaturemoisture , salt, and sodium nitrite inestablishing safe processing guidelinesfor hot-smoked fish. Active support bythe smoked fish industry of this ' phaseof Eklund' s research has assured thecontinua tion of this proj ectcomplemen ting the continuing support bythe Army Research Office on the basicfactors in growth and toxigenicity ofthe various types of C. botulinum Theresearch staff for these variousprojects in 1981 included: Dr. MelvinEklund, program leader;mic robiologist s , Gretchen Pel roy andMark Peterson; food technologist , FrankPoysky; and scientific aides , LamiaMseitif , Rohinee Paranj pye , and EricRolseth.

The research on toxigenicity of botulinum includes the various forms ofbotulism of concern to public health

101

and effects of the environmentalfactors in the products and processessuch as time-temperature , moistureconten t , sal t level, and chemicaladditives. The continuing objective ofthe research is to understand thefac tors controlling ~. botulinumoutgrowth and toxin formation. Thisinformation should provide a firm basisfor prevention of botulism byphysical-chemical control of theorganism whenever it is present infood. Through 1980, 35 reports andscientific papers were published on themicrobiology of radiated pasteurizedfish and the continuing studies of ~.botulinum outgrowth in other partiallyprocessed and preserved fisheryproducts , especially smoked and freshfish stored in a CO -modifiedatmosphere.

The irradiation proj ect offered convenient means of studying autolyticchanges in fish that occured in theabsence of microbial growth. Under theirec tion of John Spinelli , it was

shown that these changes produced amarked effect on the organolepticcharacteristics of the fish. The ratesof these changes and methodology fortheir detection were determined onseveral species of commerciallyimportant fish during the course of theirrad ia tion research.

Fish Nutrition (Aquaculture) --Theshortage and high price of fish mealduring 1972-73 suggested the importanceof technological research ona1 ternative sources of feed proteinsfor use in developing aquaculture. date , this study under John Spinellihas emphasized two aspec ts : 1) theproblems and the potential of utilizingunderutilized species (e.g. , dogfish)and the unconventional protein sources(e.g. , single-cell protein frompe troleum), and 2) the improvement ofthe dietary components of salmonids in

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relation to the nutritionalrequirements of the species and thedesired qualities of the fish to bemarketed. The utilization of pelagicred crab and krill as sources ofcarotenoid pigments for salmonids(rainbow trout and pen-reared salmon)and the effects on growth and qualityof the harvested fish established a newresearch area in salmonid nutrition.Continuing carotenoid research in 1980-81 included evalua tion of crayfishwaste from Louisiana , a valuablecarotenoid resource , and simple methodsof extraction and concentration forfeed using soy oil. Dr. John Wekellwas named proj ec t leader in 1980 andwith Karl Shearer , fish nutritionistand Dave Wieg has continued research onproblems of essential trace elementsparticularly zinc, available inrelation to alternative feed proteins(soy and cottonseed meal) in whichnatural chela tors occur. Tenscien tific papers have been publishedon these studies since 1975.

FOOD SCIENCE PIONEER RESEARCHLABORATORY 1966-

Organization and Programs --In1965 Maurice Stansby, who had beendirector of the Seattle TechnologicalLaboratory since 1942, received aPL 313 appointment. A group ofscientists was transferred from theTechnological Laboratory to work underStansby in a new laboratory for long-term, fundamental research. Theseother scientists included: NevaKarrick , Dr. Edward Gruger , Dr. W. Roubal, Dr. Donald Malins , AnthonyBarone , and Paul Robisch. The majorfield of research of the new FoodScience Pioneer Research Laboratory wasthe mechanism of oxidativedeterioration in fish oils, especially

while fish oils were present within theflesh of fish. A secondary proj ect wasconcerned with the role of unusuallipids in sharks and porpoises, thelatter in connection with sonarreception and transmission. The sonarwork under Dr. Malins was conductedprimarily by Dr. Usha Varanasi , who wasfunded by the Office of Naval Research.A third proj ect, undertaken severalyears later , was concerned withnitrosamines and smoked fish.

The Food Science Pioneer ResearchLaboratory was located on the samefloor of the research buildings as theTechnological Laboratory and had aboutfive laboratories and several officesfor its exc+usive use. Instruments andcertain olher facilities were shared bythe two laboratories.

MUch of fiscal year 1966, the firstyear of the new laboratory s operation,was spent in completing research tasksthat were underway before the PioneerResearch Laboratory was established.The laboratory started with its newprograms in full operation by thesummer of 1966 and terminatedoperations in 1971 when the NorthwestFisheries Center was established. that time, the Pioneer ResearchLaboratory and its personnel became thefirst unit of the Division ofEnvironmental Conservation of theNorthwest Fisheries Center with MauriceStansby as division direc tor.

Research on Lipid Oxidation --Theresearch on oxidation of fish lipidswithin fish tissue was conducted partlya t Seattle and partly by two of thePioneer Research Laboratory personnel

(Drs. Roubal and Gruger) stationed atthe University of California at DavisFood Science Department. In the latterinvestigations , Dr. Roubal determinedthe effects of oxidizing lipids in fishon proteins and established that

polymerization of protein occurred.Dr. Gruger investigated the role ofnatural biological antioxidantsprincipally alpha-tocopherol , andreduced co-enzymes on the oxidation offish oil polyunsaturated fatty acids inmodel systems. At Seattle , Dr. Roubalapplied electron paramagnetic resonancespectrometry to study effects oftrapped radicals in dry products suchas fish meal , fish protein concentrateand freeze-dried fish. It was shownthat the free radicals, rather thanoxidation products of the oil such asaldehydes, are pr imary agentsresponsible for deterioration ofprotein quality. Such oxidativeac tivity was shown to take place slowlyover extended periods of time when thedry products were stored.

Also at Seattle, Karrick studied theeffect of microbial action on oxidativedeterioration of lipids in fish.Evidence was obtained to indicate thatwhen bacterial action occurred, theextent of lipid oxidation declined.Another phase of the work compared coldstorage life of frozen coho salmonbased upon lipid oxidation and flavorchange. Comparisons were made betweensamples frozen in hermetically sealedtins and samples protected by otherpackaging means. The flavor of thesamples stored in tin remained at anacceptable level for at least 10 timeslonger than for any other packagingmethod.

Research on Other Pro; ects --Thework by Drs. Malins and Varanasi onunusual lipids concerned two quitedifferent aspects. The nature andfunction of alkoxydiglycerides indogfish and several other sharks wasone aspect that was investigated. was shown that in these species thereis a varying ratio of such compounds totriglycerides. When this ratiochanges , the buoyancy of the fish is

103

altered and it is possible that lipidtransformations between the two typesof glycerides are employed by thesharks to assist in maintaining desiredbuoyancy levels when the fish move differen t water depths.

In other aspects of the work, which wassupported by the Office of NavalResearch , the sonar communication senseorgan of porpoises was investigatedfrom a biochemical standpoint. Thetypes of lipids present in the portionsof the porpoise head through which thesonar waves are propagated and throughwhich the reflected portions arereceived were found to vary. hypothesis was investigated, namely,that the structure of these tissues iscomprised of layers of lipids havingdifferent physical properties withrespect to speed of transmission ofsonar waves. Some evidence was foundto suggest that the layers of lipidsmay be arranged in the form of a sortof lens which can focus the sonar wavesand function as a sensing organ.

Because of published articles in thefood science literature which suggestedthat nitrosamines having carcinogenicproperties may form during processingsmoked foods including fish , the U.

Food and Drug Administration proposedlimiting severely the amount ofnitrates and nitrites that could beemployed by the food industry. In thecase of fish , the presence ofconsiderable quantities of aminesoccurring naturally or as a result ofearly traces of spoilage indicated thaton a theoretical basis fish might bemore vulnerable to nitrosamineformation than other foods. Researchconducted at the Food Science PioneerResearch Laboratory by Malins et ale(1970) showed that at the storagetemperatures used for smoked fish andat nitrate and nitrite levels and otherconditions used by fish processors, no

104

nitrosamines could form. In additionGruger showed that potential precursorsfor nitrosamine formation in fish fleshstored for long periods of time wereeither present at parts per millionlevels or were absent from the flesh.This work was also extended possibilities that Alaskan salmon roewhich was preserved by nitrite andexported to Japan , might developcarcinogenic nitrosamines. TheJapanese government had alreadytentatively banned importation of u.salmon roe preserved with nitrates forthe subsequent season. Work performedby Dr. Roubal in the Washington, D.laboratories of the U. S. Food and DrugAdministration showed decisively thatnitrosamine formation did not occur.This work saved the multimillion dollarAlaskan salmon roe industry.

Accomplishments --During the 5 years ofactive work of the Food Science PioneerLaboratory in the field of foodscience, 74 scientific papers werepublished by its staff. Much of thework which had been planned as along-term basic research attack on theacute problems caused by lipidoxida tion in fish , had concernedmechanisms of oxidation of fish lipids.Considerable basic information alongthese lines was accumulated. TheLaboratory also became involved withthe urgent practical problem concerningthe possibility of carcinogeniccompounds being formed in preservedfish , both from the Great Lakes areaand from Alaska. The resulting crashprogram brought forth the neededinformation which prevented regulatoryaction that would have closed down thelarge and valuable Alaska salmon roeindustry. It also bolstered the caseagainst drastically and adverselyrequiring complete alteration inmethods of manufacture for smoked GreatLakes chub which could have wiped outthis industry.

It had been intended to follow up theinitial basic findings concerningmechanism of fish lipid oxidation withwork to suggest how oxidation in frozensalmon might be minimized. Because ofreorganization and termination of thework of the Laboratory, this follow-upwork had to be abandoned.

Finally, some basic research on therole of unusual lipids in both sharksand porpoises showed how these lipidsare involved with functions of thesespecies.

ALASKA, 1940-

The Fishery Products Laboratory-- latercalled Ketchikan TechnologicalLaboratory--was built in 1940 and beganoperation in November of that year.When it opened , it had a staff andbudget similar in size to the SeattleTechnological Laboratory, includingfive full-time permanent professionalemployees. It did not change much insize over the years and is today, infact, relocated at Kodiak, Alaska,somewhat smaller than it was in 1940.

Research in Alaska, 1940- --TheAlaska laboratory, funded initially byboth the Federal Government and theTerritory of Alaska , was establishedprimarily for the purpose of helpingthe Alaskan fishing industry utilizemore species than were then beingcaught and 'processed. In 1940 salmon,halibut , and herring comprised 99. 8% ofthe Alaskan fish catch. For all thesespecies , stocks were either dwindlingor were inadequate to supply a constantcatch.

Ini tial research sought to developcrabs and clams as major new fisheries

in Alaska. The early efforts todevelop king crab, which were directedfrom Seattle, have already beendiscussed. Today the Alaskan crabfishery comprises about 25% of thetotal fish harvest in Alaska. Effortsat the Ketchikan Laboratory in 1940included as one of the maj or proj ec tsinvestigating the possibility ofharvesting butter clams for marketingon the Pac ific coast. At that time,supplies of clams harvested inWashington were diminishing.Preliminary work in 1941 and 1942showed that there were ' abundantsupplies of ' but ter clams insoutheastern Alaska which could beharvested. Later work, however,revealed that the presence of Gonyaulaxat seasonal intervals made the clamstoxic and inedible. Several yearswork was spent trying to overcome thishandicap to marketing these clams , suchas by instituting a quality controlinspection procedure to eliminate toxicclams, but wi thout success.

Later work was conducted over a periodof years on investigating preservationand handling procedures for Alaskanshrimp. These investigations havecontributed to the success in buildingup a large Alaskan shrimp industrywhich currently amounts to more than20% of the Alaskan fishery harvest.

By the mid- 1950s, it was fairly obviousthat the best possibilities forexpansion of Alaska fisheries lay indeveloping shellfish resources. Moreand more of the effort of thelaboratory went into work concerningsuch species. By the early 1960spractically the entire program of thelaboratory was centered around aspectsof shellfish utilization.

In 1962, when Dr. Murray Hayes becamelaboratory Director at Ketchikan, hecontinued to emphasize work on

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shellfish , particularly king crab andshrimp. He held annual meetings withindustry representatives; thelaboratory, working closely wi th theking crab industry, developedstandardized criteria for king crabwhich helped to stabilize this stillqui te new industry.

From 1940 to 1965, 75 publications wereissued resulting from the research andother activities of the KetchikanLaboratory. Up to 1959, when Alaskabecame a state , the territory of Alaskasupported the Ketchikan laboratorythrough the Fisheries ExperimentalCommission and employed individuals onthe research staff who in severalinstances were later employed by thefederal government in technologicalresearch at Seattle or elsewhere.These staff members included: HowardCr aven, John Dassow, John Iverson, andFrank Piskur. At various intervals to1971, when the Ketchikan laboratory wasrelocated at Kodiak, the research staff0 f four to six people included: AlfredBaker , Russel Brown , Clarence Carlson,John Chambers, Donna Galerman WilliamHagevig, Robert Kyte, Raymond LandgrafCarolyn Kelley, Richard Krzeczkowski,Phillip Sautier , Roy Porter , FrederickStone , Richard Tenney, and StanleyWaskiewicz. Considering that this listdoes not include temporaries, it isobvious that turnover was a problem inthe 31 years of the KetchikanTechnology Laboratory.

Research in Alaska, 1966- Themaj or program change during the periodwas the closing of the Ketchikanlaboratory and the August 1971relocation of personnel and facilitiesto the NMFS laboratory in Kodiak. Thechange reflected the decreasingimportance of fisheries in thesoutheastern Alaska area and thecontinuing expansion of the shrimp andcrab fisheries in central and western

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Alaska. During the latter part of thisperiod, the Alaska industry began plansfor the development of a largebottomfish potential--pollock,rockfish , flounder , and cod.

During the last 5 years of theKetchikan Laboratory, under Dr. Hayesand later Jefferson Collins , the staffinitiated a major study of pink shrimpprocessing, including the conditionsfor precooking and canning in relationto yield and product acceptability.The growing problem of shrimp and crabwaste in Alaska was studied incontractual research on potentialutilization of crustacean waste forchiotina and chissam production.Studies of the chemistry of king craband pink shrimp included quality andmoisture retentivity factorscomposi tion , and nucleotide studies.Eleven scientific publications resultedfrom these research ac tivi ties.

Initial research at the relocatedKodiak laboratory, under supervision Jefferson Collins, emphasized thephysical-chemical characterization offishery waste effluents wi th specialattention to problems of sampling andanalytical methodology. With thecompletion and publication of reportsof this work in 1976, a major researchproj ec t was initiated on development ofbottomfish processing and the specificproblem of handling and preservingwalleye pollock and other trawlspecies.

The Technology, Laboratory facilites atthe Kodiak Laboratory were inadequatefor wet fish preservation studies andpilot plant research; thereforeCollins developed separate researchfacilities in a building constructed byNMFS for storage and enforcementactivities at Gibson Cove. One studywas also completed on the use of themodified refrigerated seawater system

as a method of improving the keepingquality of pink shrimp aboard vessel.In recent years , systematic studieswere conducted on quality changes ofwalleye pollock, black rockfish , andPacific cod in the refrigeratedseawater and ice systems. To date , 10publications and several industryinformation reports have been issued onthe Kodiak technological research. Thecurrent staff of the Kodiak UtilizationUnit is Jefferson Collins , programleader; and Kermit Reppond and DennisMarkey, chemists.

Ketchikan Laboratory Directors , 1940-81.

Name Years

Maur ice StansbyLyle AndersonHarris MagnussonJohn DassowClarence CarlsonEyestein EinsetJefferson CollinsMurray HayesJefferson CollinsJefferson Collins

(Ac t ing )

1940-421942-1945-1950-1955-1957-1960-1962- 70

1970-7119 71-pr esen t*

After August 1971 the laboratory wasrelocated to Kodiak, Alaska