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TECHNICIAN ENGINEERING TRAINING AND EMPLOYABILITY IN
KENYA:
FOCUS ON THIKA AND MERU TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTES
SAMSON IKINYA KARIUKI
THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN AFRICA
July, 2013
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Technician Engineering Training and Employability in Kenya:
Focus on Thika and Meru Technical Training Institutes
Samson Ikinya Kariuki
Student Number: 1017473
A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Educational Research and
Evaluation in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Award of the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Education
Faculty of Education
The Catholic University of Eastern Africa
July, 2013
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Declaration
Declaration by the Candidate
This dissertation is my original work and has not been presented for publication
anywhere, or for any award in any university, college, or institution. No part of this work
can be copied without the permission of the author and The Catholic University of
Eastern Africa.
Sign … …… Date …12th Sept 2013………
Ikinya Samson Kariuki
Student Number: 1017473
Approval by the Supervisors
This dissertation was conducted under our supervision. The final report is submitted with
our approval as university supervisors.
Sign … Date …14th Sept 2013……
Prof. Maurice Amutabi (PhD)
Associate Professor of Social Sciences,
The Catholic University of Eastern Africa
Sign … Date …12th Sept 2013…
Dr. Ngigi S. Kang’ethe
Lecturer, Faculty of Education
The Catholic University of Eastern Africa
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Dedication
This work is dedicated to my wife Winnie Muthoni Ikinya, lovely children Patience
Wachuka and Caleb Kariuki and my parents, for their extensive support, care and
sacrifice that enabled me to reach this far.
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Acknowledgements
My heart overflows with thanks to the Almighty God for enabling me to reach
this far. This piece of work could not have been a success without the contribution of
several individuals, groups of people and institutions to whom I am very much indebted.
It has not been possible to mention all of those people here, but mention has been made of
a few individuals for their special contribution.
I wish to express sincere appreciation to all the lecturers in the Faculty of
Education for having guided me through the course. Their efforts clarified most of the
areas related to my study variables and made the conceptualization of the study problem
much easier. I wish to express special gratitude to my Supervisors and Mentors, Prof.
Maurice Amutabi and Dr. Ngigi S. Kang’ethe whose careful guidance transformed my
original crude ideas into what has been presented here. My course mates, thank you for
your bright contributions and my wife Winnie Muthoni Ikinya for having read through
the drafts and for making suggestions that helped me polish the work.
Special thanks also go to the Technician engineering graduates, Management of
Thika and Meru Technical Training Institutes, Heads of department, trainers, employers
in various industries and all participants for their enthusiasm and willingness to
participate in the study. To Higher Education Loans Board (HELB) for the PhD
Scholarship awarded to me that enabled completion of these study. Kenya Institute of
Curriculum Development and Kenyatta University for resources. Finally, I whole-
heartedly thank everybody who contributed in one way or another towards the successful
completion of this work
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Abbreviations and Acronyms
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
AU The African Union
AUTOCAD Automated Computer Aided Drawing
CNC Computer Numerical Control
EBK Engineers Board of Kenya
GDP Gross Domestic Product
ICT Information Communication Technology
ILO International Labour Organisation
KAM Kenya Association of Manufacturers
KESSP Kenya Education Sector Support Program
KICD Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development
KIHBS Kenya Integrated Household Budget
KNEC Kenya National Examinations Council
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MOHE Ministry of Higher Education
MoHEST Ministry of Higher Education Science & Technology
TEP Technical Education Program
TET Technician Engineering Training
TVET Technical, Vocational Education and Training
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
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Abstract
Technician Engineering Training (TET) is a component within the Technical, Vocational,Education and Training (TVET). TVET is the provision of skills, knowledge, attitude,and values needed for the place of work. TET as a component of TVET is a necessaryintervention in attempts to empower people, reduce poverty, and realize the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs). TET is a priority area in achieving Kenya’s Vision 2030which is anchored in Science, Technology and Innovation. There has been great concernby development stakeholders in Kenya on the need of training more technicians in thefield of engineering and technology. Kenya needs over 68,000 engineers and 1.5 milliontechnician workers in the current labour market. Technician engineers’ graduates insearch of job in the world of work do not have adequate employable skills. Narrowing thegap between education and the world of work is thus a priority for this study so as toengage the ever increasing population into productive livelihoods. The studyconceptualized logical flow of variables as guided by human capital and job signalingtheory. Mixed method was adopted in an effort to seek the solution to the problem. Thestudy targeted 2008 and 2009 technician engineering graduates cohort who pursuedmechanical engineering trades from Thika Technical Training Institute and BuildingConstruction trade from Meru Technical Training Institute. Trainers and employers werealso targeted. Both probability and non-probability sampling techniques were used tosample respondents. Data was collected by use of questionnaires, interviews guide andfocus group discussion guide. The instruments were pretested to ensure their validity bysubjecting the instruments to intensive scrutiny by selected experts in TET sector. Toensure reliability the instruments were subjected to statistical analysis to determine theCronbach’s alpha. Data was analyzed as per the research questions and hypothesis. Thefindings show that Technician engineering graduates rate training process as poor. Theuse of application of ICT is perceived to be very poor. There is very minimal participationof industry in TET. Employers consider generic skills and theoretical skill as moreimportant compared to manipulative skills. There is no relationship between skills learntand skills required in labour market. Training is theoretical and examination oriented.Other than area of specialization, level of training, skills learnt and performance inexamination there are other factors that predict employability. This study recommendspromotion of ICT usage and linkages. The study further recommends curriculum reviewto meet the needs of labour market. These findings will inform the TVET policy andgenerate adequate information for the Government, TVET policy makers, Trainer, KenyaInstitute of Curriculum Development and Other TET official actors to promote thedevelopment of future skills and career development in technician engineering andtechnology in Kenya.
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Table of ContentsDeclaration...................................................................................................................................... iiDeclaration by the Candidate..........................................................................................................iiThis dissertation is my original work and has not been presented for publication anywhere, or for
any award in any university, college, or institution. No part of this work can be copied without the permission of the author and The Catholic University of Eastern Africa. .....ii
Sign ……… Date …12th Sept 2013………..........................................................................................iiIkinya Samson Kariuki......................................................................................................................iiStudent Number: 1017473..............................................................................................................iiApproval by the Supervisors............................................................................................................iiDedication...................................................................................................................................... iiiAcknowledgements........................................................................................................................ ivAbbreviations and Acronyms..........................................................................................................vTable of Contents..........................................................................................................................viiList of Figures..................................................................................................................................xList of Tables...................................................................................................................................xiCHAPTER ONE.................................................................................................................................1INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................11.1.Background Information...........................................................................................................11.2.Problem Statement...................................................................................................................61.3.Research Questions...................................................................................................................91.4.Null Hypothesis.........................................................................................................................91.5 Significance of the Study.........................................................................................................101.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study.......................................................................................111.7 Theoretical Framework ..........................................................................................................111.8 Conceptual Framework ..........................................................................................................181.9 Operational Definition of Terms..............................................................................................21CHAPTER TWO..............................................................................................................................23REVIEW OF LITERATURE................................................................................................................232.2.2 Historical Development of Technician engineering training in Kenya..................................252.2.3 Training Process in TVET-Engineering ..................................................................................272.2.4 Employability of TVET graduates..........................................................................................282.2.5 Skills Shortage .....................................................................................................................292.3 Empirical Studies of Training and Employability .....................................................................302.4 Skills Learnt in School and Skills Required For Employability..................................................342.5 Summary.................................................................................................................................403.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................423.2 Research Design......................................................................................................................423.3 Target Population....................................................................................................................463.4 Sampling Procedure and Sample Size......................................................................................463.4.1 Sampling Procedure for Technician engineering graduates.................................................473.4.2 Sampling Procedure for trainers ..........................................................................................483.4.3 Sampling Procedure for Employers......................................................................................483.4.5 Sample Size and Sampling Plan............................................................................................493.5 Data Collection Instruments ...................................................................................................513.5.1 Graduate’s Questionnaire....................................................................................................513.5.2 Trainer’s Questionnaire........................................................................................................523.5.3 Employers Questionnaire.....................................................................................................52
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3.5.4 Interview Guide....................................................................................................................523.5.5 Trainers’ Focus Group Discussion Guide..............................................................................533.6 Pilot Testing.............................................................................................................................533.6.1 Pre-testing of Instruments...................................................................................................543.6.2 Validity of Data Collection Instrument.................................................................................543.6.3 Reliability of Data collection Instrument..............................................................................553.6.3.1 Internal Reliability of the Graduate’s Questionnaire........................................................563.6.3.2 Internal Reliability of the Trainer’s Questionnaire...........................................................573.6.3.3 Internal Reliability of the Employers’ Questionnaire........................................................583.7 Data Collection Procedures.....................................................................................................583.8 Data Analysis...........................................................................................................................593.8.1 Analysis of Research Question One......................................................................................593.8.2 Analysis of Research Question Two......................................................................................593.9Methodological Matrix.............................................................................................................623.10Logistical and Ethical Issues ...................................................................................................633.10.1 Ethical Issues .................................................................................................................633.10.2 Logistical Issues............................................................................................................64CHAPTER FOUR.............................................................................................................................65DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION..............................................................654.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................654.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents...................................................................664.2.1 Demographic Characteristics of Technician engineering graduates.....................................674.2.1.1Gender and Age Distribution of Technician engineering graduates...................................67 4.2.1.2 Distribution of Technician engineering graduates by Employment Status Two Years after Completion of Training..................................................................................................................68 694.2.1.3 Distribution of Gender and Technician engineering graduates by Area of Specialization 70 4.2.1.4 Distribution of Technician engineering graduates by Level of Training ...........................71 4.2.1.5 Distribution of Technician engineering graduates by Examining Body and performance 72 4.2.1.6 Distribution of Technician engineering graduates by Mode of Study of TVET Courses.. .734.2.2 Demographic Characteristics of the TVET Trainers..............................................................74 744.2.2.1 Distribution of TVET trainers by gender and level of qualification..................................744.2.2.2 Distribution of trainers by pedagogical training................................................................754.2.2.3 Distribution of trainers by gender and teaching experience.............................................764.3 Research Question One: How do Technician engineering graduates rate the training process
of Technician engineering training?................................................................................764.3.1Rating of Capacity of Lecturers to Deliver Subject Content...................................................774.3.2Rating of relevance of Skill Learnt.........................................................................................784.3.3Rating of Availability of Training Resources..........................................................................79 804.3.4Rating of Linkage and Collaboration......................................................................................814.3.5Rating of Application ICT in Training.....................................................................................824.3.6Rating of Training Process by Technician engineering graduates..........................................844.4 Research Question Two: How do TVET trainers rate availability of training resources,
application of ICT in training and linkage with industries?.............................................854.4.1Rating of Availability of Training Resources by Trainers........................................................864.4.2Rating of Application of ICT in Training by Trainers...............................................................874.4.3Rating of Linkage and collaboration of Training institution with industries by Trainers.......904.5Research Question Three: Which skills do employers consider important when hiring technician engineer graduate?......................................................................................................91
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4.5.1Rating of Importance of Manipulative Skills by Employers...................................................924.5.2Rating of Importance of Generic Skills by employers............................................................944.5.3Rating of Importance of Theoretical Skills by employers......................................................974.5.4Rating of Importance of Other Skills by employers...............................................................994.6 Research Question Four: What Strategies should be put in place to promote employability of
Technician engineering graduates? .............................................................................1034.6.2 Technician Engineering Curriculum ...................................................................................1064.6.3 Linkages with industries.....................................................................................................1074.7 Hypothesis testing.................................................................................................................1094.7.1 Null Hypothesis One: There is no significant relationship between skills learnt by Technician
engineering graduates at the time of completing their studies and skills required in the labour market...............................................................................................................109
4.7.2 Null Hypothesis Two: sex of respondent, age of respondent, area of specialization, level of training, performance in final examination and skills learnt in school are not significant predictors of employability of technician engineer graduate.................................................111
4.8 Summary .............................................................................................................................116CHAPTER FIVE.............................................................................................................................118SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................1185.0 Introduction .........................................................................................................................1185.1 Summary...............................................................................................................................1185.2 Conclusion............................................................................................................................1225.3 Recommendation.................................................................................................................1245.4 Suggestions For Further Research........................................................................................125Appendix 1: Graduates’ Questionnaire.......................................................................................131Appendix 2: Employers’ Questionnaire.......................................................................................140Appendix 3: Trainers’ Questionnaire...........................................................................................146 Appendix 4: Trainers Focus Group Discussion Guide.................................................................150Appendix 5: Employers Interview Guide....................................................................................152Appendix 6: Validation Form for Research Instrument..............................................................153Appendix 7: Work plan Schedule..............................................................................................156Appendix 8: Budget..................................................................................................................157Appendix 9: Research Authorization...........................................................................................158Appendix 10: Research Permit No. NCST/RCD/14/013/454........................................................159Appendix 11: Approval to Conduct Research at Thika T.T.I.........................................................160Appendix 12: Approval to Conduct Research at Meru T.T.I........................................................161
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Theoretical Framework Logical Flow Diagram................................................................17Figure 2: Relationships between variables....................................................................................20Figure 3: Concurrent Triangulation Mixed Method Model Flow Diagram.....................................45
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List of TablesTable 1: Graduates Sampling Plan.................................................................................................49Table 2: Trainers’ Sampling Plan...................................................................................................50Table 3: Employers’ Sampling Plan................................................................................................50Table 4: Methodological Matrix....................................................................................................62Table 5: Gender and Age Distribution of Technician engineering graduates................................67Table 6: Employment Status Distribution of Technician engineering graduates ..........................68Table 7: Gender and Area of Specialization Distribution of Technician engineering graduates . .70Table 8: Gender and Level of Training Distribution of Technician engineering graduates............71Table 9: Examination Body and Performance in Final Examination by Technician engineering
graduates........................................................................................................................72Table 10: Examination Body and Mode of study of Technician engineering graduates................73Table 11: Gender and Level of Qualification Distribution of TVET trainers...................................74Table 12: Gender and Training Pedagogy by Trainers ..................................................................75Table 13: Gender and Trainers' Teaching Experience...................................................................76Table 14: Rating of Capacity of Lecturers to Deliver Subject Content...........................................78Table 15: Rating of relevance of Skills learnt.................................................................................79Table 16: Rating of Availability of Training Resources...................................................................80Table 17: Rating of Linkages and Collaboration............................................................................81Table 18: Rating of Application of ICT in Training..........................................................................83Table 19: Rating of Training Process by Graduates.......................................................................84Table 20: Rating of Availability of Training Resources by Trainers................................................86Table 21: Rating of Application of ICT in Training by Trainers.......................................................88Table 22: Rating of Linkage and collaboration of Training Institutions with Industries by Trainers
........................................................................................................................................90Table 23: Importance of Manipulative Skills by Employers...........................................................92Table 24: Rating of Importance of manipulative Skills by Employers............................................94Table 25: Importance of Generic Skills by Employers....................................................................95Table 26: Rating of Importance of Generic Skills by Employers....................................................96Table 27: Importance of Theoretical Skills by Employers..............................................................97Table 28: Rating of Importance of Theoretical Skills by Employers...............................................98Table 29: Rating Importance of Other Skills by Employer...........................................................100Table 30: Rating of Importance of Other Related Skills By employers........................................100Table 31: Can You Recommend the Course to a Friend..............................................................105Table 32: Correlation between skills learnt and skill required....................................................110Table 33: Variables Entered/Removed for Predictors of Employability......................................112Table 34: Model Summary for Predictors of Employability.........................................................113Table 35: ANOVA for Predictors of Employability.......................................................................114Table 36: Coefficient for Predictors of Employability..................................................................114
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the background information of the study, problem
statement, research questions and hypothesis used to guide the development of research
instruments and analysis of the findings. The significance of the study is articulated. In
addition, theoretical and conceptual frameworks for the study have been outlined in this
chapter.
1.1. Background Information
Technical, Vocational, Education and Training (TVET) is the provision of skills,
knowledge, attitude, and values needed for the work place of a modern state. United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and International
Labour Organisation(ILO), jointly recommend the use of TVET internationally as a
comprehensive term referring to those aspects of the educational process involving, in
addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences, and the
acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to
occupants in various sectors of economic and social life (UNESCO & ILO, 2003). Thus
TVET is a range of learning experiences which are relevant to the world of work and may
occur in a variety of learning contexts, including educational institutions and the
workplace.
Technical training and skills acquisition is a way to engage the ever increasing
population and the youth into gainful and fulfilling livelihood. The TVET system is thus
expected to act as a vehicle to socio-economic and technological transformation. TVET
has attracted the attention of many researchers, in particular those with interests in
alleviating poverty, promoting economic development, and meeting the employment
needs of the workforce through human resource management (Association for The
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Development of Education in Africa, (2008). In particular Akplu (2008) views the
provision of TVET as an intervention in attempts to empower people, reduce poverty, and
realize the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The logic is that if people,
especially the youth, are equipped with employable skills with which they can access
labour markets, then the incidence of unemployment, poverty, and other undesirable
consequences of social and economic exclusion would be reduced.
Training in TVET system has received increased attention as an area of priority
for stimulating economic and social growth. The World Bank, International Labour
Organisation (ILO), UNESCO, and other international and local organizations have
outlined the contribution of TVET towards economic and social developments in both
developed and developing countries. Boodhai (2010) outlines the contribution of TVET
system in promoting social and economic growth in Canada, Australia, Germany,
Singapore and Japan. The Republic of Kenya under the Vision 2030 recognizes that one
of the main characteristics that has lead to achievement of major technological
transformation in countries such as Taiwan and Chile is the availability of high quality
technical, industrial and entrepreneurial human resources (Republic of Kenya, 2007). The
key to success lies in the proactive measures to ensure training of human resource in
TVET in order to respond to the changes that are triggered by technological and global
economic transformation.
Although TVET has potential benefits as stated above, it has been criticized for
some practical problems. Atchoarena and Delluc (2002) summarized the main critics
facing TVET in Sub-Saharan Africa as: training not suited to actual socio-economic
conditions, high unemployment rate among graduates, disregard of the informal sector’s
needs, and disregard of the labor market. Kitainge (2009) maintains that in Kenya, these
problems have led to low enrollment in engineering courses in public institutions and a
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shift to on job training and in-house training in industries. However, King’ombe (2011)
and Maclean (2013) recognise that criticisms against TVET are likely to be reduced by
equipping the Technician engineering graduates with quality, relevant and adequate skills
to the needs of labor market.
Technology is going through rapid changes that require skilled and employable
workforce to fulfill the needs and requirements of industries (Biggs, 2005); such
workforce is considered an asset to employers especially in the developing countries
(Borghans & De Grip, 2000). An inadequate supply of skilled workforce in engineering is
most likely to be a stumbling block to the development of industry. Kenya as an employer
today is depending on expatriates in construction and manufacturing industry as
witnessed in construction of Thika Superhighway and foreign investors in the
manufacturing sector. The question asked by Kenyan scholars is what employability
element do the Kenyan engineers lack when compared to the expatriates.
The Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia (MOHE, 2009) put emphasis on
employability skills of graduates through this statement “…to produce competent
graduates to fulfill national and international manpower needs, the graduates must be
employed in their relevant fields within six months of their graduation” (p.89). In order to
ensure that graduates are able to survive in the arena of employment today, The Malaysia
government developed an effective study mechanism that involves tracer studies for
continuous development of new skills and adaptation to changes. This study borrows the
strategy of tracing the Technician engineering graduates as a way to gathering reliable
and credible information for continuous development of technician engineering training
in Kenya.
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The African Union (AU) in its plan of action for the second decade of education
(2006 – 2015), recognises the importance of training in engineering as a means of
empowering individuals to take control of their lives and recommends technical training
system that is geared towards equipping people with employable engineering skills
(UNESCO, 2009). The increasing importance that African governments now attach to
TVET engineering programmes is reflected in the various Poverty Reduction Strategy
Papers that governments have developed in collaboration with The World Bank (Biggs,
2005). Within the TVET, technician engineering in Africa has not received adequate
attention as compared to the general education and other skilled areas of study.
Kenya Vision 2030 is a long-term development blueprint for the country. It aims
at transforming Kenya into a newly industrialized middle income country providing a
high quality of life to all its citizens. The Vision is anchored on three key pillars:
Economic; Social; and Political Governance. Within the economic pillar, tourism,
agriculture, manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, business process outsourcing and
financial services are the six key sectors identified to deliver 57 per cent of the 10 per
cent gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate (Republic of Kenya, 2007). For this to be
realized there is a need to address the shortage of skilled technician engineers in
manufacturing and construction sectors.
A report on status of engineers in Kenya by Engineers Board of Kenya (EBK)
indicates that shortage of engineers is the biggest obstacle to Kenya's industrialization and
realization of the vision 2030. The EBK engineer’s database shows that Kenya has a total
of 281 registered consulting engineers, 1,358 professional engineers and 5,689 registered
graduate engineers summing up to 7,328 engineers against the international benchmark
which requires Kenya to have 68,000 engineers (EBK, 2011).
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The existing technician engineer’s worker stands at: 27,869 Artisans, 138,816
Craftsmen, 163,026 Engineering Technician with Ordinary Diploma and 8664
Engineering Technicians with Higher Diploma making a total of 306,341technician
engineers workers (MoHEST, 2007). This is far below the recommended national output,
if the documented ratio of one engineer to thirty technicians (1:30) was to be followed ,
the 68,000 engineers translates to an international benchmark gap of over two million
technicians leading to an existing gap of over 1.5 million technicians in the current labour
market. In order to have enough human resource for the manufacturing and construction
sector, the Kenya Vision 2030 strategy requires the TVET institutions to play a leading
role in training atleast 100,000 employable technician engineers annually.
The manufacturing sector in Kenya is expected to play a critical role in
propelling the economy by 10 per cent growth rate. The sector employs 254,000 people in
additional to 1.4 million people in the informal sector, which represents 13 per cent of
total employment (Republic of Kenya, 2007). The Eastern African market is dominated
by imports from outside the region. This is an indication that there is a large potential to
improve Kenya’s competitiveness in the region by replacing external suppliers gradually.
However, even within the country, manufacturing has been on the decline for a
considerable period of time and its contribution to the GDP has remained below 10 per
cent since the 1960s. Kenya Association of Manufacturers (KAM) maintains that capital
productivity in the Kenyan manufacturing sector is particularly low, compared to regional
and global productivity levels (KAM, 2010). For example, productivity is up to four times
lower than that of comparable Indian firms and seven times that of China. This has been
occasioned by lack of technological skills and competent work force that is able to adapt
to the new technologies.
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An empirical study by Biggs (2005) on technology training in manufacturing
sub-sectors in Ghana, Kenya and Zimbabwe found out that the manufacturing firms
depend on in-house training in which the newly hired workers are taken through formal
and on-job training for a period of six months to four years depending on the task.
A report on assessment of training in workplaces in Nairobi conducted by
Ministry of Higher Education, Science and technology in 2012 shows that industries such
as Toyota Kenya, Nairobi Bottlers, Mersec Cables Limited, Mabati Rolling Mills among
other manufacturing firms have an established in house training institute. The industries
prefer to train their own since graduates from TVET institutions do not meet their skill
needs. The Consolidated Report on Audit of students, staff, equipment, infrastructure and
other training resources in TVET institutions in Kenya shows that only 4% of the enrolled
students pursue mechanical engineering, 3% building and construction technology and
9% pursuing other engineering related trades (MoHEST, 2005). This indicates that
engineering courses are under enrolled, yet this is a specialized area of study that Kenya
Vision 2030 expects to provide the required work force in the manufacturing and
construction sectors of the economy.
1.2. Problem Statement
Technical skills form the basis for the realization of industrial transformation
and a meaningful quest for Kenya’s Vision 2030. TVET sector is the major producer of
the workforce that is absorbed in the industries. It is therefore responsible for developing
a critical mass of personnel for social economic development and industrial transforming.
The rapid development in labour market needs proficient workers mainly in fields which
involve latest technology. The number of workforce in Kenya has drastically increased
and mainly constitutes the youth. Youth unemployment is a significant problem in Kenya.
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A survey by the Kenya Integrated Household Budget (KIHBS) indicates that
unemployment rate stands at 40%, attributed mainly by lack of employable skills
(Republic of Kenya, 2005a). Kenya Association of Manufacturers in Muguthu, (2007)
articulates that youth seeking employment in engineering sectors do not meet the needs of
labour market. However, there are no adequate empirical studies that have articulated
what constitutes employable skills for technician engineers.
A comparative research conducted by Kitainge (2009) on challenges of training
motor vehicle mechanics in Kenya as compared to Australia, stated that the employers in
Kenya have questioned the quality and relevance of skills learnt in training institutions in
meeting the needs of the labour market. The ILO (2012) articulates that, skilled fresh
employees in engineering increase the level of productivity by 32.6%. A report by the
Kenya Association of Manufacturer (KAM, 2010), indicates that most trainees take at
least six months to two years to build the confidence and skills in their occupations.
According to Taylor (2006) and Ellis (2003), employers experience great revenue loss, in
such situations. Taylor recommends a maximum of 4 months training in form of
induction. Industries such Coca Cola Bottlers, Toyota Kenya and Mersec Cables Ltd have
opted to establish in-house training within their industry for the purpose of training their
own fresh workers (KAM, 2010). If such a practice and trend is to be replicated in all
industries, the TVET engineering programmes would be regarded redundant.
The main challenge facing the contribution of manufacturing sector in realizing
the 10 per cent GDP under the economic pillar as envisaged in the Kenya vision 2030 is
the shortage of technician engineers (Republic of Kenya, 2007; MoHEST, 2008). An
empirical study by Ponge (2013), employers complain that graduates are poorly prepared
for work. They believe that academic standards have fallen considerably over the past
decade and that a certificate is no longer a guarantee of skilled worker.
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World Bank review of Skills in Sub-Saharan Africa shows that Kenya
engineering firms depend on cheap unskilled labour force as well as hiring expatriates
and skilled technicians from developed world. According to the Engineering Board of
Kenya (2010) Kenya requires over 1.5 million skilled technician engineers. Despite the
need for more skilled workers in engineering, the 306,341 available technician
engineering workers in Kenyan market, require retraining to meet the needs of labour
market. In reference to Kenya Association of Manufacturers the manufacturing and
construction industry requires 43% employable technician engineers for realization of the
Kenya Vision 2030. So far, there is no empirical data that shows the kind of skills
employers consider important when hiring the TVET engineering technicians in the 21st
century.
The Ministry of Higher Education Science and Technology conducted a baseline
survey in 2007 on challenges facing the TVET in Kenya (MoHEST, 2008). The study
realized the diversity in the TVET in regard to individual, social, institutional and
economic factors. It did not however link this diversities to employability. Most research
studies in TVET sector in Sub-Saharan Africa has adopted human capital theory in
advocating for a competent human resource. However this theory and methodology
applied do not adequately provide means of predicting the factors underlying the
employability of Technician engineering graduates in Kenya. In an effort to unvail the
variables that predict employability in Kenya, this study not only adopted human capital
theory but also job signaling theory in a learning system model.
Technician engineering training over the years has been operating under various
legislatives, key among them being the Education Act Cap 211 of 1968 revised in 1970
and 1980, Industrial Training Act Cap 237 of 1960, revised in 1983, Sessional Paper No.1
of 2005, a Policy Framework on Education, Training and Research and National Training
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strategy (NTS) developed by government in 2006 among others.The engineering training
has thus lacked a consistent framework to bring together the many players within the
sector for purposes of developing a unified policy and harmonized standards. This policy
gap has translated into the fragmented legal framework for TVET, which has contributed
to challenges of employability of Technician engineering graduates. The purpose of this
study is therefore to provide reliable and credible information that will address technician
engineering training and employability in Kenya.
1.3. Research Questions
This study focused on four research questions:
1. How do Technician engineering graduates rate the training process of Technician
engineering training?
2. How do TVET trainers rate availability of training resources, linkages with
industries and application of ICT in Technician engineering training?
3. Which skills do employers consider important when hiring technician engineer
graduate?
4. What strategies should be put in place to promote employability of Technician
engineering graduates in world of work?
1.4. Null Hypothesis
This study focused on two research hypothesis:
i) H0: There is no significant relationship between skills learnt by
Technician engineering graduates at the time of completing their
studies and skills required in labour market.
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ii) H0: Sex of respondent, age of respondent, area of
specialization, level of training and performance in final
examination are not significant predictors of employability of
technician engineer graduate.
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study adopted a follow-up strategy as a means of receiving feedback from the
graduates, trainers and employers. The significance of this study is in line with Sessional
paper No1 of 2005 and the Kenya Vision 2030 in addressing the skills mismatch and
enhancing employability of Technician engineering graduates. To TVET curriculum
implementers, the study is an accountability initiative in providing reliable feedback of
the training process as perceived by graduates and trainers. This will enable reshaping the
training process to enhance effective and efficient ways on imparting quality, relevant and
adequate skill to the needs of labour market. The study thus provides credible information
that the school board members, administrators, teachers and other interested actors in
TVET can rely on making decision on instructional and curricular planning.
In reference to sessional paper No 1 of 2005, training in TVET is not matched to
industry needs. The current TVET curriculum structure and some of the syllabi are
outdated, as they were designed and developed by the government more than a decade
ago. The graduates are therefore inadequately equipped for the labour market. The key
significant contribution of this study is to provide basis of rationalizing and possibly
revamping TVET engineering curriculum and serve as a basis for future curriculum
review.
Technician engineering training over the years has been operating under various
legislatives. In 2013, there has been significant policies development in education and
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training in Kenya witnessed, with enactment of TVET Bill 2012. This study will therefore
provide reliable information that will aid in the implementation of the newly enacted bills
in reference to the quality and relevance of engineering training and provide reliable
statistical data that will effectively inform the national training policy framework and any
other upcoming legislation for Technician engineering training in Kenya.
1.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study
This study was conducted to determine the technician engineering training and
employability of graduates in Kenya. Several factors and issues exist that influences and
contributes to employability. However this study focused on trainings process as
perceived by Technician engineering graduates and trainers. The study also investigated
and compared the skills learnt in training institutions and skills required by labour market.
The researcher approached employers in a view to determine the skills considered
important when hiring graduates. The study adopted mixed method approach. The 2008
and 2009 Technician engineering graduates cohort from Thika and Meru technical
training institute were targeted. Trainers in the two training institutions and employers
were included in the study as well. The study was conducted between the months of April
to June 2013.
1.7 Theoretical Framework
In the formulation of a theoretical perspective for studying the technician
engineering training and employability in Kenya, human capital theory proposed by
Theodore William Schultz in 1961 and developed extensively by Gary Stanley Becker in
1964 (Becker, 1974), forms the basis of the theoretical platform . Human capital theory
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will be enriched with job market signaling theory proposed by Michael Spence in
1973(Spence, 1973), to provide a useful model for guiding this study.
Human capital theory was developed in the sixties due to the realization that the
growth of physical capital has very small percentage growth in the revenue collected. The
physical capital requires a skilled human capital for its manipulation. The emergence of
education and skills training in military technology played an important part in the
discovery of this theory (Becker, 1974). The proponent Theodore Schultz introduced
return-on-investment concept in 1960s, which highlights the cost-benefit analysis
of training and education. Gary Stanley Becker developed the human capital theory based
on Schutlz’s research on return-on-investment and introduced the concept of general-
purpose human capital and firm-specific human capital that is widely used by human
resource development practitioners worldwide (Mincer, 1968).
Human capital theory suggests that education or training raises the productivity
of workers by imparting useful knowledge and skills, hence raising workers’ future
income by increasing their lifetime earnings (Gary, 1993). The theory postulates the
input, process and output model. The input which includes the trainees, human resources,
equipments and infrastructures’ should be considered as investment in education and
training. The process entails the strategies put place to enhance transformation of the
untrained trainees into a skilled and competent graduate who at the end is regarded as an
output of the training process.
The theory views the graduate as similar to physical means of production such as
machines. The worker is viewed as a machine and his worth is measured in terms of
economic value added in the work place. Thus human capital is the economic value that
an employee provides to an employer. In this study the economic value that Technician
engineering graduates are expected to contribute to the employer is the application of the
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acquired skills in promoting production. The assessment of this economic value is related
to the body of skill, knowledge, and experience that the employee possesses.
The human capital theory has been applied in various research works.
Rumberger (1983) applied human capital theory in studying the factors that influence
employability in the coal mining industry, in which the skilled graduates were easily
absorbed in the mining industry when compared with the high school leavers. In his work
Rumberger measured employability in terms of transition to employment within a period
of one year. The key variables were employability and the acquired certificate. Kazilan,
Hamzah and Bakar (2009) used human capital theory in conducting a study on
employability skills among the students of Technical and Vocational Training Centers in
Malaysia. In the application of the theory, employability skills were considered as the
skill needed to enhance productivity in the industry. These skills could be classified
mainly as generic skills and professional skill. In reassessing the link between work and
training, Hoyt (2006) applies human capital theory but emphasizes the need of integrating
the theory with another theory that focus on transformation part in the context of the
input, process and output model indirectly advocated by many researchers. The strength
of human capital is thus evident on the linear relationship portrayed in training and rate of
return.
Some labour economists (Bowles & Gintis, 1975; Ferrer & Prat, 2010;
Schummer & Eso, 2008) have criticized the human capital theory on the bases that, it
tries to explain that productivity is directly related to education and training and bases the
success of the outcome on formal training. Bowles and Gintis (1975) have argued that
human capital theory is a poor concept of capital. It is unable to understand human
activity other than as the exchange of commodities measured on economic value. This
misses the point that capital is an independent social force where the creation of social
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value comes about through its capital accumulation. Given this explanation, human
capital is an abstract form of labor - a commodity - and not capital. Commodities such as
human capital are therefore part of the life cycle of capitalism as a form of labor and not
able to be exchanged independently of it.
Another criticism that could be argued here is based on assumption that by just
going to school improves productivity and thus could explain higher wages. Training
institution as a school is a system that is influenced by external and internal factors which
the human capital does not consider. The quality and relevance of the output of this
training system is greatly influenced by the training process. Thus a higher productivity
indeed is influenced by many other factors.
Despite the critic of human capital theory, the theory enables effective empirical
analysis in social research and produces reliable findings that affect TVET stakeholder
and education policy in this study. In capitalizing the strength of the human capital in
conceptualizing the logical flow of input to outcome and impact, Spencer (1973)
advanced the job market signaling theory as an alternative to the critics of human capital
theory. According to job market signaling theory, education and training does not lead
directly to increased human capital, but rather acts as a mechanism by which trainees with
superior innate abilities acquire quality and relevant skills, and as graduates they can
signal those abilities to prospective employers and so gain above average wages.
In the job market signaling theory, the graduates are potential employees seeking
to sell their services to employers in exchange for wage. Generally, employers are willing
to pay higher wages to employ better workers. Since employers are not always able to
observe potential employees’ skills and productivity, they use various characteristics
associated with education and training such as level of training, area of specialization,
performance in examinations, demographic factors among others to estimate the abilities
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of potential employees. Michael Spence applied signaling theory to job-markets and
argued that in job-markets, the signal is a college degree and in it, level of training, area
of specialization, grade attained in the final examination forms the basis of individual’s
employability. Since the ability as well as work ethic traits are intangible and difficult to
observe prior to an individual’s employment, signaling theory advocates employers to
resolve this uncertainty by giving a relatively low starting wage to everyone and raise the
wages based on individual’s productivity and work experience.
The figure 1 shows theoretical framework flow diagram representing logical flow
of the theoretical concept as discussed by human capital theory and job signaling theory
and illustrates how the two theories integrates into each other in an effort to inform this
study. Human capital theory brings out the aspect of input, process, output, outcome and
impact as a direct transformation of unskilled worker to skilled and hence productive
worker. This transformation involves investing in education and training through
acquiring financial contribution, physical and human resources as the main input towards
the process of acquiring quality and relevant skills. The ultimate output of this process is
a trained graduate.
Based on the quality, relevance and adequacy of training and skills attained, the
outcome of the training process is absorption to the job market as a productive worker
who then earns an income. Long life effect of the training is realized through economic
growth and improved livelihoods of the workers. In reference to a two way arrow
between the output and outcome, human capital theory postulates that workers
productivity can be enhance by further training and the output of a training process can be
enhance in the industry through experience, on job training and in house training.
Referring to figure 1, job signaling theory describes education classifies the
input, process and output as a block of mechanism, in which education and training is
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viewed as mechanism in which transformation takes place. The success of this
transformation is greatly influence by the training process. An effective training process
will promote acquisition of quality, relevant and adequate skills this in return will raise
the chance of employability of the graduates. A reliable mechanism is signaled by the
academic records and attributes attained in school.
The outcome and impact are classified as labour market in which the workers
productivity and economic growth are the indicators of an effective training mechanism.
The labour market compares it skills needs with the skills learnt in school as portrayed in
academic records and decides whether to hire the graduates or not. Unlike human capital
theory, in job signaling theory workers productivity is not only influenced by formal
training and earning but other internal and external factors such as environmental,
perception, motivation and dedication influence productivity and formal training and vice
versa. This logical and interactions is of concept is directly shown in figure 1 that follows.
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WORLD OF WORKMECHANISM
INPUT OUTPUTPROCESS OUTCOME
Trained Graduates(Skilled work force)
Training
(Process of acquiring skills)
Productive workerIncreased workers earnings
IMPACT
Investment in EducationPhysical resourcesHuman resourcesFinancial support
Economic growth and developmentImproved Employees Livelihoods
Internal factors and External factorsEnvironmental factors, Perception, Motivation, Dedication, earning among others
Job signaling Training levelSpecializationPerformanceDemographics
Figure 1: Theoretical Framework Logical Flow Diagram
Source, Author
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1.8 Conceptual Framework
The study of TVET technician engineering graduates and employability involved an
empirical scrutiny of key issues realized from theoretical perspective, experience and
review of related literature. This study is mainly based on the concepts developed from
human capital theory and job signaling theory. The study draws a line between
employment and employability. Being employed means having a job and links to
employment, employability on the other hand means having the qualities needed to
maintain a job and progress at the work place.
The figure 2 illustrates a coherent and logical set of variables that primarily guided
the study. The study sought to find out how the Technician engineering graduates and
trainers rate the training process in terms of capacity of lecturers’ to deliver engineering
content, the relevance of skills taught in school, the level of linkages and collaboration
with industries and other training institution, application of information communication
technologies and availability and use of physical resources. The study also sought to find
out the extent to which the TVET institutions equip their graduates with the anticipated
skills. In reference to the labour market the study sought to find out the skills the
employers consider important when hiring the Technician engineering graduates. In
relation to the skill mismatch the study sought to find out whether the skills learnt in
school were different from the skills required in the labour market. As guided by the
theoretical platform the study sought to find out the predictors of graduates employability
of technician engineer graduate.
Trainees in training institutions invest in training and in return acquire technical
skills with an aim of being employable. Acquisition of quality, relevant and adequate
skills, calls for availability of adequate physical and human resources. Trainees join
training institution with varying entry behavior and varying demographic characteristics.
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The inputs feeds directly to the training process, where the trainees are transformed
through teaching and learning by their trainers and in process acquire skills. The output of
this training process is a trained graduate whose competency level is characterized by
level of training, area of specialization, performance in examination and skills acquired.
The end result is an outcome of an employable and a productive employee. The ultimate
success and out of an effective training process is a trained graduate, in the long run is
graduate’s employability. Since employability is not directly affected by formal training,
there is possibility of a student gaining employability through on job training without
necessarily going through the formal training process this justifies the direct relationship
between the input and outcome. Other the variables and attributes such Labour market
factors are uncertainties that affect the graduate’s employability.
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Graduates’ Employability
(Employable graduates’)
Skilled Technician engineering graduates
Skills learnt(Manipulative, generic, theory and other related skills)Indicators Level of trainingArea of specializationPerformance in final examination
Process of acquiring skills
Capacity to delivery curriculum Relevance of skillsLinkages and collaborationsApplication of ICTAvailability and use of resources
Training Process
Curriculum contentsOutlined skills
Human resourcesTrainers
expertPhysical resourcesTrainees demographic
AgeSex
Internal and External factors/ Environmental factors
Input OutcomeOutput
Figure 2: Relationships between variables
Source: Author
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1.9 Operational Definition of Terms
Artisan: This is the lowest level in technician training in Kenya. The entry to this grade
is a certificate of Kenya Certificate of Primary Education. The tasks at this level
primarily involve the dexterous use of hands, hands/power tools, machines and
materials. It takes a minimum cumulative duration of 1980 hours.
Craft: This level is offered to trainees who passed artisan level or its equivalent. Also,
secondary school certificate holders who have attained a Kenya Certificate of
Secondary Education (KCSE) minimum aggregate Grade D- (D minus) At this
level, the emphasis is placed on non automated machinery (manual) operations
and the application of skills. It takes a minimum cumulative duration of 2310
hours.
Diploma: This level offer opportunities to trainees who have passed craft and Kenya
Certificate of Secondary Education holders to acquire relevant education and
training. It takes a minimum cumulative duration of 2970 hours.
Employability: This is ability to gain initial employment, maintain employment and be
successful in the chosen occupations. Employability is quantified in-terms of
transition to employment in the first two consecutive years after completion of
training.
Skill: Ability to perform a specific task or technical operations at a set level of
proficiency acquired through technical training.
Skills learnt at TVET institution: These are behaviors a graduate possesses by the time
of completion of the training.
Skills required at labour market by the employers: These are behaviors a graduate is
expected to displays in order to translate the knowledge, skills and attitudes into
performing job.
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Technician engineer: A specialist who is trained in skills and techniques related to a
specific branch of engineering and often assist an engineer. They are trained in
TVET institutions at artisan level, craft level, diploma level or at higher national
diploma level.
Technician engineering training: This is a formal training of person to acquire artisan,
craft, diploma and higher national diploma certificate from TVET institution.
Person applies knowledge, skills and values learnt in school in labour market.
Training Process: This is a planned and systematic sequence of instruction under
supervision, designed to impart skills, knowledge, values and attitudes. It is
measured by quantifying teaching and learning provisions and conditions on a
perception scale. Items that constitute an effective training process include;
capacity of lecturer to deliver subject content, relevance of skills learnt, linkages
and collaborations, application of ICT in training and availability of training
resources
.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses the context of TVET in the world, terms used to describe
TVET and its goal in Kenya. The chapter also looks at historical development of TVET
engineering. The chapter is organized in major themes as guided by research questions
and hypothesis.
2.2 Description of TVET
Technical, Vocational, Education and Training (TVET) is a comprehensive term
adopted in 1999 at the Second International Congress on Technical and Vocational
Education in Seoul and at the 30th Session of the General Conference of UNESCO in
Paris, to describe the combined process of education and training and recognize the
common objective of employment as their immediate goal (UNESCO, 2009). TVET has
fuelled phenomenal economic growth in some countries and fallen short of expectations
in others (Maclean, 2013). In developed nations TVET is the core pillar in technological
transformation and contributes significantly towards the economic growth. In Africa the
full potential of TVET is yet to be realized.
Beardwell and Holden (2008) conducted a comparison study on various TVET
systems in developed nations. In their finding they referred the Germany system of
vocational training (commonly referred to as directed and dual system) as an example of
excellent practice of TVET in the world. Agrawal (2013) conducted a study on Indian
experience of internal and international collaboration in TVET. The main purpose was to
determine the best TVET system in the world that Indian may embrace. In her findings
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Agrawal regarded Australia’s TVET system as one of the best in the world. In both cases
the pathways to employment, career and personal advancement and further education are
well defined and supported. With a focus on industry engagement, competency-based
standards, nationally recognized qualifications and quality assurance.
In Africa, TVET has been left to the periphery and its significance has not really
been embraced. In their Studies Kerre (1995) and Mureithi (2008) show that, in Africa
TVET training centers have been neglected or overtaken by institutions concentrating on
purely academic education. According to Simiyu (2009) Kenya has on one hand a
relatively large percent of skilled yet unemployable people. On the other hand, Kenya has
a large cheap unskilled labor force, as a result of lack of relevant training. Sessional paper
No 1 of 2005 has clearly stated the issue of skills mismatch. On this basis, this study will
tracing the Technician engineering graduates in an effort to address their employability in
Kenyan labour market.
2.2.1 Terms Used to Describe TVET and Its Goal
Over time, various terms have been in use to describe TVET field. These
include: apprenticeship training, vocational education, industrial arts, technical education,
technical, vocational education (TVE), vocational education and training (VET), career
and technical education (CTE). These terms are commonly used based on geographical
areas (UNESCO, 2009). In Europe the term vocational education and training (VET) is in
common usage, while in the United States the current term is career and technical
education (CTE) (Maclean, 2013). Kenya used technical, industrial, vocational,
entrepreneurship and training (TIVET) until the coming up of TVET bill 2012 where the
general term TVET in place of TIVET was adopted. The term technical, vocational,
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education and training (TVET) is an internationally agreed by the UNESCO and ILO in
consultation with their respective member states and partner in order to unite the field.
Originally, the direct preparation for work was the main goal of TVET and this
remains prominent in many developing nations. In reference Sessional Paper No 1 of
2005 the goal of TVET in Kenya is to enhance self reliance and preparation to the world
of work (Republic of Kenya, 2005a). However, with the technological revolutions and
innovations in science and technology in 21st century, new domains of knowledge and
new disciplines have become important at all levels of education and training. The current
focus is increasingly upon preparing competent workers to meet the challenges, demands
of 21st Century and technological changes in world of work. This poses a question to
TVET training system on how the courses offered are geared towards preparing the
graduates’ to the needs of the labour market. In this regard UNESCO, (2008) emphasizes
for developing nations to deliver training that meets the requirements of the industry.
2.2.2 Historical Development of Technician engineering training in Kenya
TVET Engineering as an art and science began in Kenya long before the arrival
of the Europeans. Kenyans knew how to build their own houses and make agricultural
implements. Traditionally, these skills were passed on from parents to offspring within
the family or clan through an apprenticeship system (Kingombe, 2011). The coming of
the Europeans and the decision to build the Kenya-Uganda railway attracted Indian
traders and labourers who, beginning in 1924, were instrumental in the training of artisans
and craftsmen in engineering at the Kabete Industrial Training Depot (Simiyu, 2009).
Christian missionaries brought in technicians engineers and made an effort to train
Kenyans in different skills to assist in the maintenance of tools, equipment and services
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for the railway (Kitainge, 2009). Training at that time was based on-job training, which
required mastery of specific skills.
The early 1950s saw industrial depots being upgraded to vocational schools and,
by the early 1960s, they were further converted into secondary vocational schools
(Sifuna). A major breakthrough for engineering training in Kenya was the setting up of a
Commission for Higher Education in 1954, whose main recommendation was the
establishment of the Royal Technical College in Nairobi (Waithanji, 2002). This
institution later became the University of Nairobi. The Mombasa Institute of Muslim
Education was already in existence, having been established in 1948 to provide technical
and vocational education to Muslim students in East Africa, later it became Mombasa
Polytechnic in 1972. In 1961, the Kenya Polytechnic was established to provide basic
craft courses, which were phased out after 1966 following the introduction of similar
courses in technical and vocational schools (McLeanand & Kamau, 1999).
Today over twenty training institutions and two hundred youth polytechnics have
been established since then to train engineering among other discipline. After the
independence to 1984 graduate of engineering was directly absorbed to the job market,
there was greater demand of the skilled personnel in this sector. After 1984 and with
introduction of 8-4-4 system of education gave rise to new challenges to training of
engineers in Kenya. To counteract the challenges the Kenya government comes up with
Kenya Education Sector Support Programme (KESSP). Despite engineering training in
Kenya since then, the consumers of the Technician engineering graduates holds that the
skills learnt in training institutions are not adequate to the needs of labour market.
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2.2.3 Training Process in TVET-Engineering
The major issue that concerns TVET engineering subsector in the world is its
effectiveness in promoting the people’s livelihood. The key concern in Kenya and other
developing nations is how to cater for high population growth and encourages
participation in engineering and technology. The Science, Technology and Innovation
Bill, 2012 enacted by an act of parliament of Kenya (Republic of Kenya, 2013), addresses
the need to focus on science, engineering and technology. To this end the training
institutions are mandated to equip their graduates with relevant and up-to date skills as
per the labour market needs.
The Kenya Vision 2030 which is anchored science, technology and innovation
(Republic of Kenya , 2007) expects TVET to provide the bedrock for the transformation
of requisite human resource skills for technological and industrial transformation that will
lead to increased wealth and social wellbeing as well as enhancement of the country’s
international competitiveness (MoHEST, 2008). In order to realize the goal, Kenya
government and stakeholders in education has continuously endeavored to support the
TVET through the Kenya Education Sector Support Programme (Republic of Kenya,
2005b). Despite the efforts by the Kenya government a skill mismatch has been evident
between the skills imparted by TVET system and those demanded by the labour market.
This mismatch has been worsening in recent years with the integration of the advanced
technologies especially in engineering professional. When rising demand for skills is not
met by supply, the result is a persistent shortage of skilled labour and constrained growth.
Studies conducted in countries in Africa reveals that large numbers of
engineering graduates coming out of the formal school system are unemployed, although
opportunities for skilled workers do exist in the economy. This situation has brought into
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sharp focus the mismatch between training and labour market skill demands. Critics argue
that the lack of inputs from prospective employers into curriculum design and training
delivery are partly responsible for the mismatch (Akplu & Amankrah, 2008). Others
researcher such as Biggs, (2005) base the problem of skills mismatch to weak policy
framework. Hoyt (2006) argues that skills mismatch is attributed by lack of teaching and
learning infractustures in training instituions. Further investigation is therefore necessary
to determine the actual factors contributing to the mismatch. Bolaane, Chuma, Toteng and
Molwane (2010), advocates that this requires understanding the needs of the labour
market followed by communicating these industries requirements to the Government and
TVET official actors to enable in the development of future skills and career development
policies. Narrowing the gap between education and the world of work is thus a priority in
Kenya so as to engage the ever increasing population into productive livelihoods.
2.2.4 Employability of TVET graduates
The term employability has gained prominence of late because of the changing
world of work. Employability is used interchangeably with other terms such as core
skills, key skills, generic skill and common skills. To Grip, Loo and Sanders (2009)
employability skills are the skills required to acquire and retain a job, including job-
specific skills, academic skills, attitudes and habits. Communication, problem solving and
management skills are also important. According to Nugroho, Nizam, Rahmat and
Handayani (2012, p.83) employability is ‘the ability to gain initial employment, maintain
employment, make ‘transitions’ between jobs and roles within the same organization to
meet new job requirements, and obtain new employment if required’ It follows that the
concept of employability refers to the ability of a Technician engineering graduate gain
initial employment, maintain employment, make transition and secure new employment if
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required. The employability of a TVET graduate in manufacturing and construction
industry will be determined by looking at graduates’ labour market history for over two
years since the time of completion of studies.
According to Borghans and De Grip (2000), employability is a shared
responsibility of government, training institution, the firm and the individual. The concept
of employability in the 21st century has thus become a tool for realizing company goals.
An employable worker provides the organisation with extra flexibility, which allows
firms to react and adjust faster to changes. This is hardly a luxury anymore, since
technological and organisational developments as well as increased competition demand
an employable workforce
2.2.5 Skills Shortage
Kenya has a total of 281 registered consulting engineers, 1,358 professional
engineers and 5,689 registered graduate engineers summing up to 7,328 engineers against
the international benchmark which requires Kenya to have 68,000 engineers for the
current population of over 40 million (World Bank, 2007).TVET is mandated to
encourage self-employment while at the same time producing skilled artisans, craftsman,
technicians and technologist for both formal and informal sectors at the ratio of one
technologist to thirty technicians/craftsman/artisans (1:30) (MoHEST & K.I.E, 2010). In
reference to skills inventory studies conducted by MoHEST (2009) the existing workers
as at 2010 in the field of engineering were: 27,869 Artisans, 138,816 Craftsmen, 163,026
Engineering Technician with Ordinary Diploma and 8664 Engineering Technicians with
Higher Diploma. In total the number of trained technician engineer workers available to
the economy as at 2010 were 306,341.This is far below the recommended national output
inventory of skilled personnel as at 2010 which ought to be over one million technician
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workers, thus as existing gap of over 700,000 skilled technician engineer workers in the
current labour market (EBK, 2011).
The dismal number of engineers and technician engineer workers in Kenya has been
attributed by low enrollment in TVET programme (Republic of Kenya, 2005a), poor
perception on Technician engineering training that they lead to manual jobs (Simiyu,
2009), lack of role models in the TVET engineering careers (Kitainge, 2009). This are not
the only factors that influence employability of technician engineers, there are many more
that requires to be dicumented and come –up with effective strategies to solve the issue.
The existing gap of skilled workers shows a need to invest more in Technician
engineering training to meet the recommended annual output. The figures do not reflect
the growth in the informal sector which is a heavy consumer of Technician engineering
graduates. Despite lack of adequate projection, it is expected that informal sector will
require a similar amount of qualified personnel as the formal sector. This requires
expansion of opportunities and shifting TVET from its current emphasis on low quality
learning opportunities, to a contributing role for the development of essential skills
necessary to support the attainment of Vision 2030 goals.
2.3 Empirical Studies of Training and Employability
The concept of employability affects both developed and developing countries, in
Asia for instance the unemployment rate increased from 5.6 percent in 2007 to 6.2
percent in 2010 (ILO, 2011).This has created a highly competitive environment for young
people aged 15-24 years, youth unemployment rates has risen from : 8 percent in 2007 to
12.7 percent in 2011 (ILO, 2012). Various empirical studies have been conducted to
address the issue of training and employability in developed and developing nations.
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In June 2005, the Botswana Training Authority (BOTA) conducted a tracer study
to look at the types of employment activities that vocational training graduates do as well
as to get their opinion about their education in the light of their employment experience.
The study adopted qualitative approach and considered only the opinions of the
institutions and concluded that Botswana’s vocational training system do not produce
readily employable skilled graduates (BOTA, 2006). The findings of this study
necessitated another tracer study on the employment outcomes of the vocational training
graduates by Bolaane, Chuma, Toteng, & Molwane (2010). The purpose was to establish
employment outcomes of the vocational training graduates of BOTA accredited
institutions. This study used a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches and
targeted 1080 graduates, 100 trainers and 50 employers, and adopted employability model
as a conceptual benchmark. The main survey instruments were a closed format
questionnaire for graduates and semi structured questionnaires for key informants.
Based on their findings Bolaane, Chuma, Toteng, & Molwane (2010),
recommended an audit of skills required by the employment sector. The study generalized
all areas of training in relation to employment and assumed that the unemployed
graduates were due to lack of relevant skills. In reference to Job market signaling theory
the study did not consider other factors such as labour market and perception that could
affects the employment outcome of the vocational training graduates. Despite revealing a
skill mismatch, the study does not specify the skills and traits the employers consider
important when hiring Technician engineering graduates. The employability model used
as conceptual benchmark did not draw a line between employment and employability.
Being employed means having a job and being employable means having the qualities
needed to maintain a job and progress at the work place.
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A research article by Waithanji (2002) focusing on skill training opportunities for
females in Technical Education Programmes (TEP) in Kenya reveals the fact that labour
markets have become so competitive that Technician engineering graduates need to be
assisted to enter such markets. The research article adopted informal interviews and
questionnaires to collect data that were analysed within the framework of human capital
theory. The study reveals 35% of engineering student’s failure in at least two subjects in
their final examination, with graduation rate standing at 46% of males and 69% of the
female students. The study shows that 23% of the engineering students change their
career to non engineering related courses for reasons not known. The study concludes
TVET institutions are internally inefficient, with endogenous factors forcing trainees out
of the training programmes. The study however does not point out these endogenous
factors neither does it trace the employability of the TEP graduates.
Kazilan, Hamzah and Bakar (2009) conducted a descriptive study on employability
skills among the students of TVET in Malaysia. The purpose of the evaluation was to
investigate the level of employability skills among the students of TVET institutions.
About 436 final year students from the institution were randomly sampled. The data was
collected by questionnaires which was adapted from Secretary’s Commission on
Achieving Necessary Skills. Descriptive analysis, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and t-
test were used to analyze the data. The finding showed that the 93% of the respondents
a