［ 87 ］

高垣 俊之　尾道市立大学／教授TAKAGAKI Toshiyuki

岩井 千秋　広島市立大学／教授IWAI Chiaki

Teaching English in English: A Case Study at a Public University in Japan(1)

　Toshiyuki Takagaki & Chiaki Iwai

1. IntroductionTeaching English in English (TEE) has been one of the hot issues in English education in Japan for the past decade or so. In 2003, Action

Plan to Cultivate “Japanese with English Abilities” (MEXT, 2003) proposed that most English classes be conducted in English. Six years

later, MEXT, or the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology, revised the Course of Study for Senior High

Schools in which it stated that English classes should be taught in English in principle (MEXT, 2009). Likewise, MEXT aims to introduce

this English-only instruction policy in junior high schools in the near future (MEXT, 2013). When it comes to TEE at universities, it is up to

each institution to what extent English should be used as a medium of instruction. However, given what is happening in secondary education,

it is opportune to examine the state of TEE in university English classes.

There are a number of studies which discussed the effectiveness of TEE. For example, Auerbach (1993) claims that exclusion of stu-

dents’ L1 is not recommended, saying that using students’ L1 helps reduce anxiety and enhance the affective environment for learning. Turn-

bull (2001), on the other hand, discourages ESL teachers to use students’ L1 because they tend to overuse it. In Korea where English-only

policy has been implemented in 2000 (Kwon, 2009), Macaro & Lee (2013) report that many elementary school pupils and university students

are against the exclusion of their mother tongue.

In Japan, research on the medium of instruction at tertiary level has been activated in the wake of the high school English curriculum

revision. For instance, it is reported that many students are in favor of English-only instruction (e.g., Hayashi, 2010; Berger, 2011), and Sato

& Koga (2012) also revealed that students’ willingness of communication had improved due to TEE. Although English teachers need to con-

sider a range of factors including the situation for using English (e.g., Uenishi, 2016), students’ preferences for Japanese use (e.g., Carson &

Kashihara, 2012; Carson, 2016), and students’ English levels (e.g., Carson & Kashihara, 2012; Carson, 2016; Fujimura-Wilson, 2016), it is

generally agreed that the higher the students’ English proficiency levels are, the more they are in favor of English-only instruction. Also, the

more complicated or abstract the teaching contents become, the more the students are likely to feel the need for Japanese.

Based on the previous research, it is important for us to search for the right way, if any, of using English as a medium of instruction both

in quality and quantity, which suits individual contexts (Lee, 2013). Such inquiries are necessary because TEE is interrelated with various

local factors, such as course purposes, teaching materials, class size, and learners’ interests and motivation, all of which vary from university

to university.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the state of TEE at a public university in Japan. The following three research questions (RQs)

are posited so that we can address the issue of TEE from multiple-perspectives.

RQ1. What do students think of TEE?

RQ2. What do English teachers think of TEE?

RQ3. What is actually happening in English classes?

2. MethodsThe answer for RQ1 was sought through the questionnaire surveys which were administered, in early May and late July, in both 2014

and 2015 during the first semester at a public university in the western part of Japan. The participants were enrolled in Freshman English (FE)

classes which aim to improve their communicative skills in English. 157 students participated in the 2014 survey and 146 students participat-

ed in the 2015 survey, 305 students in total. Of these students, 97 students were art majors, 106 students, literature majors, and 102 students,

social science majors. By gender, 105 students were males, and 198 students females. Concerning students’ English levels, more than 90 per-

cent of the students evaluated their English proficiency below 539 on the TOEIC®. In other words, the vast majority are considered as low-in-

termediate or basic levels (see Appendix 1).

［ 88 ］

The instrument used in this survey is a questionnaire. The first half of the questionnaire contains items asking students’ English learn-

ing backgrounds. The second half of the questionnaire comes from Students’ Preferences for Instructional Languages (SPIL) developed by

Carson (2014). It was translated into Japanese with some minor modifications, and it consists of 40 multiple-choice items in a 5-point Likert

scale format asking students’ preferences and expectation for teachers’ support in L1 (Japanese). These 40 items are classified into 7 factor

categories by the SPIL developer (see Appendix 2).

As for RQ2, one of the two instructors of the FE classes was interviewed by the first author of this study (the researcher hereafter) in

October, 2014. This instructor is a native speaker of English who teaches 8 sections out of 10 for the course. The interview was conducted in

a semi-structured format with 28 pre-set questions which are mainly about their use of English and Japanese in the classroom (see Appendix 3).

The interview lasted for approximately half an hour, and it was recorded and later transcribed by the interviewer. Prior to the interview, the

instructor filled in a background information questionnaire.

Regarding RQ3, the researcher observed the instructor’s class in November, 2014. During the 90-minute class, the researcher videotaped

her class and took notes. The recorded data were later transcribed and analyzed using Communicative Orientation of Language Teaching Ob-

servation Scheme (COLT) developed by Spada & Frӧlich (1995) (see Appendix 4).

3. Results3.1 Results of the questionnaire survey

　The analysis outcomes concerned with RQ1 are summarized from Table 1 to Table 5. Table 1 shows to what degree students want their

English teacher to use Japanese. In the May survey, the most frequent response was “20%” which constitutes slightly more than half of the

respondents (53.6%), followed by “40%” (20.4%), “0%” (11.5%), “60%” (7.2%), “80%” (5.6%), and “100%” (1.6%). The July survey also

found “20%” (44.9%) the most frequent, followed by “40%” (28.9%), “60%” (13.3%), “0%” (6.6%), “80%” (6.0%), and “100%” (0.3%).

The result of a Wilcoxon signed-ranks Test revealed there was a significant difference between the May survey and the July survey (Z=-3.786,

p

［ 89 ］

Table 3. Students’ Preferred Amount of the Use of Japanese According to English Levels

　 　 0% support 20% support 40% support 60% support 80% support 100% support Total

［ 90 ］

Table 6. SPIL 7 Factors

　 M SD Mean difference t-value p

F1May 2.755 .8134

.0393 .890 .374July 2.716 .8137

F2May 3.614 .7326

.0305 .788 .431July 3.584 .6919

F3May 3.502 .5785

-.0239 -.841 .401July 3.526 .5815

F4May 3.914 .7700

.0282 .625 .532July 3.886 .8022

F5May 3.154 .7338

.0413 1.068 .286July 3.113 .7333

F6 May 3.768 .7875

-.0164 -.381 .703July 3.784 .7539

F7May 2.873 .7851

.0439 .928 .354July 2.829 .8174

3.2 Results of the teacher interview and class observation

The data concerned with RQ2 are the instructor’s teaching background. According to the background questionnaire, the instructor earned

her MA in applied linguistics in her home country, and has taught English for 16 years in Japan. She has been teaching English at a university

for two and a half years, mainly using self-made materials for speaking. She is highly proficient in Japanese equivalent to level 3 on the Inter-

agency Language Roundtable scale, meaning she has professional working proficiency in Japanese.

Next, Table 7 briefly summarizes the interview data on the teacher’s use of Japanese and English in the class.

Table 7. Use of Japanese and English in Class

Use of Japanese

1) I do not use Japanese in class, but may use it on an individual basis if necessary.

2) Basic knowledge of Japanese is necessary, because students ask questions in Japanese or mix Japanese with English.

3) If I use Japanese, students have less listening practice.

Use of English

4) I use English because I should be a model English speaker.

5) I try to keep my English as natural as possible.

6) When students don’t understand, I suggest they use a smartphone to check, and try to rephrase as much as possible and use lots of gestures.

7) Using English is hard for the students with low confidence.

8) Using English as much as possible is essential not only for high school but also university English education.

The data concerned with RQ3, which were coded using COLT, are given in Table 8 and 9. Table 8 shows participant organization and con-

tent. In terms of participant organization, 64% (9 out of 14 instances) was teacher-to-student/class interaction (T-S/C), while 36% (5 out of 14

instances) was student-student/class interaction (S-S/C)(4). In terms of content, 15% (2 out of 13 instances) was procedure, while 85% (11 out

of 13 instances) was function.

Table 8. Participant Organization & Content

Participant organization Content

T-S/C: 9 (64%)S-S/C: 5 (36%)

Procedure: 2 (15%)Function: 11 (85%)

N.B.: T-S/C=teacher-to-student/class interaction 　 S-S/C=student-student/class interaction

Lastly, Table 9 shows content control, student modality, and language choice. As seen under content control, Teacher/Text, in which the

teacher asks questions based on a textbook the students have read, made up of 54% (7 out of 13 instances). Teacher/Text/Student, in which

the teacher selects the task and the students have some choice and freedom, constituted 46% (6 out of 13 instances). When it comes to student

modality, speaking made up of 86% (6 out of 7 instances) and listening constituted 14% (1 out of 7 instances). Finally, language choice by

the teacher was exclusively English.

［ 91 ］

Table 9. Content Control, Student Modality & Language Choice

Content control Student modality Language choice

Teacher/Text: 7 (54%)Teacher/Text/Student: 6 (46%)

Speaking: 6 (86%)Listening: 1 (14%)

L2: 14 (100%)

4. DiscussionRQ1: What do students think of TEE?

Students’ preferred amount of teachers’ use of Japanese was statistically weakened over time, suggesting that students seemed to become

used to TEE as they studied. It should be noted that the most frequent response was “20%” use of Japanese and the second frequent was “40%”

both in May and July. This means that many respondents still recognized the usefulness and efficacy of Japanese.

The students’ desirability of TEE has also indicated a positive sign. That is, it has become slightly stronger over the semester. Concurrent-

ly, we should keep an eye on the fact that more than half of the students, including who said “neither,” did not mark TEE as desirable both

in May and July. As Table 4 shows, this undesirability is salient among students whose TOIEC® score is less than 540. Hence, strict or unso-

phisticated implementation of TEE may not be a good idea when students’ English levels are mostly at basic or low-intermediate.

As for motivation, a little more than half of the respondents agree or strongly agree that TEE motivates them to study English. The point

to ponder, for the time being, is whether or not we could somehow turn the students who said “neither,” the second most frequent response

(33.3%), into “agree” or “strongly agree.”

Finally, the data of 7 factors indicate that students feel the need for Japanese when the teaching is focused on the content. On the other

hand, they appear to feel more comfortable in TEE as long as the teaching is not so centered around the content. This finding is along the

same line with Carson’s study (2016).

In summary, TEE seems to be effective to some degree. In the meantime, some kind of Japanese assistance should be provided, particu-

larly for those with low English proficiency. Thus, the instructor is recommended to use Japanese whenever necessary and appropriate until

the students become accustomed to TEE. As Carson (2016) comments, teachers might want to use English chiefly in the non-content area,

and gradually start dealing with the content in English as they incorporate communication strategies into teaching. Doing so and other related

adjustments will hopefully lead students to forming a more positive perception toward TEE in terms of desirability and motivation.

RQ2: What do English teachers think of TEE?

The instructor is a native speaker of English with extensive experiences of teaching English in Japan. Though she is highly proficient in

Japanese, she believes that using Japanese hinders students from being exposed to English. In her opinion, she should be a model English

speaker and speak natural English. When students do not understand her, she tries to rephrase and use lots of gesture. In short, she is an advo-

cate for TEE.

The instructor points out that the students are not willing to communicate partly because of their lack of confidence. If so, she is encour-

aged to use students’ L1 when necessary because the use of L1 helps lower students’ anxiety and boost their confidence (Auerback, 1993),

though some students might take advantage of using Japanese when they could have attempted to speak English (Lee, 2013).

Taking the results concerned with RQ1 into consideration, English teachers who support TEE strongly may need to loosen up the En-

glish-only approach according to the situations, and be more flexible toward speaking Japanese in class, especially when they deal with the

content area.

RQ3: What is actually happening in English classes?

T-S/C was dominant, indicating interaction between teacher and students frequently occurred by the instructor’s initiatives. With respect

to content, the instructor was mainly teaching emphatic expressions (i.e., function), using a handout. When it comes to language choice, she

spoke English all through the class. This English-only instruction matches with her comments in the interview. It was also confirmed that she

spoke clearly using gestures effectively to make sure students understand her.

One thing that drew the researcher’s attention while observing the class was that some students often chatted in Japanese. During the pair

or group work (S-S/C), those students spoke English when the instructor came; however once she moved to a different pair or a group, they

switched from English to Japanese. This language shift suggests that teacher’s use of English alone does not make them speak English. A

number of factors are involved with this phenomenon, such as the students’ English level, motivation, low confidence, and so forth. However,

one of the biggest causes for this language switch appears to be the class size. The class was over 30 students, which is rather big for a com-

［ 92 ］

municative-oriented class.

It is essential for teachers to look at English-only instruction from the viewpoint of how to maximize the students’ opportunities to commu-

nicate in English (Turnbull, 2001; MEXT, 2009). To do so, small classes are better suited for TEE than large classes. At the same time, it is

important to explore how to form right groups or stream sections for the course in relation to TEE. To start with, 540 points or so on TOEIC®

can be a reasonable cut-off point in forming a section judging from Table 3 and 4.

5. Conclusion This case study examined TEE at a public university by gathering data from students, a teacher, and class observation. The findings include:

1) Students seem to get used to English-only instruction over time, although they are still likely to need some kind of Japanese assistance; 2)

the instructor is a native speaker of English with high Japanese skills, but doesn’t use Japanese in principle in class; 3) some students often

chatted in Japanese while being taught in English.

Three limitations should be mentioned concerning this study (5). First, no student interview was conducted. This data could have made it

possible to analyze the survey results more deeply. Secondly, the class was observed only once. More class visits would have given us a

better picture of what was taking place in the classroom. Thirdly, it is essential to investigate how English-only instruction actually affects

students’ English performance over time instead of relying on their self-rated proficiency.

If TEE is fully implemented at secondary education level in the future, university English courses should be more sensitive to meet the

students’ needs and interests. For now, it is fair to conclude that teachers principally should teach English in English, but may use Japanese if

necessary. The appropriate timing to use Japanese, as well as how and how much Japanese to use, is something that individual teachers need

to figure out by keeping various local factors and constraints into account, and identifying these factors is a remaining research question of

the present study.

AcknowledgementsThe authors heartedly would like to thank teachers and students who participated in this study.

Notes1. This study, part of 5-year comprehensive research, is supported by JSPS’s Grant-in-Aid (B) (PI: Chiaki Iwai, No. JP26284080). Iwai, C.

(Hiroshima City University) is in charge of data processing and data analysis, and Takagaki, T. (Onomichi City University) is in charge of

data collection and data analysis.

2. Since the cases of 60%, 80%, and 100% support were not so many, the chi-square analysis was conducted by altering the table to 4 x 5 (i.e.,

4 proficiency levels x 5 support categories) (0%, 20%, 40%, and more than 60%).

3. Due to the fewer number of cases in some categories, the chi-square analysis was conducted by altering the table to 4 x 3 (i.e., 4 proficien-

cy groups x 3 response categories of “very desirable + desirable”, “neither”, and “undesirable + absolutely no.”)

4. Teacher-to-student/class interaction refers to one central activity led by the teacher, whereas student-student/class interaction refers to one

central activity led by a student or students (Spada & Fröhlich, 1995).

5. The first two limitations are to be addressed in this 5-year research project.

ReferencesAuerback, E. R. (1993). Reexaming English-only in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 27 (1), 9-32.

Berger, M. (2011). English-only policy for all? Case of a university English class in Japan. Polyglossia, 20, 27-43.

Carson, E. (2015). Introducing a new scale: Student preferences for instructional language (SPIL). JACET Chugoku-Shikoku Chapter Re-

search Bulletin, 12, 19-36.

Carson, E. (2016). EFL student L1 preference changes: Proficiency and time. In P. Clements, A. Krause, & H. Brown (Eds.), Focus on the

Learner, 1-9. Tokyo: JALT.

Carson, E. & Kashihara, H. (2012). Using the L1 in the L2 classroom: The students speak. The Language Teacher, 36 (4), 41-48.

Fujimura-Wilson, K. (2016). Code-switching in Japanese EFL classrooms: Student expectations towards their language environment in En-

glish classroom at university. JACET Chugoku-Shikoku Chapter Research Bulletin, 12, 89-106.

Hayashi, C. (2010). The Classroom Language of Japanese College English Teachers: Students’ view. Kankeisei no Kyoikugaku, 9 (1), 44-55.

［ 93 ］

Lee, P. (2013). ‘English only’ language instruction to Japanese university students in low-level speaking & listening classes: An action re-

search project, Bulletin of Keiwa College, 22,1-30.

Macaro, E. & Lee, J.H. (2013). Teacher language background, codeswitching, and English –only instruction: Does age make a difference to

learners’ attitudes? TESOL Quarterly, 47 (4), 717-742.

MEXT. (2003). Action Plan to Cultivate “Japanese with English Abilities.” http://www. mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo3/004/

siryo/04031601/005.pdf

MEXT. (2008). Elementary School Course of Study for Foreign Language Activities. http://nanyo-kj.esnet.ed.jp/ Page04/gakusyu/shou/shou-

kaisetsu/gaikokugo.pdf

MEXT. (2009). Senior High School Course of Study for Foreign Languages. http://www.mext.go.jp/ a_menu/shotou/new-cs/youryou/kou/

kou.pdf

MEXT. (2013). English Education Reform Plan for Globalization. http:// www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/kokusai/gaikokugo/__icsFiles/afield-

file/2014/01/31/1343704_01.pdf

Kwon, O. (2009). The current situations and issues of the teaching English in Korea. Ritsumeikan Studies in Language and Culture, 21(2),

21-34.

Spada, N. & Fröhlich, M. (1995). COLT: Communicative Orientation of Language Teaching Observation Scheme. National Centre for En-

glish Language Teaching and Research, Macquarie University.

Uenishi, K. (2016). University students’ views of teachers’ English use in EFL classes. JACET Chugoku-Shikoku Chapter Research Bulletin,

12, 19-32.

Turnbull, M. (2001). There is a role for the L1 in second and foreign language teaching, but … The Canadian Modern Language Review, 8,

143-154.

Appendix 1Students’ English Levels

　 　

［ 94 ］

4. The questions below concern English classes at university, and you are asked to what extent you agree with each of the statements be-

low. Please use the scale below in answering. (Cited from Carson, 2015)

● In English class in general, you prefer: Answer

1 That your teacher knows and understands Japanese.

2 That your teacher can answer your questions in Japanese if you don’t know how to ask or understand the answer in English.

3 That a native English-speaking teacher has been successful at learning Japanese because he or she can be a good model for me.

4That a native English-speaking teacher has been successful at learning Japanese because he or she can know where your problems will be.

5 That your teacher uses Japanese in class because it helps your learn English

6 That you can use Japanese in English class to help you learn English

● In the English class that you are taking now, you prefer your teacher to use Japanese to:

7 Define new vocabulary.

8 Compare different words that seem similar (for example, “accident” and “incident”).

9 Show when a word has more than one meaning.

10 Introduce new phrases.

11 Introduce new slang and casual expressions.

12 Introduce new grammar.

13 Translate sentences exemplifying grammar points from English to Japanese.

14 Translate sentences exemplifying grammar points from Japanese to English.

15 Show when English words or phrases match Japanese words or phrases.

16Explain when English words or phrases are different from Japanese words or phrases which seem similar (for example, “have a cold” should be translated 風邪をひいている rather than 風邪を持って ).

● In the English class that you are taking now, you prefer your teacher to use Japanese to:

17Show how borrowed words have a different meaning in English. (For example, “ スマート” in Japanese does not mean “thin” in English.).

18 Review the major points of the previous lesson.

19 Review vocabulary or expressions already learned.

20 Review words with more than one meaning.

21 Review borrowed words.

22 Review slang and casual expressions.

23 Give instructions about reports or exams.

24 Help you when you do not understand English words.

［ 95 ］

25 Help you when you do not understand the teacher’s explanation.

26 Help you when you want to ask questions but do not know the right English words.

27 Help you when you want to answer questions but don’t know the right English words.

28 Check your understanding of important assignments.

29 Check your understanding about test-taking procedures (for example, if you can use notes).

30 Check your understanding about test instructions and format (for example, multiple choice or open-ended format).

31 Tell you when you have done something well.

32 Help you feel more comfortable.

33 Help you feel more confident.

34 Help you feel less tense.

35 Help you feel less lost.

36 Joke in class.

37 Talk about English-language cultures.

38 Talk about famous English-speaking celebrities.

39 Talk about social issues in foreign societies.

40 Compare cultural differences between Japanese- and English-language societies.

SPIL & 7 Factors

Factor Question items

F1 Control of students’ emotions 31, 32, 33, 34, 35

F2 Language instruction 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

F3 Teachers’ ability of using Japanese 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

F4 Checking students’ understanding about class 23, 28, 29, 30

F5 Review of previous lessons 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22

F6 Comprehension of teachers’ instruction 24, 25, 26, 27

F7 Culture and society 36, 37, 38, 39, 40

Appendix 3Interview questions for teachers

Categories

Ⅰ. Teachers’ English background & current English use1. How and where did you first learn (or acquire) English?

2. (To non-Japanese English teachers) Have you experienced living for long periods of time in any other countries different from your coun-

try of origin (excluding Japan)? If yes, how long and where? Do you think that these experiences have affected your English? If so, how?

3. (To non-Japanese English teachers) Do you feel that living in Japan has affected your English use or given it any distinct characteristics?

If so, how?

4. (To Japanese English teachers) Have you been to an English speaking country or countries for long periods of time? If yes, how long and

where? Do you think that your experience of staying overseas has affected your English? If so, how?

5. Which variety (or dialect) of English would you say you use now? (And why do you think so?)

6. Do you ever think or worry about attrition of your English abilities? Explain.

Ⅱ. Classes taught by participants7. …You have mixed-level students?

8. What percentage of Japanese do you usually use in your English class?

［ 96 ］

9. Please describe the classes that you teach in terms of their overall objectives and the targeted language skills. I am sure you wrote it in the

syllabus.

10. Please describe the classes that you teach in terms of the ratio of male/female students and also the majors of students in these classes.

Roughly.

11. What do you find most difficult about teaching Japanese students?

12. What do you find most enjoyable about teaching Japanese students, if any?

Ⅲ. Japanese use in class13. Do you use Japanese in your classes? Why or why not?

14. In what situations do you tend to use Japanese in class? Giving instructions, teaching vocabulary or grammar, etc. What is your purpose

for using Japanese in these situations?

15. Do you think you should know Japanese? Why or why not?

16. Do you think you should use Japanese in class? Why or why not?

17. What do you think is good about using Japanese in English class?

18. What do you think is bad about using Japanese in English class?

Ⅳ. English use in class & strategies for instruction19. Do you think you or yourself should use English in class? Why or why not?

20. If you use English in class, do you intentionally control or modify your English use in class in any way? If so, how?

21. When students don’t understand your English, or can’t think of the English words to ask or answer a question, what do you do?

22. Do you use any other strategies to help students understand your English?

23. What do you think is good about using English in class?

24. What do you think is bad using English in class?

Ⅴ. Opinion of new “English-in-English” course of study.25. Have you heard about the Monkasho’s new policy for English in high schools to be taught, in principle, “in English”? What do you think

about this policy?

26. What do you think about applying this policy to university English education?

27. Do you think that “English-only” is desirable? Explain.

Ⅵ. Wrap-upIs there anything else you would like to say about using English or Japanese in English classes?

Appendix 4COLT’s codes

1. Participant organization

・Class: T⇔ S/C. S⇔ S/C. Choral・Group: Same task. Different task

・Individual: Same task. Different task

2. Content

・Management: Procedure. Discipline

・Language: Form. Function. Discourse. Sociolinguistics

3. Content control

Teacher/Text. Teacher/Text/student. Student

4. Student modality

Listening. Speaking. Reading. Writing. Other

5. Language choice

L1. L2