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Teaching English

in China

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Contents

Preface & China TEFL Network

Unit 1 Introduction to TEFL Teaching in China

Unit 2 Preparing to Teach in China

Unit 3 Adapting to Living in China

Unit 4 Some Characteristics of the Chinese People

Unit 5 Difficulties Chinese Students Face Learning English

Unit 6 Language Teaching Methodology

Unit 7 Planning Your Lessons

Unit 8 Teaching Pronunciation & Word & Sentence Stress

Unit 9 Teaching Vocabulary

Unit 10 Grammar and Sentence Construction

Unit 11 Using Traditional & Functional Grammar

Unit 12 Writing & Some Motivating Activities

Unit 13 Teaching Reading& Listening

Unit 14 Teaching Communication to Lower Levels

Unit 15 Teaching Communication to Higher Levels

Unit 16 Teaching Young Learners

Unit 17 Listening Activities for Children

Unit 18 Using Stories and Drama Techniques

Unit 19 Using Music in the Classroom

Unit 20 Using Pictures and Video

Unit 21 Managing the TEFL Classroom

Unit 22 Appropriate Classroom Language

Unit 23 Entering & Leaving P. R. China

Unit 24 Chinese Laws and Regulations

Unit 25 China’s Policy on Religion

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Preface

Teaching English in China is designed as a course manual/reader for a certificate training

program for novice Anglophone TEFL English teachers intending to teach at secondary schools,

colleges and universities in China. It is a comprehensive presentation of foreign language

teaching and learning theory combined with up-to-date classroom teaching methods and model

lesson plans. It provides a solid foundation to teachers with little or no formal background in

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL). Teaching English in China should also be of

benefit to experienced TEFL teachers as it includes the latest research into teaching English to

those whose native language is not English and, especially, those whose mother tongue is

Chinese.

Teaching English in China and the TEFL certificate training program that accompanies it

differs to other TESOL readers and courses as it is mainly focused on teaching English to

Chinese-speaking students in the People’s Republic of China. Other TESOL courses are more

generalized as they deal with teaching in all countries where English is not the native or official

language. As we shall see, however, in Unit 5 of this reader Chinese English learners face

particular linguistic, cognitive, methodological and cultural difficulties which are unique to

those whose native language is Chinese.

The methods, principles, and strategies outlined in this book prepare teachers to cope

effectively with the array of pedagogical challenges they may encounter in the classroom. This

reader also includes the legal requirements for working and living in China as well as some

advice on how to adapt to Chinese culture and society and make the most out of your time in

China. The main focus of this book, however, is to propose methods and strategies that will

bring out the best in TEFL Teachers and their students in terms of teaching and learning

English in the specific context of the Chinese classroom.

China TEFL Network sincerely hopes this teaching manual will provide some assistance

to those who are devoted to teaching TEFL in China and that it enriches their teaching

experience as well further contributes to the English language competencies of their students.

Englon TEFL Network

Englon TEFL has played a significant role in internationalizing education and has been in

the forefront of raising educational standards and improving student access to quality education

in China. Englon TEFL has provided a bridge between educational institutions and

professionals around the world through its association and direct partnership with one of the

most prestigious universities in China, Zhejiang University. Englon TEFL has established

relationships with over 500 educational institutions and universities around the world.

Englon TEFL has been recruiting teachers, enrolling international students and been

engaged in curriculum and website design and marketing and a number of other strategic

business activities associated with education for the past 14 years in China.

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At the present time, Englon TEFL has established BPO (Business Process Outsourcing)

schools or Base Schools with nearly 500 universities, colleges, middle schools, primary

schools and kindergartens around China. The Englon TEFL website is devoted to offering a

vast database of schools and universities to place teachers，enroll international students and

establish cooperative relationships with foreign educational institutions.

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Unit 1 Introduction to TEFL Teaching in China

Teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) is the name given for those teaching

English to students whose first or native language is not English. TEFL courses are usually

taught in countries where English is not the official language but where there is, nevertheless, a

demand for English language skills due to the fact that we now live in a globalized world and

that the main language used for international commerce, trade and communication is English.

In other words, those living in countries where the native or official language is not English,

realize their chances of having a successful professional career are vastly improved if they

become reasonably fluent in English (Tarone: Spring 2005: 4-6).

In China English is taught as a subject in the state school system and at most private

schools and colleges. There are also many privately-run language schools which teach English

in small groups or on a one-to-one basis. Those who teach TEFL may be native or non-native

speakers of English, although most schools and universities show a preference for native

English speakers. However, in China qualification requirements for TEFL teachers vary, from

province to province and among employers within the same county or province. In some

circumstances, it is possible to teach without a degree or teaching certificate. However, many

of the more prestigious educational institutions in China will consider it desirable to only

employ native speakers with an MA TESOL, a Masters or a PhD, while the majority require a

TESOL certificate or/and a Bachelor’s degree from a university in an English speaking country.

In some cases, majoring in English language and literature can also be of value, as indeed can

any specialist degree. Still other institutions consider a proof of English proficiency, a

university degree and a basic teaching qualification to be more than sufficient.

However, there are a sizeable number of private language schools who focus on

employing those teachers who have good interpersonal skills rather than relying on those who

just have academic qualifications. This is due to the fact that teaching in small groups with just

one student face-to-face requires high interpersonal skills and the ability to inspire students at a

personal level. Also, in the smaller language schools, part of the role of a teacher is to promote

the school and deal with the educational concerns of the parents of the younger and, sometimes,

very young students.

As a general rule most schools tend to prefer qualifications that involve a significant

amount of assessed teaching. Shorter courses and those delivered online often do not or cannot

provide the means to assess a teacher’s performance under classroom conditions. Curriculum

designers and those managing TEFL programs have increasingly recognized the necessity of

including assessable teaching in their courses. Some schools and language institutes have

begun introducing combined TEFL courses which include methods for assessing teaching

performance. As a result, many private language schools are likely to require at least a

certificate based on successful completion of a course consisting of a minimum of 100 hours,

usually including about 6 hours of observed teaching practice.

The most popular and recognized TEFL teacher-training courses are International TESOL,

Trinity's Cert TESOL and the Cambridge's CELTA. Some private language schools require

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teachers to complete additional in-house training programs even if they have a certification

from elsewhere and do not accept external certificates.

One obstacle facing both foreign English teachers and Chinese students alike is the focus

given to understanding and employing the rules of traditional English grammar. Most foreign

nationals who come to teach English in China are either less or not familiar with the rules of

grammar and in particular the grammar system used throughout the Chinese education system

known as the Grammar Translation Method (GTM). Only those from one of the major English

speaking countries that have majored in English literature or possess an internationally

recognized TESOL Certificate will be familiar with GTM as most high schools and universities

in the West use either Systemic Functional Grammar or a version of it. Just to confuse the

picture further many Chinese students are attending English classes at privately administered

English schools in China that may well improve their oral English skills but are unlikely to

help them improve their exam scores as they often use entirely new methods of teaching

English that preclude the teaching of grammar or use another grammatical system altogether.

This reader is based on the fact that most Chinese students are studying English primarily

because it is a subject they have to do well in the Gaokao or the College Entrance Exam in

order to be able to qualify to enroll in a University of their choice. The English exam

component of the College Entrance exam is based on a comprehensive knowledge of the GTM,

writing, reading and written English-Chinese translation skills. There is no oral skills

component. As a result, the teaching methods and strategies outlined in this work and taught in

the accompany course are based on the use of GTM. For those TEFL Teachers who are

teaching Chinese students who plan to complete their studies at a university in one of the major

English speaking countries Unit 11 describes the differences between GTM and SFG while at

the same time, giving a general idea of Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG).

It should be pointed out that GTM is not just a system of grammar but a teaching method

but it is not the method recommended in this reader. The main teaching theory recommended

in this reader is the Communicative Language Teaching method (CLT). While observing the

grammatical rules of the GTM, CLT is primarily focused on language as a medium of

communication and that all meaningful communication occurs in an endless variety of contexts.

Further, CLT promotes the idea of the student-centered classroom and focuses on the language

learning process rather than on the teacher. Rather than using formal dialogues of imaginary

stylized conversations those teachers using CLT try to bring the language and topics of

everyday situations into the classroom. CLT not only encourages more teacher-student

interaction but includes an excellent system for evaluating the fluency level of each student.

However, CLT only suits classes of 25 to 30 or less as it is virtually impossible to organize a

student-centered classroom with over 30 students.

There are many opportunities to teach English in the People's Republic of China. China’s

rapid economic growth and a constant rise in living standards has ensured there is an increasing

demand for English language skills due to the globalization of business, trade and education.

Opportunities exist to teach English from Kindergarten to university level as well as at private

companies that deliver private one-to-one tutoring and at large business enterprises that depend

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on international trade and communication. NGOs, such as Teach For China, provide

opportunities for teaching English as well.

Provincial education officials and the Ministry of Education in Beijing control and

monitor all public schools, while private schools have more freedom to set work schedules, pay,

and qualification and age requirements. Outside of Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou, salaries

range between 3800 to 6000 yuan per month with an average of 4500 yuan. Public schools tend

to offer fewer hours per week (12 to 18) with low pay but free on-campus housing, while

private schools usually require more than 22 hours a week and may offer higher pay without

free housing.

Most schools pay for some travel expenses to and from China, and typically pay

round-trip for a one-year contract (usually 10 months), and one-way for a six-month contract.

Public schools usually pay during vacations, but not for summer break unless the teacher and

the school, college or university agrees to renew the contract. Most private schools have

shorter vacation schedules than public schools and may pay for the number of days allowed for

vacation. Private schools may also require teachers to work weekends and evenings, while

public schools have set working hours.

The only exception is that most public, schools, colleges and universities have what are

known in China as an English Corner where both students and teachers are expected to

converse socially in English. Although, rarely written into a foreign teacher’s contract most

public schools, colleges and universities expect their foreign teachers to attend and take part.

Most English Corners are held on Friday, Saturday or Sunday evening. While participating in

English Corners is not included in the pay, they do provide an ideal meeting place for making

friends and further integrating one’s self into the school and the local community.

Most public schools, colleges and universities provide their foreign teachers with a quite

reasonable apartment which usually has a refrigerator, an electric stove, a television set and a

computer with an internet connection. Most, but not all, private schools outside Beijing,

Shanghai, and Guangzhou also provide accommodation. On occasions, both public and private

schools may hold off-campus activities that require traveling further than usual. However, in

most cases such as this, the school supplies a bus for both the students and the teachers to

travel in or one of the teachers drives you there.

The pay and working conditions of those employed to teach English for the employees of

company or corporation largely depends on the number of employees they want to undergo

English training. They may employ a teacher for one or two classes, or a complete set of 14 to

16 hours a week classes over a six month period. More details in regards to pay,

accommodation and working conditions as well as the necessary documentation and

procedures in order to be employed as a TEFL Teacher in China are the subject of the

following unit.

There are altogether 25 units in this teaching manual. Besides this introduction, the other

twenty three units can be generally divided into three sections. The first section (Units 2, 3, 4 &

5,) are concerned with familiarizing foreign TEFL Teachers with China, its people, its culture,

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the peculiar difficulties Chinese face in learning English and the procedures you have to

observe to be able to legally teach in China. Units 6-22 focus on various methods and

strategies for teaching English to diverse age and English competency groups in China. The

third section (23-25) covers all the rules, laws and regulations Foreign TEFL Teachers need to

observe in entering China and living and working in the country.

Unit 2 Preparing for Teaching in China

Those foreign nationals who have a work contract and obtained permission to work as TEFL

Teachers from the relevant Chinese authorities are advised to prepare for their stay in China by

undertaking a number of activities that will increase their understanding of China, its culture

and its people before they arrive. Many foreign nationals who decide they would like to work

in China have previously visited the country as tourists. They may have visited the major

tourist sites, one or two major cities but only spoken to those who speak fluent English and

whose job it is to attend to the needs of tourists and visitors to China.

While coming to China and mainly visiting the main tourist sites should be a rewarding

experience in itself, in no way can it prepare a foreign national for the experience of living and

working in China. China is a vast country with an ancient cultural heritage that can traced back

20,000 years beyond even the Xia and Shang dynasties to virtually the Neolithic period(Chang:

1963: 11-13 & Li: 2004: 5-7). China is also a country with many varied and extreme

geological and geographic variations from, the highest mountain in the world, the largest

desert in the world, vast grasslands, huge forests and lakes as well as two of the longest rivers

in the world. China, also, has some of the poorest people in the world as well as some of the

richest. Further, China is subject to severe earthquakes, floods, mudslides and blizzards in

which entire counties can be cut of from the rest of the country for a week or more. China’s

size, its geological diversity and its historical legacy have produced a variety of hardy, resilient

yet hospitable people and, as a result, there are many and varied cultural traditions and dialects

to be found in China (Gao:2000: 5-6).

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A foreign national arriving in China with a working visa should make them selves aware

that they have made the decision to live and work with Chinese people for one or more years

in a country where the history, culture, tradition and social system are very different from their

homeland. As long as foreign nationals come with a positive attitude and consciously attempt

to engage with the Chinese people they will be well-rewarded by the positive experiences they

have and the many Chinese people they will come to count as their friends.

Despite China’s rapid economic growth over the past thirty it is still classified as a

developing country: and for good reason. Outside Beijing, Shanghai and a few other first and

second class cities mainly on the east coast, many people in China live just above the official

poverty line and in the poorer inland provinces, some even below the poverty line.

Given the expansion of TEFL teaching it is quite likely you may find yourself teaching at

one of the poorer schools or universities in a rural area of China. Despite their lack of funding

and lower standard of living, the people responsible for looking after foreign teachers in most

small rural schools, colleges and universities are extremely generous and friendly and will

treat you as an honored guest and do their best to make you feel at home. You may find after

you have secured a job in a large wealthier city that you were actually happier teaching

students from a rural village and you may come to realize that your time with them was one of

the most important in their lives. What they may lack in wealth they make up for in

friendliness and warmth.

One way you can prepare for the diversity of experiences you could have in China is

become familiar with Chinese culture through watching Chinese movies in translation,

attending art exhibitions which feature Chinese artists, read some of the famous Chinese poets

in translation, surf the internet and read some of the travel articles in the China Daily and

regularly have a meal at a genuine Chinese restaurant in your neighborhood. You can also try

to begin to learn the Chinese language and, if possible watch China Central Television which

has programs in English that can be seen all around the world. If you want to learn some more

about the locality in which you will be living and teaching you can invite your host institution

to give you a list of material you may find useful.

Besides having to adapt to a new workplace and a new culture and the local people and

surroundings there are some official procedures you have to observe once you have made the

decision to be a TEFL Teacher in China. The first step, of course, is that you have to obtain a

passport and obtain a Letter of Invitation from a prospective employer and then visit the local

Chinese embassy or consulate in your area in order to obtain a visa to work in China. A further

and more detailed explanation of the necessary procedures and the requirements you have to

meet both before you come to China and while you are living and working there are explained

in the later units of this reader. For the moment, however, the procedures you need to follow in

order to procure a teaching position and come and teach in China are outlined below.

(1) The Standard Employment Contract

In order to enter China with a Work or Z Visa, TEFL Teachers have to have completed and

signed what is known as the Standard Employment Contract. The Standard Employment

Contract is issued by China’s State Administration for Foreign Experts Affairs and has been

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translated into English, French, German, Spanish, Japanese and Arabic. The English version

can also be used or translated into languages other than those listed above and it will be

accepted as a legally binding document by the host institution and all relevant authorities.

Please note that:

a) The employment contract shall be completed in writing. Any oral agreement made between

two or more parties will be regarded as invalid under Chinese law.

b) Prospective TEFL Teachers must sign the contract before coming to China. Those who are

currently residing in China must complete and sign the contract before undertaking their

duties.

c) The host institution may stipulate a probation period of 60 days for the foreign expert. In

the probation period, if the host institution finds that foreign expert is in poor health and

lacks the necessary professional ability to carry out their prescribed tasks as stipulated in

the contract the employer can dismiss the employee and cancel the contract.

d) The Standard Employment Contract issued by the State Administration of Foreign Experts

Affairs has a uniform serial number which must be referred to on all occasions when

official identification is necessary.

e) The conditions of employment should clear and unambiguous to both parties. The

attachment has equal validity to the standard employment contract and comprises an

integral part of the contract.

f) The contract including all or any attachments shall take effect after the foreign expert and

the representative of the host institution have signed it.

The foreign expert should discuss any agreement concerning salary and living conditions that

may not be in the standard SAFEA contract before coming to China. Any agreement on salary

or/and working conditions outside those listed in the standard SAFEA contract must appear in

the attached form to the contract.

(2) The Health Clearance Report

Every foreign TEFL teacher has to obtain a document from the Chinese embassy in their home

country known as the Health Report Form. The form stipulates which medical expert will

conduct each medical examination in their country. The examination includes medical proof

that the applicant has not contracted HIV/Aids and a number of other sexually transmitted

diseases.

Problems can arise in meeting the requirements of the Chinese Government’s Health

Clearance Report (HCR) in countries like the UK, Australia and New Zealand which have

their own comprehensive health care systems and have strict procedures they have to adhere to

which are not the same as in China. As a result, you may have to register and pay as a private

patient in order to undertake the various medical tests required by the Chinese Government’s

HCR.

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After the HCR is completed and signed by each relevant medical authority. The foreign

national must then return the completed form to the Chinese embassy. He or she should

receive a copy or a document which demonstrates the health report form was completed which

they can then submit to their educational institution on arrival.

According to Chinese law, the validity period of Medical Examination Record of Aliens is 6

months. Therefore, the foreign experts should pay attention to the time for medical

examination and make sure the Medical Examination Record of Aliens is valid within 30 days

desirable for handling of necessary formalities after entering China. Please note that every

item in the form titled, Medical Examination Record of Aliens, shall be filled in without

blanks.

After entering China, the sanitation and quarantine department of China will determine

whether the Medical Examination Record of Aliens will be accepted by the Ministry of Health

and the relevant authorities.

(3) On Arrival in China

There are a number of procedures that foreign teachers have to after arriving in China. When

arriving on the campus of the school, college or university where you will teach, the foreign

teacher/expert shall provide the following documents to the host institution:

1 A copy of your Curriculum Vitae or Resume;

2 Academic Qualifications;

3 Recommendation letter written by a former supervisor or colleague.

4 Evidence of marital or single status;

5 The Health Report Form or an official document that verifies it.

(4) Foreign Expert’s Certificate

Chinese government requires all the foreign TEFL Teachers recruited by a Chinese institution

whether a school, university or company to work and teach in China should ensure they have a

Foreign Expert Certificate issued by the State Administration for Foreign Experts Affairs

(SAFEA). Holding a Foreign Experts Certificate distinguished teachers and other foreign

professionals from the Occupation Certificate of Aliens acquired by foreign employees from

the department of labor. SAFEA accesses applications for a Foreign Expert Certificate based

on:

■ Valid passport (working visa).

■ Standard Employment Contract signed with the host institution or copy of agreement

between governments or colleges; the contract of dispatch document of the teachers or

managing personnel of schools that specifically enroll children of foreigners; the staff of

the standing body of foreign organizations in China shall have the appointment or dispatch

document issued by the organization.

■ Academic record, qualifications and work experience.

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The term of a Foreign Expert Certificate is one year. If the foreign expert and the host

institution both desire to extend the Certificate and the employment contract, the procedures

for extending the Foreign Expert Certificate shall be handled in the certificate issuing authority

in evidence of the new employment contract.

In cases where the foreign expert has finished working in one host institution and has been

offered employment by another, the original Foreign Expert Certificate will be invalid. The

new host institution shall apply for a new certificate for the foreign expert.

(5) Residency Permit

According to Chinese law, aliens or foreigners who hold a working visa shall apply for a

Residence Permit for Aliens from the Public Security Bureau nearest their place of residency

within 30 days of entry into China. If it exceeds the 30 days allowed, a fine could be imposed.

Permission to qualify for a Residence Permit for of Aliens shall be based on:

■ Valid passport (working visa)

■ Foreign Expert’s Certificate

■ Authentication Certificate issued by the sanitation and quarantine department that confirms

the qualification of Medical Examination Record of Aliens.

Foreign experts should be aware of the expiry date on their residency visa. In cases where you

wish to extend the visa, procedures for extending the residency term shall be handled by the

local Public Security Bureau. Late applications will be subject to a fine according to Chinese

law. When changing their place of residence a foreign resident should contact the local Public

Security Bureau.

According to Chinese law, foreign national should organize their re-entry and residency with

the local Public Security Bureau in advance of leaving China whether permanently or for a

holiday overseas.

(6) Salary and treatment

The salaries of foreign experts are usually paid monthly in RMB from the day of starting date

to the expiration of the contract. In cases where the salary was for a period less than a

calendar month, the payment shall be for the days worked only. The daily wage is 1/30 of the

monthly salary (February will be the same). No more than 70% of the salary can be changed

into foreign currencies monthly. The employed party shall pay the personal income tax in

accord with the Personal Income Tax Law of the People's Republic of China. The starting

amount of taxation is RMB 4801.

The monthly salary for those who hold a Bachelor’s Degree and worked for two years or more

shall be no less than RMB2500. For those who has got a master degree and the working

experience is over three years, the monthly salary shall be around RMB3500. For those who

have obtained a PhD or Doctorate and their working experience exceeds 5 years, the monthly

salary shall be about RMB4000.

(7) Indirect Payment/Living Conditions & Amenities

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The host institution is responsible for providing adequate and appropriate accommodation as

well as the general day-to-day living conditions of the foreign expert while they are under

contract. By accommodation and living conditions, the following are included:

1) Provide lodgings, furniture, bedding, telephone, television, toilet, refrigerator, cooking,

heating and cooling facilities. In most cases, the host institution usually provides a

computer with an online connection so they can stay in touch with friends and family.

2) Provides free medical care can only be provided by a hospital nominated by the host

institution. For other medical services, the costs are usually born by the foreign expert.

3) A transport allowance is usually paid by the employer if the place of work is a reasonably

long way from their accommodation.

(8) Working Hours, Conditions and Holidays

The working times and conditions are as stated in the standard SAFEA contract. However,

foreign teachers coming to teach in China might like some of the statements clarified by giving

specific instances they are or might become familiar with.

1) In cases where the foreign expert has agreed to work overtime, he or she should be

compensated accordingly.

2) Foreign experts shall enjoy the following Chinese holidays and festivals: New Year's Day,

Spring Festival, Labor Day, National Day and other public holidays enjoyed by the

Chinese people.

3) The foreign expert may enjoy such festivals and holidays as the followings according to

other nationalities and religions: two days for Christmas, three days for Butcher Day

(Corban Day), one day for Meat Diet Resume Day and one day for Water- splashing

Festival.

4) The foreign expert may enjoy annual holidays and receive their normal pay where the

contract term of the foreign expert is one calendar year or two semesters. The holiday pay

shall be four weeks. Where the expert works in an educational institution and the contract

term is one academic year, he may enjoy one holiday (winter holiday or summer holiday)

in the institution with payment.

(9) Sick Leave

1) A request for sick leave by the foreign expert shall be approved only by the host institution

and a hospital approved by them. Where the sick leave amount to less than 30 days in one

contract term (one year or one academic year), the foreign expert shall be paid 100% of

the salary. In case the leave exceeds 30 days, the host institution is entitled the right to

dissolve the contract, or if the contract is not dissolved, the salary will be paid by 70%

until the normal work is resumed.

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2) The medical care cost of the foreign expert shall be paid by a hospital appointed by the

host institution except when the employee is engaged in private business.

3) During the term of the contract, the foreign expert shall pay for all medical costs incurred

in Taiwan province, Hong Kong SAR, Macao SAR and anywhere outside China.

(10) Leave to Attend to Private Affairs

If the foreign expert wishes to attend to affairs of a private nature and needs time off work to

do so, they must seek approval from the host institution. If the host institution agrees to a

request for leave to attend to private affairs, they may, in some cases, deduct a portion of the

foreign expert’s salary for the period they are absent. According to the standard SAFEA

contract, leave granted for attending to private matters should not exceed 10 days in any

calendar year. Continuous private affairs leave shall not exceed 3 days. In cases where private

leave exceeds 3 days, two days salary shall be deducted for each extra day.

In cases where the foreign expert took leave without notifying the host institution the

equivalent salary for three days shall be deducted for each day the foreign expert is absent

without notification. When the host institution circumstance regards the frequency with which

the foreign expert takes leave with notification they have the right to dissolve the contract and

investigate the circumstances surrounding the breach of contract and whether or not it

transgresses the criminal law.

.

(11) Dispute Resolution Procedures

Whenever and wherever possible, the host institution and the foreign expert should seek to

resolve any disputes that occur between them and reach a settlement through friendly

consultation.

In cases where consultation is unsuccessful or not effective, the parties may apply for

mediation or arbitration to the Arbitration Committee established by the State Administration

of Foreign Experts Affairs according to the arbitration terms in the standard contract.

In cases where the contract is not a standard contract and has no arbitration terms, only when

the two parties jointly apply for mediation or arbitration can the arbitration committee be

invited to resolve it. The application brought forward by one party alone will not be accepted

and each party may treat it as a legal case and take it to the local court.

(12) Participating in English Corner

Virtually every educational institution that has English classes has what is known in China as a

weekly event or meeting known as English Corner. English Corners are usually held for three

or four hours every week and foreign English teachers are expected to not just attend but take

part in organizing some of the activities. Throughout the period set aside for English Corner

everyone present, including the occasional Chinese local teacher, are expected to speak only in

English. The idea of English Corner is that provides an opportunity for Chinese students to

practice their spoken English in a relaxed and casual atmosphere with native speakers.

However, attendance at English Corner is rarely included in the SAFEA Contract and you do

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not receive any extra pay for taking part. While your school, college or university can’t make

you attend or penalize you if you don’t, they are unlikely to renew your contract if you don’t

attend English Corner on a regular basis.

(13) Insurance in China

Chinese insurance companies cover all kinds of insurance from public to personal insurance.

Foreign experts working in China are advised to purchase the following particularly, if they

drive a car regularly:

1) property insurance;

2) personal accident insurance;

3) vehicle insurance and:

4) employer responsibility insurance

5) public responsibility insurance.

The People's insurance Company of China and other large insurance companies have offices in

Beijing and other major cities in order to cater to the needs of foreign customers.

(14) Medical Care in China

Most schools, colleges and universities that have been approved to employ foreign TEFL

teachers have an arrangement with a local hospital which allows their foreign TEFL Teachers

to receive treatment at a very low cost or for free. However, for more serious illnesses or

medical conditions your host institution may agree that you should receive treatment at a

reputable city hospital which has a far greater range of services including medical specialists

than the recommended local hospital. However, foreign TEFL Teachers should be prepared for

the fact that your host institution may not see your medical problem as a result of your

employment with them and so you will have to seek and pay for medical services elsewhere.

As a result, an explanation of the general health care situation in China is necessary.

There are hospitals in almost every city where patients can get treatment without having to

travel too far. Big cities like Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and all the provincial capitals have

well equipped hospitals which employ many experienced doctors and specialists with

specialized departments including that of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). However, the

medications prescribed by the doctor at any public hospital are generally expensive and are

usually purchased from the hospital’s medical clinic. In most cases, it is cheaper to purchase

the same medication from a private chemist or pharmacy although, recently, the government

has enacted laws which have seen the price of prescribed medications from hospital pharmacy

departments fall significantly.

Many of the larger cities such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou have a number of private

foreign hospitals. However, by Chinese standards they are extremely expensive as their main

clients are member of the foreign diplomatic community and foreign business people. The

above explains why it is advisable to have comprehensive medical insurance while you are in

China.

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(15) Chinese Green Cards for Foreigners

With China’s entry into the World Trade Organization in 2002， the economic and

cultural ties between China and the rest of the world increased significantly along with trade

and investment. China’s booming economy and the opportunities it provided resulted in an

increasing number of people from other countries seeking employment opportunities in China.

As a result, a number of those who came to seek work in China found, eventually, after some

years of feeling comfortable and making many friends, that they want to spend a considerable

part of their life here while a few even married a Chinese spouse and planned to settle in China

for the rest of their lives.

At the same, the Chinese authorities are looking for ways to make China more

competitive and a desirable location for those with skills, and talent as well as those who

wanted to make a substantial investment in China. These developments created a demand

which has now been met by the Chinese authorities through the Chinese equivalent of the

American Green Card system.

The Chinese Green card system will grant foreigners who desire to live in China

permanently or for an unspecified long period of time the opportunity to do so. As a result,

foreigners in China will enjoy greater convenience traveling, shopping and finding desirable

accommodation. Procession of a Chinese Green Card also makes the process easier when

entering and exiting the country. The larger metropolitan cities, such as Beijing, Shanghai,

Guangzhou, Wuhan, Changsha, have granted Chinese green cards to a number of foreigners.

A Chinese green card is valid for 5 years for foreigners under 18, and 10 years for those

over 18. Without this card, foreigners have to renew their resident permits once a year.

Foreigners who hold Chinese green cards can go in and out China more freely and enjoy the

same rights and responsibility as Chinese citizens (apart from the right to vote, be elected or be

selected for military service).

With the procession of a Chinese green card, a foreign citizen can establish business

enterprises in the cities where they live, and apply for scientific and technological research

support. They will have the same job opportunities as Chinese citizens, and their children can

attend kindergarten, primary and high schools without any extra fees. Possession of a Chinese

green card will also allow foreign nationals to rent or lease houses without examination or

approval from the Public Security Bureau. They can also apply for driving licenses, temporary

driving licenses, and automobile registration. Chinese green cards allow foreigners to have the

right to basic retirement insurance, city workers’ basic medical insurance and set aside their

savings for housing in an accumulation fund. By the end of 2011, 4,752 foreigners had

received permanent residence cards, or the Chinese equivalent of a green card (Fu: 30/6/2012).

Four groups of people are eligible for permanent residence or Green Cards. They are, foreign

nationals who hold senior positions in companies and corporations that promote China's

economic, scientific and technological development or social progress; foreign entrepreneurs

who make significant investments in China; persons who have made or are making outstanding

contributions to Chinese society; and those foreign nationals of Chinese descent who come to

17

China for the purpose of being re-united with their family and intend to provide care and

support to one or more of them.

Government organizations responsible for receiving and assessing Green Card

applications are usually the local Public Security Bureaus of any township, city or municipality.

Prospective candidates for a Chinese Green Card should stay in China no less than 3 months in

a single year or no less than a year in a 5 year period. For many foreigners in China, the

requirements for a Chinese green card are not easy to satisfy. Apart from spouses of Chinese

people, their minors and elderly family members, there is a rather high threshold for applicants.

A Chinese green card, however, is not equivalent to Chinese nationality. At the present

time and for the foreseeable future, China does not recognize dual citizenship. If a foreign

national wishes to become a Chinese national, they would be required to surrender their

original passport and citizenship (Fu: 30/6/2012).

18

Unit 3 Adapting to Living in China

“You don’t understand the basic assumptions of your own culture if your own culture is the

only culture you know. …Everybody operates on certain basic assumptions, but very few

people know what those assumptions are … the only way you find out is by contrasting the way

you look at something to the way it is looked at in another culture.

--Alan Watts, The Tao of Philosophy

How well a foreign TEFL Teacher adapts themselves to the local culture and enjoys their

stay largely depends on the reason they made the decision to come to China and work in the

first place. Those who have a genuine interest in China and its culture will find it much easier

to adapt than those who just see it just as a job and an inexpensive place to live with plenty of

opportunities to spend time traveling around and having a good time with other people like

themselves. Likewise those who naturally enjoy adapting to change and see it for what it often

is, an opportunity and are flexible by nature, will also most likely enjoy their stay in China.

In general, it is safe to say that most of those who come to China with the view that are not

just here to teach English but see themselves, consciously or subconsciously, as representatives

of a more advanced and progressive culture and that the Chinese have lot to learn from them

and not just the English language but how things are done in an advanced country like theirs

will find adapting to life in China difficult if not impossible.

It is not surprising to find, however, that most of those who see themselves as

representatives from a superior culture gradually gain a more positive view of China, their

students and colleagues even after a few weeks of living and working here. They start to realize

that although the Chinese think and do many things differently from those in their own country

there are good reasons why they do so based on a mixture of geography, culture and a very

different but highly complex and sophisticated social system developed over several thousand

years that is still evolving. Since China began to ‘Open Up’ to the outside world in the early

1980’s, the country has not just experienced rapid economic and technological advances but

immense changes in social attitudes, behavior and cultural perspectives but somehow, through

it all, remaining distinctly Chinese.

It is important to realize that your host institution and by extension, the Chinese

government and people invited you to come to China to teach because they recognize that as

English is the predominant language of international trade and communication. Therefore, all

educated Chinese should become fluent in English in order to succeed in a globalized world.

After living in China for a few months, most foreign TEFL teachers begin to realize that the

Chinese are quite selective about the things they wish to learn from the West as they have a

deep sense of who they are, what they want out of life and how they intend going about getting

it. Even when the Chinese adopt a particular product, service or way of doing things from the

West it is put through a Chinese cultural strainer to end up feeling and looking distinctly

Chinese.

We all have to recognize that we are all products of culture. From the way we eat, sleep,

19

walk, talk and greet friends to the basic philosophical premises that underpin our values and

the way we view life and the world, culture plays a profoundly significant and indispensable

role in our lives.

This observation goes some way in explaining why living and working in a foreign country

for a reasonable period of time is so appealing to those who are adaptable, flexible and are

searching for new experiences. We find ourselves immersed in an unfamiliar and, perhaps,

exciting cultural milieu: one that constantly challenges the way of life and set of ideals we have

always taken for granted. Those who embrace these new challenges find their self-confidence

enhanced. Moreover, they may eventually discover that their perspective of their home country,

and its place in the world, has broadened and become more objective. (Gao: 2000: 71)

Culture Shock and Culture Fatigue

For some, particularly those that have never been outside their own country before

coming to China, attempting to adapt to new cultural surroundings does not come without

some personal cost. While much has been written on the phenomena known as ‘culture shock’,

every person coming to China experiences it in different ways, at different times and at

different levels. However, those who traveled and lived and worked overseas for extended

periods of time may hardly feel any sense of culture shock at all.

Culture shock is, essentially the feeling of being overwhelmed by our initial experiences when

first moving to a foreign country. We develop a more or less, permanent state of shock when

being constantly confronted by new experiences we don’t fully understand. If we fail to adjust

our feelings of cultural shock give way to a condition known as cultural fatigue.

Cultural fatigue describes the gradual accumulation, day by day, of stress from encountering

the many differences between the habits of our home country and the region we are now living

in China. We find that our normal habits of communication (customs of politeness, idioms,

expressions of emotion, etc.) are not always understood in the way we would normally expect

them to be. As the people around us behave in ways that are not familiar to us it is no longer

clear how we should behave and act in circumstances we were previously familiar with.

Ultimately, a state shock passes into a state of cultural fatigue (International TESOL:2002: 6).

Situations that can trigger culture fatigue:

Your normal habits of communication (customs of politeness, idioms, expressions of

emotion, etc.) are not always understood in the way you would normally expect them to be.

As the people around you behave in ways that are not customary in your country, it is

no longer clear to you how you should behave and act in circumstances you were previously

familiar with.

You find that people value different things, have different priorities in regard to the

importance of family, friends, money, time and male/female relationships.

No one seems to understand who you really are and how you feel: They may not know

or care who your family is and your previous accomplishments, profession, or job position

seem unimportant.

20

You discover that people have different beliefs than you have about reality, life,

morality, mortality and the nature of spiritual life. They may even attribute unfamiliar causes to

sickness and ill-health.

Despite the confusion and doubts all the above cause, you are expected to function as a

normal fully competent staff member of your host organization.

Some Symptoms of Culture Fatigue

It is not unusual for those who experience some or all of the above to gradually develop the

symptoms associated with culture fatigue. These include constantly feeling stressed and

exhausted, irritable and depressed, feeling homesick, a sense of continual anxiety, suffering

from sleep deprivation, a desire to withdraw from everyday associations and events, overeating,

overdrinking even seemingly unexplained periods of crying and weeping.

In most cases, experiencing any one or more of the above symptoms may only last for a

couple of months. A few may experience them for their entire stay in China. However, there

are things you can do to reduce the negative effects of cultural fatigue (International TESOL:

2002: 6).

Managing Culture Fatigue

Try to develop and maintain a positive attitude and keep your sense of humor. Remember that

cultural differences may make you feel uncomfortable at first but you are sure to gradually

become familiar with them and see them as part of the life you are living now.

Learn as much as you can about Chinese people and their culture through developing

friendships with your colleagues and students. Be curious and interested in what they say and

do and find out what is important to them as it will help you understand your present

circumstances and the people you interact with on a daily basis.

Try to be non-judgmental, open-minded, and tolerant of cultural differences. Remember the

various cultural practices and attitudes you see and experience are part of a cultural system

that has evolved over many thousands of years. There may be cultural practices you dislike

and even disapprove of, but it is part of a broader social system, and makes sense to most if

not all Chinese.

Remember, culture is not a fixed set of behaviors and practices, it is always subject to constant

change. The Chinese have had to adapt to modernity and globalization in there own way just

as we all have done. It’s best to view different cultural practices and attitudes as part of the

rich tapestry of life rather than feel threatened by the unfamiliar.

Keep in contact with your friends, language and culture to keep a sense of who you are and

where you come from. Make sure you have daily access to a computer and keep in contact

with family and friends via e-mail and Skype. Watch CCTV Nine, which is a very good

Chinese English language TV channel which has world as well as Chinese news ,as well as

programs on aspects of Chinese culture and learning Chinese.

Take care of your physical health: eat healthy foods, exercise, and get plenty of rest. Despite

being told before you came to China that it is a highly regulated country ,this is certainly not

21

true when it comes to food and beverage safety. Stories regarding the latest food scandal

appear regularly in the media, especially concerning meat and dairy products. Avoid eating

meals sold by street vendors and some of the smaller out-of-the way eateries as they may well

be using re-cycled cooking oil mixed with animal waste known as ‘gutter oil.’ It’s safer to

purchase fresh food from a reputable supermarket and cook it yourself at home. Only drink

bottled water as 70% of the surface water has been classified as unsafe. However, don’t

become paranoid about eating in China: just be careful and selective and remember that the

cheaper the food the more likely it may be suspect, stale or out-of-date.

It is important to remember that experiencing culture shock and fatigue is a normal part of

the process of adapting to life in any foreign country. One American TEFL teacher put it in

somewhat extreme terms by saying that she preferred the “exciting hell” of losing herself in

Chinese culture to the “boring paradise” of entirely predictable cultural behavior of home.

Adapting to Life in the Chinese Classroom

It would be a fruitless exercise attempting to list all the situations a foreign teacher might

find themselves having to deal with and adapt to while living in China as there are just so many

and the culture of every province, city and locality is so varied. After all, what is called

‘Chinese culture’ is really the vast collection of objects, beliefs, habits and practices, past and

present, that represent every city, village and hamlet in P R China for the past 2,000 years!

However, a good place to start preparing a foreign TEFL Teacher for adapting to life in

China is to understand the differences between what to expect when teaching in a Chinese

classroom to the experience of teaching in the West. As China has a centralized education

system foreign, TEFL Teachers should expect to experience very much the same anywhere

except that schools in the poorer rural areas which do not have the same standard of facilities

and amenities to those in the larger cities. Also, the teaching staff in the rural areas may not be

as skilled and professional as those in the cities, but they are usually more welcoming, friendly

and accommodating than those working at some of the larger schools and universities in the

large cities.

The differences between the Chinese and Western education systems are vast. Working in

a Chinese office one is faced with similar difficulties and these are all attributable to how the

Chinese experience education. In general, Chinese schools and universities have a clear

hierarchical structure, in which everyone should know their place and rote learning and

collective thinking are favored over independent and creative thought and, especially, what is

known as ‘thinking outside the box (Chein: 24/7/2012).

So the most obvious difference between the Chinese and Western education systems is

that in the Chinese system the facts are generally unchallengeable and are to be learnt by heart

through rote memorization while in the West students are supposed challenge the facts or, or at

least, view them from a critical perspective. However, the Western education system doesn’t

use a language that has nearly 50,000 characters of which a large proportion are meant to be

memorized. Further, rote memorization of Chinese characters leads to most if not all the class

learning together rather than allowing a few to excel as in the West. While rote memorization

is not the best way to teach English, it is important to know why it is used and how effective

22

this method is in learning Chinese (Gustafsson:12/3/08 & Osterling: 2009: 2).

Another great difference the foreign TEFL Teacher soon recognizes is that he/she as a

teacher is more widely revered than they could ever hope to be in the West. This comes from

the view that in China, the lao shi or teacher, is the fountain of all knowledge regarding their

particular subject and must be obeyed at all times. As a result, the teacher is the central figure

in the classroom and not the students as it is he or she that tells the student what they must

know while the students are supposed to memorize what the teacher tells them. Another major

difference is that while it is normal in the West to use incentives to reward good or excellent

work, such an attitude is rare in the Chinese classroom. Instead, it is far more common to

punish those who make mistakes or perform poorly rather than praise good work (Gordon:

4/11/2010).

For the Western TEFL Teacher receiving permission from the school or university to be

allowed to use more advanced methods of teaching English is quite a hurdle as it is getting the

students to adjust to any other method of teaching and learning English than the one they are

familiar with. This is complicated further by the Chinese exam system which focuses on

grammar and translation skills and does not access speaking fluency. Your Chinese colleagues

will soon make it clear that your goal should not be so much to teach them to become fluent in

English but ensure they do well in exams (Hong & Petraki: 2006: 4).

As a result, foreign TEFL teachers are often discouraged from introducing new methods of

teaching and learning into the Chinese class room, especially at high school level because of

the importance attached to the Gaokao or College Entrance Exam. This quote from the New

York Times highlights the central importance of the Gaokao in China:

In a country where education is so highly prized, the score that a student earns

after the days of testing at the end of high school is believed to set the course for

one’s life. The score determines does not just whether a young person will attend

a Chinese university, but which one－a selection, many Chinese say, has a crucial

bearing on career prospects (Wong: 30/6/2012).

However, a good foreign TEFL Teacher can generally manage to get around these

problems and introduce more advanced teaching methods and elements of the Western rewards

system and in the process encourage a more student-centered classroom if they are patient and

have the necessary skills to succeed in an adverse environment.

The resistance many foreign TEFL Teachers find in introducing new teaching methods

mainly comes from a few local teachers who are afraid that any change in teaching methods

could have a negative impact on the expected exam results and, perhaps, their careers. This

explains why some foreign TEFL teachers often find some of their local colleagues are not as

friendly and helpful as one is led to expect. However, foreign TEFL teachers have an

advantage in allowing them to teach the way they want. Firstly, the Government and the State

Administration for Foreign Experts Affairs (SAFEA) will most likely support the introduction

of new methods of English teaching for this precisely why the government promoted the idea

of inviting foreign TEFL teachers to teach English in China in the first place. Secondly, in

23

most cases, it is not your host institution that pays your wages as it receives a subsidy from the

government for every foreign teacher it employs. Finally, employing foreign TEFL teachers

enhances the reputation of a school or university, so it would not look good if any foreign

teachers leave at the beginning or half-way through the semester.

However, the best weapon a foreign teacher has is that they can say they have never taught

or been taught by teachers who use the teacher-centered method prevalent throughout China so

they cannot teach that way. Your host institution will soon either want to reach a compromise

or completely back down. Recruiting foreign teachers cost money and time and having SAFEA

resolve the issue could well undermine their right to employ foreign teachers and so they

would have to employ and pay a local teacher to replace the foreign teacher.

Actually, the personal rewards are immense if you can succeed in creating a talkative

student-centered classroom. Not only can you help your students do better than expected in the

exams but assist them in finding temporary work with well-known foreign multinational

companies during their holidays. Added to this is the pleasure of being seen by your Chinese

colleagues, many of whom can probably barely put together a sentence in English, walking

down a school or university corridor chatting to your students in fluent English or having the

occasional dinner with them!

However, it is important not to dismiss the Chinese education system altogether as it does

have its own strengths. It is just that teaching English and other foreign languages is not one of

them which is why there is plenty of work in China for foreign TEFL Teachers. Without a

doubt the most popular degree subject in China is engineering. While a majority of politicians

in the West graduated in law， many of China’s senior leaders are engineers. Chinese

universities produce 600,000 Engineers a year while US universities only produce 60,000. The

former head of Apple, Steve Jobs, told President Obama that the prevalence of so many high

quality engineers in China was the reason Apple has its computers and i-Phones made here

(Isaacson:2011: 211).

In general, it is safe to say that most Chinese schools, colleges and universities will allow a

suitably qualified English teacher to manage and teach their classes the way they think best,

within certain prescribed limits, as long as they get the results. By results they mean that your

students get the grades the college, school or university expects of them in writing or any

English course you teach in which writing skills are necessary. Except for specialist courses on

IELTS, TEFOL and the GRE General Test, speaking skills are not normally accessed with the

same seriousness as writing and translation which is one of the reasons foreign TEFL Teachers

are often allowed so much latitude in teaching their oral English classes. The bottom line is that

while English is a necessary component of Gaokao or the College Entrance Exam only writing,

grammar and translation skills are assessed and not speaking skills (onlinecolleges.net:

1/10/2012).

UNIT 4: Some Characteristics of the Chinese

Rather than try and describe how to deal with every possible situation you are likely to

encounter, inside and outside the classroom, it is far more beneficial to those TEFL Teachers

24

who are coming to China for the first time to have some general idea of the main

characteristics of the Chinese people and the factors that shape why and how they act, think

and behave the way they do.

The first point to make is, perhaps, the most obvious one. The Chinese people have much

more in common with the rest of the world than there differences would seem to suggest.

However, the unfamiliar and the exotic have their attractions for when most people first come

to China as tourists that is what they seek. China is like every other country where tourism is a

major industry. It is the unique and exotic features that most people come to see. When we

come to China to live and work，we tend to see these differences more negatively for we know

we have to adjust to and live with them.

It is only over a period that we begin to appreciate that we begin to realize that the Chinese

have much more in common with us than we thought. This process has various names

including ‘cultural adjustment,’ ‘finding the familiar,’ and, of course, getting over ‘culture

shock.’ We must keep in mind that unique tourist sites like the Terracotta Warriors at Xi’an, the

Badaling section of the Great Wall just north of Beijing and the Potala Palace at Lhasa in Tibet

are, essentially, maintained and kept in such a way to represent the glory of China’s past and

why it so different to everywhere else.

Far more common and widespread both socially and psychologically is just how the culture

of China’s past has been reworked and fashioned to reflect present circumstances. This is the

situation most foreign TEFL Teachers face in their day to day dealings with Chinese colleagues,

students and ordinary people. Before we describe the five foundational elements that have

formed and fashioned the Chinese people for a millennium, a brief overview of China’s recent

history shines a light on the way in which the Chinese view the world and foreigners generally.

For the past 200 years were traumatic for the Chinese people as they tried to at first reject and

then adjust to the modern world as a matter of survival.

Prior to the beginning of the Nineteenth century，China had little direct contact with the

outside world beyond its immediate neighbors. As China was aware it was the largest and most

civilized country in the region， it saw itself as the centre of the world. The arrival of the

British and other European powers including its giant neighbor, Russia, destroyed China’s

isolation and sense of invincibility. By the middle of the Nineteenth century China was

virtually powerless to defend itself against far more technically advanced foreign powers (Li:

2004: 193-203).

China’s humility was compounded by the rise of a modernizing Japan who by the

beginning of World War Two had occupied large swaths of east and north China. This period,

stretching from the First Opium War and the seizure of Hong Kong in the 1840’s by the British

to the Japanese surrender in 1945 is known by every Chinese school child as ‘The Hundred

Years of Humiliation’ (Grainger: 2001: 81).

China’s ‘Hundred Years of Humiliation’ explains why it took China so long to voluntarily

open to the outside world under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping in the early 1980’s. The

Chinese psyche, however, still carries many of the scars of this period which explains why, at

25

times, the Chinese seem intensely nationalistic and, at the same time, behave in ways which

suggest many have a deep-seated sense of inferiority when they compare themselves to the

West.

The other point to consider is that China has only developed an open and modern economy

since the early 1980’s. Long-held attitudes, beliefs and values do not change that quickly. As a

result, foreign TEFL teachers will soon recognize they have come to a country which is both

very old, culturally and historically, but at the same time very young in terms of energy,

dynamism and enthusiasm.

China’s dynamism and the energy and the enthusiasm of its people are among China’s most

captivating features for many foreigners. As a result, it is hard not identify with the Chinese

people’s trials and tribulations when disasters such as the 2009 Wenchuan Earthquake occur

and their joy in doing so well at 2012 London Olympic Games. However, we must not forget

that China has only been a dynamic and politically stable country for the last thirty years.

Before then and stretching back to the early Nineteenth century China was extremely poor and

politically unstable. It was, for a long time, divided between various European powers with

entire cities and provinces run by self-serving local war lords often supported by various

foreign armies and, finally, subject to the brutal humiliation of the Japanese Imperial Army.

Beside the left-over psychological effects of the ‘100 Years of Humiliation’ the Chinese

people have been shaped and molded from time immemorial by what many experts consider to

be the five foundational elements of Chinese thought and behavior.

Five Core Elements of Chinese Thought and Behavior

(1) Chinese Symbolic Thought. The Chinese people have not just created a language but

their language has shaped and molded them. The pictorial nature of Chinese characters and the

fact that spoken Chinese is a tonal language means Chinese think less logically but more

intuitively than Westerners. Therefore, the Chinese do not think so much from the mind but

yongxin sikao, meaning ‘think with all your heart.’ This is due to the fact that recent

psychological and biological research has revealed that the tones of spoken Chinese make it a

musical language which means words are heard first by the right side of the brain which

processes music and is intuitive. English is not a tonal language，so English speakers process

information logically only using the left side of the brain. Processing information by first using

the right side of the brain makes Chinese ‘big picture’ thinkers and, therefore, opportunists

rather than long-term planners. As a result, they are often prone to ignoring or not seeing the

details and leave them to be worked out later. Westerners have a logical step-by-step approach

to most things and are usually good at long term planning. This subject is covered in more

detail in the following chapter as it affects how Chinese students learn English.

However, for the moment we just need to recognize that the very nature of spoken Chinese and

the symbolic way it is written has greatly affected how Chinese people think and learn. As a

result，some have claimed that while Chinese lack logical thought and fail to read and

understand the details in a contract do not take planning seriously they, nevertheless, have

‘emotional intelligence’ and are generally more intuitive than Westerners (Zhang & Baker:

26

2008: 8-9).

Since the late 1970s, however, many Chinese have learnt English and have successfully

completed degrees at Western Universities which means they have learnt to use the left side of

the brain as well as the right side.

In recent times many Chinese now realize that there is a downside to not planning ahead and

attending to details as they see this as contributing factor to the current downturn in China’s

manufacturing industry. As a result the saying, ‘shu mu cun guang’, meaning, ‘like the mouse

that can see one centimeter in front of itself’, has become a popular saying (Midler: 2009:

191).

It is worthwhile pointing out that these different approaches to problem solving are a feature in

almost all interactions between Westerners and Chinese to a lesser or greater degree depending

on the people and the situation but not to the extent they have been in the past.

(2) The Law of Yin and Yang: The necessity and unity of opposites. To the Chinese the

universe consists of two opposing but ultimately, harmonious forces. This means situations,

things and people are always in flux and yesterday’s competitor maybe tomorrow’s business

partner. This balancing of opposing forces that is present everywhere and in everything is the

foundation of Chinese thought. Understanding how the Chinese think of Yin and Yang explains

why the Chinese are so good at conversing on many subjects at the one time and juggling the

completion of many tasks all at the same time (Graham: 1989: 53).

There is, however, another side to how the Chinese interpret yin and yang. When used

individually as characters yang tends to indicate something for ‘show’ or how it appears while

‘yin’ means the reality or truth of something. The positive side to the balancing act of yin and

yang is that those in leadership roles seek the ‘proper balance’ in their organization by

employing those who have the skills they see their organization lacking. There is, however, a

negative side to observing the balance of yin and yang forces. A leader can become so absorbed

with the internal dynamics of their organization that they seek the benefits internally rather

than expanding, developing and promoting the organization externally (Zhang & Baker: 2008:

16).

(3) Connectedness (guanxi). Rather than thinking of themselves as a collective people

with collective values the Chinese think of themselves as being connected and part of a

network of relationships. The Chinese rarely act only for themselves and on there own but as

members of a group or network. Employees in Chinese companies do not aim to be ‘star

performers’ but develop a sense of belonging so that they are integral to the organization and

its fortunes. Guanxi as a concept is often viewed negatively by the Western media as they see it

as the main source of corruption in China. However, the sense the Chinese have of feeling

connected to a larger web of relationships means they never feel they are alone. Such

conditioning nurtures a strong sense of belonging and shared behaviors which all contribute to

the Chinese sense of contentment. In Chinese, an individual person on their own is referred to

as xiaowo or a ‘small I’ while a person with an elaborate extended network is referred to as

dawo or ‘Big I’. Guanxi, or being connected, however, has a negative side as individual

27

attributes and skills can be downplayed and innovative and creative thinking can be suffocated,

ignored or remain latent and unfulfilled (Ning: 1/2002).

(4) Midstream Living or the Golden Rule (Zhong yong) Like the three previous

characteristics, midstream living or zhong yong is closely connected to the philosophy of

China’s great sage Kong Fu Tzu better known in the West as Confucius. For example, at home

one has to balance respecting and looking after one’s parents with the happiness and welfare of

one’s spouse and children. A person tries to achieve their personal and career objectives

without using force or to the detriment of others. In other words, one wants to do well enough

to be respected but not so well that one attracts envy and jealousy (Graham: 1989: 76).

At the same time, midstream living or zhong yong explains why the Chinese dislike and avoid

engaging in outrageous displays of love and affection and are reserved and modest in situations

where they are likely to be complimented or praised. Observing zhong yong also explains why

many Chinese dislike the crass and aggressive behavior of some of China’s new wealthy elites

and especially, their spoilt children. In general, however, most of China’s new rich behave with

modesty and avoid flagrant exhibitions of showmanship. Adherence to midstream living

explains both the general conservatism of Chinese people as well as the high level of

seemingly unexplained contentedness of most people you meet in China(Zhang & Baker: 2008:

20-21).

(5) Mianzi (Reputation & Social Status) Mianzi is a difficult concept for non-Chinese to

grasp. Usually, translated as face, mianzi does not refer to appearance so much as one’s social

status and reputation within a network of relationships. As the Chinese live their lives relative

to others this interdependency determines each person’s mianzi. The importance of mianzi to

the Chinese sense of worth cannot be over-estimated as it determines who one is, how

important they are and to whom, which class or social circle they belong to and whether they

live a good life. Mianzi is the first consideration for doing and buying most things from

purchasing a car to the education of one’s children (Bond:1991:204-6).

It may seem like mianzi is difficult to take into account when dealing with Chinese people.

However, as foreign TEFL teachers will be dealing on a daily basis with their students,

colleagues and possibly, parents, all of whom will belong to various guanxi networks they

don’t want to do anything that might have negative effect on a colleague or student’s mianzi in

front of others. As a result, the following code of behavior is worth considering:

Avoid behaving in a way that will make someone embarrassed.

Don't criticize someone in front of their friends or associates.

Don't lose your temper even if you feel very frustrated.

Don't accept compliments too easily. Show some humility.

Don't talk too much about yourself.

Genuinely compliment others in a modest way.

Finally, remember that Chinese people usually smile when they are upset or embarrassed.

Don’t make the mistake of thinking they are laughing at you as many Westerners think. They

are simply doing their best to avoid a full-on confrontation with further complications by

pretending to be relaxed, unconcerned and protecting their mianzi.

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There is a negative side to mianzi which is now becoming obvious to most educated Chinese.

Mianzi does not promote equality but rather the opposite: it tends to promote hierarchical

relationships. While mianzi goes a long way in promoting social harmony it does so at not only

at the expense of equality but also, as we said individual creativity, innovation and those

situations where we have to make decisions and think for ourselves (Gustafsson:12/3/08:3-4).

We must keep in mind that the Chinese have become increasingly exposed to the West through

the internet, TV and travel as well as the presence of large numbers of TEFL teachers has not

only encouraged the wider use of English but a greater familiarity with the cultures, habits and

behaviors of foreign peoples. More importantly, many Chinese now complete their studies

overseas and are thoroughly familiar with Western culture and can speak English well. As a

result, many Chinese can think with their left brain as well as their right and so they tend to

have more critical and nuanced view of traditional Chinese language and culture (Zhang &

Baker: 2008: 9-10).

Ten Misconceptions about China & Chinese People

Given that all five of the above attributes have their negative as well as their positive

sides it is not surprising that the Western media has highlighted incidents that could associated

with one or more of the negative aspects which has generally resulted in creating a number of

misconceptions regarding the behavior of Chinese people. Most of these misconceptions have

virtually become myths as they have been around so long. Keep in mind that all these

misconceptions regarding China and the Chinese are formed in the minds of those from the

West and other foreign nationals long before they come to China. Many of these

misconceptions about China have been around for years and, whereas there may have been

some truth in some of them many years ago, very few of them have any truth in them today

(Meik: 5/5/2011).

Misconception 1: Chinese People are Uncreative It may be true that the Chinese education

system focuses on memorization and exams and that creativity is not encouraged to the extent

it is in the West but that does not mean that most Chinese are unimaginative, uninventive and

boring. Just as there are plenty of mindless boring Westerners， there are plenty of creative,

artistic and brilliant Chinese, particularly in the performing arts and classical music. China’s

recent rapid economic growth was not just achieved through hard work but taking advantage of

new opportunities and technologies when they presented themselves. When you come and

teach in China you will be surprised how inventive and creative your students are if you give

them the opportunity (Meik: 5/5/2011)!

Misconception 2: Chinese people (all 1.3 billion of them) are quiet and orderly. It is easy

to understand where this misconception comes from but it certainly does not come from living

in China. It would be easy to form this view after visiting and spending time in foreign Chinese

restaurants and one of the many Chinatowns in most Western countries where the local

Chinese population prefer to keep a low profile so they generally refrain from exhibitions of

rowdy and bellicose public behavior. This view can also be reinforced by attending university

and sitting in class with a number of Chinese students who don’t ask questions and often fail to

say anything significant when the teacher questions them. The fact is that Chinese living in the

29

West are aware that they are a minority group and do not wish to stand out in a society where

they have no power over events and little influence (Dintenfass: 12/2/2010).

The above is why foreigners are mostly shocked when they first arrive in cities like

Guangzhou, Beijing and Shanghai and find them extremely noisy and see people shoving and

pushing to get on buses and trains rather than queuing as in the West. Further, when they see or

are lucky enough to be invited to a well-attended all-Chinese banquet in a private room in an

up-market restaurant they will experience much laughter, noisy conversations and generally

boisterous and even drunken behavior. So when you come to China prepare yourself for living

in what may well be the noisiest and most boisterous country in the world!

Misconception 3: Chinese Women are Subservient to Men Most people in the West think

Chinese women are subservient to men but this is no longer even remotely true anymore.

While it is true that during the late imperial era Chinese women kowtowed to their men with

bound, folded feet those broken feet were unbound a long time ago. When Chairman Mao

Zedong said that, ‘Women hold up half the sky’ ， he wasn’t making a rhetorical vacuous

statement but one that has turned out to be true.

Currently, women account for 45.4 percent of China's total employed population. Female

government officials account for more than 40 percent of all officials. Female deputies

comprised 21.33 percent of the National People's Congress (NPC), up 1.09 percentage points

from the previous congress, and women make up 17.7 percent of the 11th National Committee

of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), up one percentage point.

The proportion of female deputies to the 17th National Congress of the Communist Party of

China was up two percentage points. There are more than 230 female ministerial or provincial

officials (Yu: 13/9/2012 & Meik: 5/5/2011).

The above statistics are just the start. China is full of entrepreneurial, competitive and

assertive women and many of these women are wealthy, powerful, and respected. In fact,

China is home to the most number of self-made female entrepreneurs and businesswomen in

the world. The first three wealthiest women in the world, Zhang Yin, Wu Yajun and Chen

Lihua are all from China. In fact, 11 of the top 20 wealthiest women in the world in 2011 are

from China and not one gained their wealth through inheritance or marriage. So do not come to

China with the idea that Chinese women are meek and mild and will go along with whatever

you want them to do (Liu: 2012 & Dwyer:12/4/2012).

Misconception 4: Chinese People will jump at the chance to live abroad. Most Westerners

and especially Americans and Canadians have been warned about going out with Chinese

people who are just out for a Green Card or a foreign residency and this was certainly true up

until the early 1990s. Today the picture is quite different as most Chinese can see their country

is getting more prosperous by the day and their living standards are immeasurably higher than

those of their parents and grandparents when they were young.

There is no doubt that most Chinese women would love to shop in Paris, Milan, London

and New York but they no longer want to migrate and spend the rest of their lives living in a

foreign country. The only Chinese who are likely to show any desire to migrate are, perhaps,

some from the very poor and more backward provinces.

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Misconception 5: Chinese people are sheep and just follow others or wait for orders!

While it is true is that most Chinese give the appearance that they just do what they are told.

However, this seeming obedience to authority does not mean that Chinese employees don’t

have their own views on things. You don’t have to be in China long before you hear the

locals argue about nearly everything from fake fresh pork to exorbitant taxi fares.

The best example one can give of the extent the Chinese think for them selves is how China’s

youth view the internet. Brought up on a diet of what they should do with their lives by nearly

everyone with authority, many young Chinese view the web as a place of freedom, authenticity

and empowerment, with its genuine, user-generated content. McKinsey, the American

advertising research agency found that in China, consumers rely on blogs and other

user-generated consumer reporting when deciding what to buy, mainly because they trust word

of mouth much more than any blatant commercial advertising campaign. So it should come as

no surprise that they’re also very active participants, leaving more than twice the amount of

comments than their peers elsewhere in the world put together. The popularity of Weibo with

its millions of micro-blog users is a testament to the fact that Chinese are only too happy to

express their opinions on those things they care about if given the chance. Likewise, most

foreign TEFL Teachers will find their students are only too willing to do the same once they

get to know them.

Misconception 6: The Chinese don’t like their government but are afraid to criticize. This

misconception presumes that young Chinese have as much free time to reflect on public affairs

and world events as Westerners do. It is also unconsciously based on the idea that there is a

political party in opposition to the government which is always criticizing what the government

does or doesn’t do and this is reported in the media when that is not the case. There are

criticisms concerning the performance of some government agencies and there are also some

criticisms of particular local government officials from time to time but the government itself

is rarely the subject of criticism.

On reflection, this lack of criticism is not surprising when we consider the fact that China has

gone from an extremely poor country to one where the majority enjoys a reasonably good

standard of living. Many people in the West overlook the fact there were 600 million less

people living in poverty by 2012 than 32 years earlier. In other words, how can Chinese

citizens criticize their government when it has reduced poverty from 53% of the population in

1981 to just 5% by 2012 (Yang Rui: CCTV: Dialogue Program: 2/9.2012)?

Further, the hyper-competitiveness of the school system and the job market ensures the young

and ambitious maintain their focus on educational items such as supplementary textbooks for

computer programming courses and attending mass job interviews. In such an environment,

what time is there for armchair discussions on, for example, Chinese business interests in

Africa?

After some time in China, many Westerners begin to realize that in general, young people

living in cities with a reasonable job are mostly content with their lot. They know they are

wealthier and far better-off than their parents, grandparents and previous generations. As a

31

result, most of the polls indicate the Chinese people are reasonably content with their

government in general just critical concerning a handful of incompetent and corrupt officials

(Dintenfass: 12/2/2010).

Misconception 7: The Chinese are untrustworthy as they generally avoid eye contact.

Quite simply, the Chinese view eye contact as rude. It is on a par with staring which the

Chinese see as most impolite. The Chinese don’t equate truth with having to make continual

eye contact. In general, the Chinese try to be modest and respect those whose behavior is the

same and excessive eye contact is regarded as the very opposite of modest behavior (Steffes:

10/3/2012).

Misconception 8: The Chinese are rude as they never say ‘Thank You.’ The reason the

Chinese never say thank you if you are a friend and do something for them is because as a

friend, they would expect you to help them: after all, what are friends for? They will say the

equivalent of thank you if they have never met you before or they don’t consider you a friend

(Dwyer: 12/4/2012).

Misconception 9: The Chinese are cool and unemotional. Nothing is further from the truth:

it is just that the Chinese like to be seen as modest and so they avoid emotional public displays

as was stated earlier. You will soon know if a Chinese person likes you or not but they are

unlikely to tell you directly. The Chinese, like most Asians, are very good at showing how they

feel through the use of gesture and body language rather than issuing proclamations of undying

love (Dwyer: 12/4/2012).

Misconception 10: As the Chinese eat with chopsticks they have no table manners. This

misconception is blatantly ridiculous. However, it is a long-standing myth among the older

generation in the West who cannot conceive of life without knives and forks! In fact, the

Chinese have a strict set of rules governing etiquette and eating. However, as a foreign guest

you are not expected to observe all of them except for, perhaps, 2 and 3 which are more or less

common sense. Here are some of the main rules Chinese are expected to observe when dining

at a restaurant:

1) The host will have the longest chopsticks because he takes the food from various dishes

and places it on each guest's plate. Children generally use chopsticks that are smaller and

shorter.

2) Chopsticks should never stand upright or vertical in your bowl. This gesture is used to

honor deceased family members. When not using your chopsticks, place them beside your

bowl.

3) Do not stab food with the chopsticks like a spear. Note that when you see kung fu movies

with actors fighting with chopsticks you will see if you look closely that the chopsticks never

go through the food but only around it.

4) Never use chopsticks to dig for the food you want. You should always pick something

closest to you, because whatever you touch is yours.

5) Do not lick or touch your lips with the chopsticks while eating, because most of the time

you will be eating a "family style" meal. This means that everyone will be eating from the

same bowl.

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6) Do not make noises with your chopsticks. Playing with chopsticks is considered bad

manners and it decreases your status during a party or banquet.

7) When you see that your chopsticks are not the same length, don't eat with them. Instead,

you should ask the waiter/waitress to exchange them for you.

8) There are some who say that if you drop your chopsticks while eating, then it will bring

you bad luck. There are some others that say that if you do so, you will be poor. Either way,

there is nothing good that will come of dropping your chopsticks.

9) When you are finished with your meal, place your chopsticks across your bowl. This tells

your host and other guests that you have had enough food and don’t wish to eat anymore.

Now that you are aware of just some of the main misconceptions about the Chinese and China

you can forget the myths you have heard before you came to China.

However, it would be unfair to paint too rosier picture of living in China as there are some

habits and behaviors that virtually all those coming, particularly, from the developed countries

of the West find objectionable, hard to tolerate and difficult to accept. Further, most of those

from the West will never have seen many, if any of these traits among the Chinese they see and

meet in their own country as Chinese migrants quickly adjust to the fact that these habits are

either illegal or socially unacceptable.

Bad Chinese Habits Foreign Nationals Have to Live With

(1) Spitting. Virtually everyone from Europe, the USA, Australia, Canada and New

Zealand is shocked when the first see and hear mainly older Chinese men spitting in the

street. Spitting not only looks and sounds disgusting, but it is also unhealthy as it

spreads germs and viruses. What reinforces the repulsiveness of spitting are the large

sounds made prior to spitting. It is obvious that spitting as a habit has agricultural

origins as it is most common among those who migrate from the rural areas to work in

the cities. The good news is that spitting is less common among the younger generation

and very few girls spit. You may find that only one or two of your male students spit

but not in class. Also, spitting is not a common habit among many Chinese teachers so

you are rarely likely to see anyone spitting on campus.

(2) No queuing, just pushing and shoving. Apart from spitting the next biggest surprise

people from the Western countries experience when they catch their first bus or train is

that, rather than queuing as in the West, Chinese people push and shove to get on buses

and trains. In this land of Kong Fu Tze (Confucius), this comes as quite a shock!

Despite such seemingly uncivilized behavior the same people that push and shove to

get on a bus are likely to give their seat to disabled people, the very old and women

with young children. The habit of pushing and shoving comes from the fact that, in the

past, China experienced many famines where millions died of hunger and thirst. So

people had to fight over basically subsistence food so they fear missing out. Even today,

Chinese people still greet each other with the old Chinese saying which translates as,

‘Have you eaten yet?’

(3) Excessive Smoking If you are a non-smoker as are most people from the West these

days, you will find smoking an all-pervasive habit in China where over 100 million die

33

each year from lung cancer and diseases related to smoking. Again, the good news is

that the younger generation tends to smoke less and it is very rare to see any females

smoking at all. Certainly, you can expect none of your female students to smoke but

two or three boys in your classes may well smoke but certainly not in class.

(4) Cars have right-of-way; pedestrians have to get out of the way! It is hard for foreign

nationals from the West, in particular, to understand that pedestrians, in general, do not

have right of way over cars in China and in fact, if you are in the way of an oncoming

car, the driver will aggressively blow his horn and proceed in your direction expecting

you to get out of their way! Traffic lights and large crossings can be precarious as well.

Because the lights are green doesn’t mean it is safe for pedestrians to cross as often cars

are allowed to turn left or right at the same time!

(5) Chinese roads are chaos incorporated! Many foreign nationals arrive in China with

an international driving license that allows them to drive in China. After watching the

way, people drive in any Chinese city for an hour or so most forget about ever driving

in China! Every foreign national knows stories concerning those who did decide to buy

a car and drive but had a serious if not fatal accident within two weeks! The point is

that few Chinese drivers seem to observe the road rules and drive where they like and

park where they like. They perform u-turns, stop, turn left and right and speed or go

very slow when they feel like it but rarely communicate their intentions to any other

driver, let alone pedestrians. As the key to safe driving is the ability to anticipate what

the cars behind you and in front will do and that this is an impossible task for Western

drivers in China who are used to everyone following traffic rules.

In every Chinese city you will see small motor-bike type partly-covered three-wheel

vehicles: don’t use them! While catching a three-wheeler made seem like a colorful

way of going short distances, these vehicles are not registered, the drivers have no

driving license and so passengers are not covered by third-party insurance. So, if you

use them you do so at your own risk! The best thing to do is to stay off the road and

catch a bus! Using a bicycle or a registered taxi is also an option, but buses are much

safer as they are sturdy, strong and can’t travel fast because there is heavy traffic in just

about every city in China.

However, don’t use buses, especially, sleeper buses to travel long distances as there

have been some horrific accidents involving sleeper buses recently. Sleeper buses are

mainly used by poor migrant workers and they often travel routes they are not

registered to travel and most of the accidents are due to the driver’s ‘sleeper fatigue.’

Sleeper buses are also smelly, rarely have safety equipment and most have only one

escape route when involved in an accident or a fire. For all long distance travel catch

a train. The railways in China are reliable and safe and especially the Very Fast Trains!

What’s more the standard of rail travel is improving all the time so catch a train if you

can’t afford to fly (Dwyer: 12/4/2012).

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Unit 5 Difficulties Chinese Face Learning English

Foreign TEFL Teachers need to be aware that Chinese students face many obstacles in

attempting to master and becoming fluent in English. These obstacles are, firstly, linguistic,

secondly, cultural and, thirdly, cognitive. The third obstacle, cognitive has only recently been

understood due to research carried out both in China and the United Kingdom. This research

demonstrates, conclusively, what many people have long suspected: the Chinese and other East

Asian people whose language evolved from Chinese think differently to those who speak and

write one of the Indo-European languages and this explains some of the difficulties Chinese

students have in trying to become fluent in English (Chen, Fan & Lin: 2010)

The unique difficulties Chinese students face trying to learn English is not well understood

by some native English TEFL teachers and some of the larger English language schools. The

problems of learning and becoming fluent in English for Chinese students are compounded by

the fact that the methods employed for teaching English by the many private language schools

in China are largely the result of these organizations basing their methods on teaching speakers

of very different languages to Chinese such as Hindu, Bengali, Urdu, Arabic, Spanish and a

number of African languages. As a result, the private schools and colleges that focused on

TEFL activities long before they came to China developed their methods from teaching

students from these language groups as well as recent scientific research in the field of

linguistics (Cheng & Swain: 3/1970).

A rather different method of learning English to that of the private language schools was

introduced to Chinese students when the Chinese government made the learning of English a

compulsory subject at high school in the early 1980s. The system that they adopted was

identical to the method of teaching English then used in then British Colony of Hong Kong.

The British classical method of teaching English at that time was heavily teacher-centered and

focused on grammar, writing, translation and the rote memorization of vocabulary. While the

methods introduced by the mainly American-influenced private language schools were more

interactive, student-centered and focused on the contextual use of English in real life situations.

Further, while the British classical model emphasized writing and grammar the methods

introduced by the private schools emphasized speaking skills and replaced the traditional

grammar system with a system now used in all the major English speaking countries, including

the UK, known as functional grammar (Hong & Petraki: 2006: 4-6).

As a result of the above, Chinese students of English are not only exposed to a number of

linguistic, cognitive and cultural obstacles to learning and becoming fluent in English but, in

reality, a number of irreconcilable differences in the methods for teaching English in China.

The difficulties Chinese students face learning English can be demonstrated by the

generally poor results of Chinese candidates for the University of Cambridge designed

International English Language Testing System (IELTS). Getting a good score in IELTS is

necessary for anyone wanting to migrate to or study in the UK, Australia, New Zealand and

many universities in Canada and even some in the United States.

35

In all the IELTS Speaking tests conducted in China during 2009, it was found that 15-20%

of Chinese students scored below 5 out of a maximum of 9. 60% score 5 and around 20% score

5.5 or 6 while around 5% score 7 or more and no one in China has score 8.5 or 9! The results

were much the same for 2010 and 2012. The score necessary to get into a university in

Australia is now 7 and most UK universities require a score of 6.5-7. No IELTS candidates

from China have appeared in the monthly world results since the British Council, University of

Cambridge and IDP Australia first began publishing them some 10 years ago (Clark: 2007:1)

It is only when we as teachers, appreciate the difficulties and obstacles Chinese face in

learning English that we will be able to devise more efficient methods of teaching Chinese

students English than those used so far. Therefore, the first step for improving teaching English

in China is to gain some understanding of the obstacles Chinese students face in becoming

fluent in English. As the linguistic challenges provide the most obvious of many obstacles we

shall explain these first.

(a) Structural Linguistic Obstacles Chinese Speakers Face

.The most fundamental difference between English and Chinese is that Chinese, Mandarin or to

give it its proper Chinese name, Putonghua, meaning the ‘common dialect,’ is a tonal language

and English is a phoneme stressed language (Osterling: 2009:1-2).

A tonal language is one in which the way a phoneme (or a distinct symbol of sound) is

modified through tonal inflection changes that alters the phoneme's meaning. Tonal languages,

such as Putonghua and other languages that derive from it such as Japanese, Vietnamese and

Korean, all use pitch to signal a difference in the meaning of words. These pitch variations are

a necessary feature of the Chinese group of languages. The meaning of Chinese words is

dependent on tonal or pitch variation as are grammatical categories, such as verb tense, which

is also dependent on pitch level (Brindly: 1995: 3 & Zhang & Yin: 6/2009: 142-3).

On the other hand, English is quite different as it is a phoneme stressed language. That is, stress

can be used both with sentences and single words to distinguish or add to meaning. To put it

more graphically, almost every English word of two or more syllables has at least one stressed

syllable. Frequently, the primary stress is placed on the first syllable of a word, as in downpour

and downbeat, and sometimes it falls on the last, as in recommend and consolidation. By

changing the stress and accent, many nouns may also become verbs, for example, object (or

thing) and to object (protest or complain).

Chinese uses four tones that are pitched along with a fifth neutral tone. Using the vowel a as an

example, the first tone, ā, is high and neutral; in Pinyin, it is signified by a straight line above

the relevant vowel. The second tone, á, goes from middle to high. In Pinyin, it is signified as a

line slanted to the right above the relevant vowel (like an '/'). The third tone, ǎ, goes from

middle to low to high. It is signified as an upside down vee '^' placed above the designated

vowel. The fourth tone à goes from high which is signified in Pinyin as a line slanted to the left

above the affected vowel (line an '\'). There is also a fifth neutral tone, which remains without a

mark or signifier (Osterling:2009: 3-5).

36

The tones are used to determine the meaning of a word. So mǎ (horse) is very different from

mā (mother). má (hemp) and mà (scold).

Although there are no tones in English what we mean by tone is something quite different.

Tone refers to the differences between various types of speech acts used for specific occasions

as in the following examples:

He spoke in a very sombre tone at the funeral of the deceased.

She adopted a more aggressive tone when she scolded her son.

By the tone of his voice I could tell he is concerned about John’s safety.

So we can see it is not just necessary for Chinese speakers to learn new words but new ways

have to be found to pronounce and practice them. However, the fact that English does not use

tonal inflection but instead, word and sentence stress, is only the most obvious of many

difficulties Chinese learners of English have to face. There is a cultural aspect to the use of

tonal inflections and the lack of phonemes and word stress in Chinese languages that we also

have to consider (Chen, Fan & Lin: 2010).

As tonal inflections in Putonghua and other Chinese languages and dialects are so fundamental

to meaning, Chinese speakers do not traditionally express their personalities and regional

dialects in the same random and sometimes playful manner that English speakers usually do.

This suggests there is an important difference in the way Chinese view the role of personal

expression that must be taken into account when Chinese speakers attempt to communicate in

English.

(b) The Alphabet & the Sounds of English

Another major linguistic difficulty Chinese student’s of English have to face is that pictorially

English and Chinese are not even remotely similar. The English alphabet is also confusing to

most Chinese as there are more sounds than the alphabet and some words with similar spellings

are pronounced differently as well have different meanings.

Chinese does not have an alphabet but uses a logographic system for its written language. The

Chinese logographic system developed out of a much older ideographic system in which the

words were derived from a combination of symbols for abstract words and actual miniature

pictures for actual objects and events (Ning: 2007: 65).

In the Chinese logographic system the symbols represent the words themselves - words are not

made up of various letters as in alphabetic systems. The number of Chinese characters is listed

at over 47,000, although the common characters used in daily life are typically considered

around 4,000 (Nisbett: 2003: 23-7).

While only employing 26 letters the English alphabet presents a real challenge for Chinese

learners of English as they experience problems with the “visual decoding” of words that seem

to them to be spread over many letters rather than being contained within a single character or

ideogram as in Chinese. While understanding the words and their meaning present a

formidable challenge to Chinese speakers the correct pronunciation and idiomatic use of

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English seems to present just as great a challenge.

Further, English has some speech sounds (phonemes) that do not exist in any other language.

While this presents difficulties to all speakers of other languages including speakers of other

Indo-European languages such as German and French it represents particular difficulties to

speakers of Chinese and other languages related or derived from Chinese. This problem is

compounded by the fact that, not only do the British sound so different to Americans but they

differ considerably among themselves due to strong regional and county linguistic variations as

well the fact the distinct sounds of Australian and New Zealand English only seem to add to the

confusion (Nisbett: 2003: 28-31).

(c) Phonetic Differences

Yet another major obstacle for Chinese speakers learning English is that the sounds necessary

to speak English come from quite a different part of the mouth and the techniques used to

produce them bear little relation to spoken Chinese. Learning to produce these sounds must be

the vital starting point for Chinese learning English as experience has shown that, no matter

how many English words Chinese students learn if they attempt to speak English using the

Chinese means of producing speech they are unlikely to be understood and their

self-confidence will suffer as a result.

From birth, and possibly earlier, we learn to recognize and produce the distinctive sounds of

our own language. We do not need to give any thought to how to shape or place the lips,

tongue, teeth, etc. in order to produce the desired sounds, because we have heard and learned

the basic sounds of our native language from birth and, possibly, earlier. The physical

structures of parts of the sound system are adapted to produce native-language sounds.

In order to produce the sounds that comprise words, we use various parts of our body but

mainly the lips, tongue, teeth, pharynx and lungs. Phonetics is the linguistic term used to

describe and classify the sounds associated with speech and in particular, how sounds are

produced, transmitted and received. A phoneme is the smallest unit in the sound system of a

language; for example, the ‘t’ sound in the word “top” or ‘b’ in the word “butter”.

Various phonetic alphabets have been developed to represent the speech sounds in writing

using symbols. Some symbols are identical to the Roman letters used in many language

alphabets; for example: p and b. Other symbols are based on the Greek alphabet, such as θ to

represent the ‘th’- sound in thin and thought. Still others have been specially invented; e.g. ð

for the th- sound.

Most aspects of the English phonological system cause difficulties for Chinese students for,

as we have said, phonemes do not exist in Chinese and the stress and intonation patterns are

quite different. As Chinese is a tonal language, this means that it uses the pitch (highness or

lowness) of a phoneme sound to distinguish word meaning Zhang & Yin: 6/2009: 144-5).

(d) Vowel Sounds

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Chinese learners of English not only face difficulties learning the sounds and words of English

but the actual vowel sounds which comprise the words as English has more vowel sounds than

Chinese. This leads to a great many English words being mispronounced such as ship/sheep,

it/eat, full/fool. Chinese speakers often shorten Diphthongs such as in weigh, now or deer to a

single sound (He & Li: 2012: 3).

Chinese learners face difficulties when attempting to differentiate between l and r, and so they

sometimes pronounce ‘rake’ and ‘rice’ as ‘lake’ and ‘lice.’ Another major difficulty is with the

common final consonant in English. This feature is much less frequent in Chinese and results

in learners either failing to produce the consonant or adding an extra vowel at the end of the

word. For example, ‘mill’ may be pronounced as if without the double ll but with a drawn out

‘I’, or as rhyming with ‘miller.’

The difficulties associated with pronouncing individual English words, compounded by

problems with intonation, result in the heavily accented English of many Chinese learners.

While having a different accent does not always pose problems with learning, it does when the

listener either does not recognize the word or imagines it to be a totally unrelated word

altogether. Even some Chinese English speakers who can use grammar correctly may be very

hard to understand when they speak English due to their actual accent changing the sound and,

therefore, the meaning of various words (Gao: 2000: 8)

(e) Word & Sentence Stress.

Another obstacle a Chinese student faces learning English is in understanding the importance

of word and sentence stress and knowing when and how to use it. The proper use of word and

sentence stress is just as important to meaning in English as using correctly one of the five

tones is in Chinese. Firstly, we shall examine word stress.

All languages are comprised of syllables but usually, as in Chinese, they are spoken with equal

force. If students of English do not understand which parts of a word are stressed and which

are not，it makes it very different just to listen and understand English，let alone speak it.

Using the right word stress allows native English speakers to understand each other despite the

fact that they have very different accents.

While word stress is an accent placed on one syllable within a word, sentence stress is an

accent placed on certain words within a sentence. Most English language sentences contain

two types of words: content words and structural words. Despite not being stressed like content

words, structural words are still important as they convey meaning, context and supply the

grammatical framework. However, in most cases, it is the word that is stressed that gives the

sentence its true meaning. Word and sentence stress are important apart from conveying

meaning as they are main contributors to the seeming musicality of English as a spoken

language (Chen, Fan & Lin:2010: 3 & Zhang & Yin: 6/2009: 142-3).

(f)Word Order

Another major difference between Chinese and English is the various ways in which words fit

together in order to make coherent understandable sentences. For Chinese English students this

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requires understanding, learning and applying a whole new system of writing and grammar.

This is the next huge hurdle Chinese speakers have to overcome as there is, possibly, no way

the orthodox Chinese way of using words and word order can be incorporated into the learning

of English. Attempts, of course, have been made and are still being made and the result is what

we refer to as ‘Chinglish’ (International TESOL: 2002: 188-90 & He & Li: 2012: 2-6).

(g) Verb Usage

Yet another problem facing Chinese learning English is the different roles verbs play in

Chinese and English. Verbs in Chinese usually comprise one word and express a simple action

or meaning. Verbs play a far more important role in English than they do in Chinese. English

verbs carry so much in terms of meaning that we could, in some cases, eliminate the rest of the

sentence without loss of meaning. Here is an example:

'I would have gone to Beijing if I had I wanted to do what you have suggested.'

This a complete sentence in English constructed almost entirely with verbs; to most Chinese,

this sentence makes no sense and would be seen as virtually unintelligible (Liu: 11/2001:6-8).

The English need for the verb 'to be' is a non-existent concept in Chinese. Shakespeare’s “to be

or not to be” is not the question in Chinese as it so obviously is in English. The Chinese would

be inclined to say, 'I go', or ‘I will happy’, or ‘We will always together’ rather than, ‘I will go,’

‘I will be happy’ and ‘We will always be together’ (Ning: 2/2003).

In Chinese, for example, questions are conveyed by means of intonation. This means the

subject and verb are not inverted as in English. Nouns cannot be post-modified as in English;

and adverbials usually precede verbs, unlike English. English has a complex set of rules

governing the position of such sentence elements (Osterling: 2009: 4-7).

Also, Verb tense in English is handled by a complex system of verb inflections and auxiliaries.

The copula "to be" and all its forms (is/are, was/were) and “have + past participle (has gone,

had eaten) and the concepts of progressive and perfect tenses are ideas that are completely and

unconsciously imbedded in the speech of native English speakers.

Chinese, on the other hand, does not handle the concept of time through verb forms, so Chinese

students typically struggle a great deal with the intricacies of tense and the English verb system

(Ning: 2/2003).

In English much information is carried by the use of auxiliaries and by verb inflections:

is/are/were, eat/eats/ate/eaten, etc.

Chinese, on the other hand, is an uninflected language and conveys meaning through word

order, adverbials or shared understanding of the context.

Here are some typical verb/tense mistakes:

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What do you do? (i.e. What are you doing?) (wrong tense)

I will call you as soon as I will get there. (wrong tense)

She has got married last Saturday. (wrong tense)

She good teacher. (missing copula)

How much you pay for your car? (missing auxiliary)

I wish I am rich. (indicative instead of subjunctive)

English also contains a number of short verbs that very commonly combine with particles

(adverbs or prepositions) to form what are known as two word or phrasal verbs; for example:

take on, give in, make do with, look up to. This type of lexical feature does not exist in

Chinese.

(h) Gender, Articles & Prepositions

Generally, Chinese speakers find the use of Gender, indirect, direct articles and prepositions

associated with time, place and the location of objects a particular problem, which they often

tend to avoid by not using them.

As gender is inferred by the surrounding words there is no gender in Chinese. It is, therefore,

very common for Chinese when speaking English to switch the gender of the person they are

referring to leaving the listener to feel that the speaker was referring to different persons rather

than one.

Chinese also does not use articles. In English we use definite articles such as the ‘the’ when

one is referring to one particular place, location or organization such as the government, the

police, the river & the mountain and when there is only one of its kind or for a class of objects

with a singular name, the earth, the environment, the internet, the sun, the moon & the stars in

the sky. We also use when we are referring to a country which has more than one word in its

name, for example: the People’s Republic of China, the United States, the Arab Emirates & the

United Kingdom. We don’t use articles to talk about something in general we use the plural

form instead. We don’t use the ‘the’ when referring to a country whose name is a single word,

for example, Sweden, India, Vietnam & Canada (Prins: 11/2006: 2 & Osterling:2009: 10).

There are only two indefinite articles: ‘a’ and ‘an’. When to use ‘a’ and when to use ‘an’ is

based upon the sound (phonetic) quality of the first letter in the following word, not on the

written (orthographic) representation of the letter. If the first letter makes a vowel-type sound,

you use "an"; if the first letter would make a consonant-type sound, you use "a." So, if you

consider the rule from a phonetic perspective, there aren't any exceptions. Since the 'h' hasn't

any phonetic representation, no audible sound, in the first exception, the sound that follows the

article is a vowel; consequently, 'an' is used. In the second exception, the word-initial 'y' sound

(unicorn) is actually a glide [j] phonetically, which has consonantal properties; consequently, it

is treated as a consonant, requiring an 'a'.

Briefly, the importance of prepositions is that they link nouns, pronouns and phrases to other

words in a sentence in order to indicate where things are, what they are near, how long they

were there and how long they will be there. In more formal language, a preposition usually

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indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence as

in the following examples.

The book is on the table.

The book is underneath the table.

The bookshelf is beside the bed.

She read the book during her holidays.

She borrowed the book from the library yesterday.

I have not seen that book on the shelves since last June.

I will buy that book tomorrow.

Many Chinese learners of English find learning articles, prepositions and when and how to use

them, as well as tense and gender, frustrating and time consuming. Their initial impression of

learning English at school led them to believe that learning English vocabulary means,

essentially, knowing and being able to use, nouns, verbs and adjectives. They generally find,

however, as they gain a greater understanding of English that without the correct use of gender,

articles and prepositions，most sentences in English make no sense (Prins: 11/2006: 6: &

International TESOL: 2002: 188-90).

Cultural Obstacles in Learning English

English and Chinese are not just two very different languages linguistically and phonetically

but the purposes for which they are used and the kind of thoughts they wish express are not

always the same either.

Many presume that English is more direct language than Chinese when the opposite is the case.

In fact, English is a far more indirect language. Compare the Chinese translation of any English

text and you will notice far fewer words are used. This leads to the first important difference

between English and Chinese: the location of key information (Clark: 2007: 9).

(a) Location of key Information

If you were to ask the question, “When did you see the movie Avatar,” a Chinese speaker

would probably give a direct response by giving you the time first and maybe, any relevant

details afterwards. If you asked a native English speaker the same question, he or she would

more likely give the details or explanation first and the actual time he or she saw the movie at

the end.

The two completely different ways of giving information mean that while an English speaker

may miss the actually answer as he or she wasn’t expecting it to be at the beginning of the

sentence the Chinese speaker may think by the time the English speaker is about to give the

answer he or she hasn’t answered the question and lose interest in listening (Clark: 2008: 9).

(b) Redundant Language

Most linguists agree that spoken English contains far more redundant language than Chinese.

The prevalence of so much redundant language mostly explains why English is a less direct

language than Chinese. Redundant language can be described as language that does not contain

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or have any meaning or language that does not alter meaning to any significant extent.

The near-absence of redundant language in Putonghua means Chinese speakers are able to

communicate effectively by using far less language. Most linguists agree that Chinese is a far

more economical language than English’. In fact, slightly less than 50% of the words used in

a normal English conversation can be classified as redundant while less 10% of the words in a

similar conversation in Chinese might be referred to as redundant.

The widespread use of redundant language poses particular problems for Chinese students of

English as they see learning redundant language as a pointless exercise. Chinese students

generally fail to recognize that they cannot possibly converse in a seemingly natural manner

with a native English speaker without using redundant language regularly and often in a

conversation. Further, what they fail to understand is that the regular use of redundant language

is vital to doing well in exams set be native speakers. The next section will graphically

highlight just how important mastering the use of redundant language and connectives or

link-words is in terms of achieving a high score (Clark: 2008: 8-10).

IELTS Speaking Test Score & Redundant Language

Candidates at an IELTS Testing Centre in Wuhan, Hubei Province, in 2009 demonstrate not

only how important Redundant Language is in achieving a high score in language tests run by

native speakers but how important link words and idiomatic language are as well.

You will notice the score is directly related to the main IELTS Speaking test criteria, the ability

to create long and grammatically correct sentences, the use of uncommon words and redundant

and idiomatic language.

The four students came from Yichang, a small city near the Three Gorges Dam in Hubei

province. The question was, “Can you tell me about your hometown.”

I come from Yichang----------Score 3.

My hometown is Yichang. Yichang is a small city in Hubei province. It’s very nice. I love

my hometown-------------------Score 4.5.

My hometown, Yichang, is a small city situated on a bend of the Yangtze River just down

from the Three Gorges Dam. I guess I find it a good place to live and there are many

beautiful places I can visit not far from the city centre. Due to the fact, there are no

factories in Yichang there is very little pollution. -----Score 6.5

I guess you have never heard of the place I come from it’s sort of a bit out of the way. It’s

like a small city on a bend of the Yangtzi River just down from the famous Three Gorges

Dam in Hubei Province. Yichang is a kind of a nice place to live, you know, as there are

many scenic spots worth visiting on the weekend. However, I find there is not much going

on at night in terms of entertainment so, I’m afraid to say it can be a bit boring being there

all the time. However, it has some nice parks and being rather quiet I find I can really

apply myself to my studies. If I was in Wuhan, Shanghai or Beijing I wouldn’t be able to

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study as much as there is just too much going on, however, it would be kind of cool to have

some fun and really ‘rage’ once in a while. ------------Score 8.

The first two answers contain no redundant language, connectives and are just simple

sentences. The information they contain is not wrong but the question was not, “what is the

name of your hometown” but “can you tell me about your hometown. In other words, the

candidates didn’t fully understand the question, which invited a description. Only the last two

answers contain redundant language.

The one that scored 7 has two redundant phrases:

I guess I find it and kind of nice

However, the answer that scored 8 had 8 redundant phrases:

I guess you have never heard, It’s like, it’s sort of a bit out of the way, kind of, worth visiting,

not much, kind of cool, really and once in a while.

Here are a number of other redundant phrases native English speakers often use: Well, you

know, it’s actually, I mean, sort of amazing, maybe even, so really, like you know, I guess, so

really and it’s sort of. Here is a paragraph that includes all these redundant phrases:

Well, you know, where I actually come from, London, is a kind of huge place. I

mean it’s actually enormous: maybe even the biggest city in Europe. So really, if

you live there, it’s sort of amazing actually. You can do almost anything you want.

Like you know there is so many things to do, and I guess that’s why I love living

there.

The appeal of redundant language as well as idioms and slang to native speakers is that infuses

or gives what you are saying a feeling of excitement and tends to be used as a way determining

who is a member of a group and who is an outsider. You must remember that language can be

used just as much as a way of excluding outsiders as determining who are really members of a

group and who are not.

(c) Recycling & Idiomatic Vocabulary

While Chinese students are being encouraged to use redundant language at the same time, they

are being discouraged to recycle or re-use vocabulary. What is frustrating for Chinese English

language students is that so many words have the same or similar or much the same meaning.

One of the reasons for having so many words that say similar things is that in English, unlike

the use of Chinese, we avoid using the same words or recycling vocabulary.

However, some words although they have similar meanings are only idiomatic to some events

or things. All sports such as tennis, basketball and swimming have their own idiomatic

vocabulary. For example, swimming has free-style, breast-stoke, backstroke etc. while tennis

has such idiomatic words as forehand, backhand, baseline, racquet and lob.

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Native English speakers avoid recycling words as they see using a variety of words that have

similar meaning as more interesting and aesthetically pleasing and often add layers of meaning

to what has already been said but in more subtle and, sometimes, indirect ways. Further, most

native English speakers will not want to talk for long with people who can only repeat the same

words over and over again as they may seem as boring and uninteresting (Prins: 11/2006: 2).

However, the most important point Chinese students need to keep in mind when considering

recycling language is that if they want to succeed in exams set by native English speakers, such

as IELTS, TOFEL and SAT, they will lose marks if they keep recycling vocabulary. Attempts to

keep on recycling vocabulary will be seen by the examiner as a sign the speaker or writer has a

limited vocabulary (Clark: 2008: 11).

(i) Direct & Graduated Responses

Another problem for Chinese speakers that is generally overlooked by most experts on the

acquisition of English by speakers of other languages is that English is a graduated language

unlike Chinese in which direct yes/no answers are encouraged.

Questions in English are less framed to get yes or no responses than in Chinese. English

speakers are more likely to give responses that are graduated or graded in such a way that a

clear yes or no response is unlikely. English commonly expresses various shades of meaning

through the choice of verbs. For example, in response to the question, “Do you like watching

television,” below are some examples of a graded or graduated response:

Yes, I really love watching television!

Most of the time I quite like watching television

I enjoy watching television, sometimes; it just depends on the program.

Television? I can take it or leave it. I only watch it when I have nothing to do.

I find television quite boring. I only watch the FA Cup.

I can’t stand television. I only have a television set to amuse the children after school.

The reasons why native English speakers tend to give more graduated responses and Chinese

speakers are unlikely to do so are probably cultural. Most native English speakers, when asking

a question, are not expecting a clear ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer in most situations but a response. A

response is a reply to a question or a claimed statement that includes new elements brought to

the conversation by the respondent with the aim of keeping the conversation going (Clark:

2008: 12-13).

Since Chinese generally do not respond to questions such as the above in this way, Chinese

learners may overlook the importance of using graded language. However, understanding and

attempting to use graded language can expose Chinese students to a whole area of vocabulary

they otherwise may never have thought was relevant as they won’t be able to have meaningful

conversations and forge friendships with native English speakers without using them.

Cognitive Difficulties Facing Chinese Students

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The difficulties we have discussed so far provide a formidable obstacle to those Chinese

wishing to become fluent in English. However, there is also a major cognitive difficulty

Chinese students have to face as well. It may come as no surprise to claim that Chinese think

differently to Europeans and foreigners generally. Studies by a number of experts in various

fields including culture, psychology and linguistics have concluded that the Chinese have not

just shaped their language but their language has shaped them and the way they think about

themselves, their place and their identity and the world generally (BBC: 26/6/2012 & Dao:

1/8/2007).

As Zhang Haihua and Geoff Baker have pointed out in their work, Think Like Chinese, “In

contrast to western alphabets which are sound based, Chinese characters are symbolic and

meaning based” (Zhang & Baker: 2008:7). Every Chinese character is written in a roughly

square shape and contains a meaning part and a part that relates to how to pronounce the word.

In some cases, however, a character only has meanings in combination with other characters

and in some instances a character can have more than one meaning. The other point to consider

is that, unlike English, written Chinese has not changed considerably for 2,000 years (Liu:

11/2001: 14-5 & Zhang & Jialong: 1997: 12).

The Chinese language is virtually, inseparable from Chinese culture. Chinese school children

have to take a compulsory subject known as yuwen, which combines both culture and language.

As Zhang and Baker point out, “reading and writing pictorial characters with their various

tones” leads Chinese people to rely heavily on the right side of the brain. Zhang and Baker go

on to say that scientific tests have shown that:

Chinese use the tone-sensitive right side of the brain to process tonetic changes of

words (in the first 200 milliseconds) before their left-brain interprets the

associated meaning. Most western languages, with only one tone for each word,

are directly processed by the left brain (Zhang & Baker: 2008:8).

Zhang and Baker point out that a great deal of research has been conducted that compare the

functions of the left and right side of the brain. Some examples of what this means for how we

think and what we do with the information we receive are in the table below.

Right Brain Inventory Left Brain Inventory

Visual focussing on images, patterns Verbal focussing on words, numbers

Intuitive, led by feelings Analytical, led by logic

Process ideas simultaneously Process ideas sequentially, step by step.

Mind picture memory Word or idea picture

Make associations with information Make logical deductions with information.

Grasp the whole, details later Build up and organise information

Little sense of organisation Highly organised

Free association Makes plans & lists

Little sense of time Time-centred

Difficulties with prioritising tasks Plan ahead & prioritise tasks

Unlikely to read instructions, try first Likely not to try but read instructions first

Listens to how something is said Listens to the content of what is being said

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(Zhang & Baker: 2008: 8)

So we can see from the above that Chinese naturally are ‘big picture’ thinkers as they see the

larger picture in an over-all general sense but have problems with understanding the details.

Zhang and Baker refer to this as ‘Chinese Symbolic Thinking’. Chinese see things more

intuitively and less logically than Westerners do (Xinhua News Agency: 22/12/2006 & (Zhang

& Baker: 2008:9).

We must also note that Chinese actually think more with their feelings than Westerners. Like

everything else in Chinese culture the fact that Chinese think more with their hearts is

incorporated in their language as the lower part of the character for thinking (si) is the

character for heart. That is why Zhang and Baker refer to Chinese Symbolic Thinking as

‘Emotional intelligence’ (Zhang & Baker: 2008: 8-9)

The fact that Chinese people think through the heart has been observed by a number of Chinese

intellectuals for some years. According to Gu Hong Min, the average Chinese is intelligent

“but it does not come from reasoning and neither does it come from instinct but from sympathy

from a feeling of love and attachment.” He then goes on to explain where he thinks where this

sympathy comes from.

The Chinese people have this… power of sympathy, because they live a life wholly,

or almost wholly, a life of the heart. [Their] life is a life of feeling—not a feeling in

the sense of sensation which comes from the bodily organs, nor feeling in the sense

of passions which flow, as you would say, from the nervous system, but feelings in

the sense of emotion or human affection which comes from the deepest part of our

nature—the heart and soul (Gu: 2005: 23).

Gu then goes on to give examples of the kind qualities this life of the heart produces in the

Chinese people. Firstly, there is the Chinese language. Gu says many people wonder why

young foreign children and the uneducated find it much easier to learn Chinese than

well-educated adults. Gu says, this is because “children and uneducated people think and speak

the language of the heart” while the more educated, “think and speak with the language of the

head or intellect.”

Secondly, the Chinese are known to have very good memories. The reason, says Gu, is due to

the fact they think through the heart rather than the head and the “heart with its power of

sympathy, acting as a glue, can retain things much better than the head or intellect.” It is for

this reason we can remember the things we learnt as a child better than the things we learnt as

an adult, for “children, like the Chinese…remember with the heart and not with the head (Gu:

2005: 27).”

The third feature of Chinese people is politeness. “Politeness,” says Gu, “is consideration for

others…living a life of the heart, they know their own feelings and it makes it easy for them to

show consideration for the feelings of others.” The fourth and final feature of Chinese people,

according to Gu, is “the want of exactness“. The heart,” says Gu, “is in a very delicate and

sensitive balance…one cannot think with the heart with the same steadfastness, with the same

47

rigid exactness as you can with the head and the intellect (Gu: 2005: 29).”

Chinese Symbolic Thinking Western Logical Thinking

1. Conceptual—‘Big picture’ approach—sees

the whole first then, perhaps, the details much

later. Gains information by making lateral and

symbolic connections.

1. Analytical: decisions based on reason and

logic. Does things ‘one step at a time’ and

pays great attention to detail and the

organization of knowledge.

2. Inclined to Listen to how something is

being said rather than what is actually

said. Employs ‘mind pictures’ to remember

impressions rather than things. Avoids taking

notes!

3. Inclined to Listen to what is being said

and remember by making verbal

associations and taking notes. Inclined to

make lists and plan ahead.

3. Makes decisions impulsively based on

feelings, ideas being processed

simultaneously. Demonstrates a lack of

prioritising tasks and planning.

3. Makes decisions based on forward

planning and processes ideas sequentially,

logically and in order of priority.

(Zhang & Baker: 2008: 9)

The last observation by Gu, fits in well with Zhang and Bakers, “big picture thinking,”

“emotional intelligence” and a lack of attention to detail. Below is a chart taken from Zhang

and Baker’s, Think Like Chinese, which gives some idea how both Chinese and Westerners

generally think in most situations they find themselves in.

Conclusion

I must point out that what I have been referring to are largely traditional modes of Chinese

thought and cognition. Most of China’s ruling elite are thoroughly familiar with logical

reasoning, scientific thought and, indeed, Western languages as they studied engineering and

other scientific subjects overseas and are able to utilize the left-brain as much as the right side

of the brain and can combine Chinese Symbolic Thinking with logical and analytical thought.

More recently there are many relatively young Chinese who have studied overseas and so

thinking logically is as natural to them as thinking symbolically. There are several important

conclusions we can draw from the above in regard to language learning.

Chinese students do not need to learn, grammar, sentence construction, speech and

listening as separate subjects. Being ‘big picture thinkers’ they can handle all these at once.

Having ‘emotional intelligence’ Chinese students might find language learning in the

context of its use and the relationship of words to other words a better method than merely

rote memorization.

Being ‘big picture thinkers’ but poor on the details learning word and sentence stress and

seemingly unimportant grammatical details such as prepositions, phrasal verbs, indefinite

articles etc. should be left to the more advanced students who will undoubtedly learn to

appreciate their importance in becoming fluent in English.