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Perubahan Organisasi Produksi & Proses Kerja : Taylorisme hingga Post Fordisme.

Mengapa organisasi produksi berubah?Proses industrialisasi industrial capitalist economies sifatnya dinamis dan inovatif.Setelah Eropa muncul pemain baru dalam industrial capitalist economies spt Jepang, Eropa, Korea Selatan, Singapura memperbaiki kesalahan dan menganalisa pencapaian negara industri barat.Trend bentuk perekonomian ini meluas ke scope internasionalCost effectiveness total capacity of organization innovatekompetitif secara internasionalRESTRUKRISASI KERJAPenggantian Pola dari pengalaman kerja dan aktivitas kerja yang terjadi karena perubahan eksternalF.W. Taylor and Scientific ManagementManagement studies and reform in late 19th centuryFrederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915)Except in matters of degree (e.g., the operations researchers tend to use rather high-powered mathematics), it is not clear that operations research embodies any philosophy different from that of scientific management. Charles Babbage and Frederick Taylor will have to be made, retroactively, charter members of the operations research societies. Herbert Simon, The New Science of Management Decision (1960)

Taylorism : Scientific Management

the American inventor and engineer who was the first to make a scientific study of industrial management.

Taylors system of management corresponds to the early development of mass production and assembly line manufacture and is characterized by extreme elaboration of the division of labour,

the reduction of work to machine-like repetitive operations and extreme labor discipline and supervision of work, aimed at minimizing production time per unit of commodity.IDE AWAL MASS PRODUCTION 4History 398 Fall 2004Scientific ManagementScientific management is not any efficiency device. ... It is not a new system of figuring costs; it is not a new system of paying men ... it is not holding a stop watch on a man and writing things down about him ... it is not motion study nor an analysis of the movements of men. ... It is not divided foremanship ... it is not any of the devices which the average man calls to mind when scientific management is spoken of. ... In this sense, scientific management involves a complete mental revolution on the part of the workingman [and an ... equally complete revolution on the part of those on management's side. ... And without this complete mental revolution on both sides scientific management does not exist.. [F.W. Taylor before House committee, 1912, quoted by Daniel Nelson, A Mental Revolution, frontispiece and p. 5]Principles of Scientific Management (1911) a solution of the "labor problem""soldiering : He observed that most workers who are forced to perform repetitive tasks tend to work at the slowest rate that goes unpunished. Taylor used the term "soldiering" and observed that, when paid the same amount, workers will tend to do the amount of work that the slowest among them does"four great underlying principles"development of true science - the "one best way"

Principles of Scientific Management (1911) a solution of the "labor problem""soldiering""four great underlying principles"development of true science - the "one best way"scientific selection of the workmanscientific education and development of workerintimate, friendly relations with workers based on management's sharing task of productivitynot mentioned as principles but centrally important: "differential piece rate", "functional foremanship""One Best Way"Now, among the various methods and implements used in each element of each trade there is always one method and one implement which is quicker and better than any of the rest. And this one best method and best implement can only be discovered or developed through a scientific study and analysis of all of the methods and implements in use, together with accurate, minute motion and time study. This involves the gradual substitution of science for rule of thumb throughout the mechanic arts. (p.25)

"One Best Way"Taylor and his immediate disciples were engineers [who] ... accepted without question the engineering approach that had already proved itself in the design of physical objects, and they extended it to the analysis and control of the activities of people. The essential core of scientific management, regarded as a philosophy, was the idea that human activity could be measured, analyzed, and controlled by techniques analogous to those that had proved successful when applied to physical objects. (Aitken, Taylorism at Watertown Arsenal, 15-16)

Taylors Legacyscientific claims untenable; time-motion studies infamoussolutions of enduring significance (Aitken)planned routing and scheduling of work in progress ==> assembly line and continuous flow productionsystematic inspection procedures between operationsprinted job and instruction cardsrefined cost-accounting techniquessystematization of store procedures, purchasing and inventory controlHistory 398 Fall 2004

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Implementations of scientific management usually failed to account for several inherent challenges:

Individuals are different from each other: the most efficient way of working for one person may be inefficient for another.The economic interests of workers and management are rarely identical, so that both the measurement processes and the retraining required by Taylor's methods are frequently resented and sometimes sabotaged by the workforce.

Workers became dissatisfied with the work environment and became angry. During one of Taylor's own implementations, a strike at the Watertown Arsenal led to an investigation of Taylor's methods by a U.S. House of Representatives committee, which reported in 1912. The conclusion was that scientific management did provide some useful techniques and offered valuable organizational suggestions,Certainly Taylorism's negative effects on worker morale only added more fuel to the fire of existing labor-management conflict, which frequently raged out of control between the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries. Thus it inevitably contributed to the strengthening of labour union and of labor-vs-management conflict (which was the opposite of any of Taylor's own hopes for labor relationsGeorge Elton Mayo (1880 1949)Human Relations Movement was an Australian industrial psychologist, sociologist and organization theoristSummary of Mayo's Beliefs:Individual workers cannot be treated in isolation, but must be seen as members of a group. Monetary incentives and good working conditions are less important to the individual than the need to belong to a group.Informal or unofficial groups formed at work have a strong influence on the behavior of those workers in a group.Managers must be aware of these 'social needs' and cater for them to ensure that employees collaborate with the official organization rather than work against it.Mayo's simple instructions to industrial interviewers set a template and remain influential to this day:

Serangkaian percobaan di pabrik Hawthorne dari Western Electric Company di Chicago. Dia mengisolasi dua kelompok pekerja perempuan dan mempelajari efeknya pada tingkat produktivitas mereka, mengubah faktor-faktor seperti pencahayaan dan kondisi kerja.

Ternyata, apapun perubahan dalam pencahayaan atau kondisi kerja, tingkat produktivitas pekerja tetap meningkat atau tetap sama.

Dari penelitian itu Mayo menyimpulkan bahwa para pekerja terbaik dimotivasi oleh:Komunikasi yang lebih baik antara manajer dan bawahan Besarnya perhatian manager dalam kehidupan karyawan (karyawan Hawthorne menanggapi dengan sangat baik setiap tingkat perhatian yang mereka terima).Bekerja dalam kelompok atau tim (karyawan Hawthorne sebelumnya tidak teratur bekerja dalam tim).PERCOBAAN OLEH ELTON MAYOFORDISMFordism is "the eponymous manufacturing system designed to spew out standardized, low-cost goods and afford its workers decent enough wages to buy them"a model of economic expansion and technological progress based on mass production: the manufacture of standardized products in huge volumes using special purpose machinery and unskilled laborAlthough Fordism was a method used to improve productivity in the automotive industry, this principle could be applied to any kind of manufacturing process

Modet A to Model TThe Ford Motor Company was one of several hundred small automobile manufacturers that emerged between 1890 and 1910. After five years of producing automobiles, Ford introduced the Model T, which was simple and light, yet sturdy enough to drive on the country's primitive roadsThe production system that Ford exemplified involved synchronization, precision, and specialization within a company.The mass production of this automobile lowered its unit price, making it affordable for the average consumer. Furthermore, Ford substantially increased its workers' wages

THREE MAJOR PRINCIPLES OF FORDISMThe standardization of the product (nothing hand-made: everything is made through machines, molds and not by skilled craftsmanship)The use of special-purpose tools and/or equipment designed to make assembly lines possible: tools are designed to permit workers with low skill levels to operate "assembly lines"where each worker does one task over and over and over againlike on a doll assembly line, where one worker might spend all day every day screwing on doll heads.Workers are paid higher "living" wages, so they can afford to purchase the products they make. (modified from Post-Fordism

Information technology, white-collar work and specialization are some of the attributes of post-Fordism.The period after Fordism has been termed Post Fordist and Neo-Fordist. The former implies that global capitalism has made a clean break from Fordism whilst the latter implies that elements of the fordist ROA (Regimes of Capital Accumulation) continued to exist

In Post-Fordist economiesNew information technologies are important.Products are marketed to niche markets rather than in mass consumption patterns based on social class.Service industries predominate over manufacturing.The workforce is feminized.Financial markets are globalizedFordism and Post-Fordism

(from G. Ritzer, Contemporary Sociological Theory. 3rd ed., 1992, pp. 174-176)FordismMass production of homogeneous productsUse of inflexible technologies, such as assembly lineStandardized work routinesEconomies of scale, de-skilling and intensification and homo- genization of labourBureaucratized unionsUnions negotiate uniform wages tied to increases in profits and productivityRise in wages, due to unioni-zation, leading to growing demand for mass-produced productsMass education systems providing mass workers required by industryPost-Fordism Specialized products, esp. those high in style & quality Shorter production runs due to specialized products More flexible production made profitable by new technologies (e.g., computers) Workers have more diverse skills, more responsibility, and greater autonomy Bureaucratized unions no longer represent the interests of the new, highly differentiated labour force Decentralized collective bargaining replaces centralized negotiations Relentless pressure to increase productivity and reduce costs Centralized welfare state no longer meets the needs (health, educ., welfare) of a diverse population and differentiated, more flexible institutions are requiredTERIMA KASIH