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CIVIL SERVICES PRELIMS : Fundamentals of Economics

© ALTIUS ACADEMY

Table of Contents

WHAT IS ECONOMICS .......................................................................................................................................... 8

The Basic Economic Problem: Scarcity and Meeting People's Needs ........................................................... 9

Scarcity: The Problem of Too Little to Go Around ........................................................................................ 10

Opportunity Cost: Arranging Your Priorities ................................................................................................... 10

Supply and Demand .............................................................................................................................................. 11

Producers Make Goods and Provide Services—Consumers Use Them ................................................. 11

Goods and Services ............................................................................................................................................... 11

Types of Goods: Consumer and Capital ........................................................................................................... 12

Resources: Natural Resources, Human Resources, and Capital Resources ................................................. 13

Natural Resources: Land, Minerals, Water, and Soil ....................................................................................... 13

Supply and Demand .............................................................................................................................................. 21

Types of Demand: Elastic and Inelastic ............................................................................................................ 24

Types of Business Competition .......................................................................................................................... 33

Income Inequality .................................................................................................................................................. 36

Why do wages differ? ............................................................................................................................................ 36

Measuring Income Inequality: The Lorenz Curve ........................................................................................... 36

What is Free Trade ................................................................................................................................................ 38

Freer Trade and World Trade Organization ..................................................................................................... 39

Formation of the World Trade Organization ................................................................................................... 40

The Working of WTO .......................................................................................................................................... 41

Implementation Issues and the Future .............................................................................................................. 43

Customs Duties ................................................................................................................................................. 43

Subsidies ............................................................................................................................................................. 44

Domestic support: the boxes .......................................................................................................................... 44

Market Access ................................................................................................................................................... 44

Export subsidies ................................................................................................................................................ 45

Criticism ............................................................................................................................................................. 45

Mechanisms for developing countries ........................................................................................................... 45

Special Safeguard Mechanism ......................................................................................................................... 45

WTO Nairobi Conference 2015 : Outcomes ................................................................................................... 46

Trade negotiations ................................................................................................................................................. 46

PRODUCTION, INCOME, AND EMPLOYMENT ...................................................................................... 50

GDP ........................................................................................................................................................................ 53


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The Expenditure Approach to GDP ................................................................................................................. 53

Consumption Spending ........................................................................................................................................ 54

Private Investment ................................................................................................................................................ 54

Other Approaches To GDP ................................................................................................................................ 54

The Value-Added Approach ............................................................................................................................... 54

The Factor Payments Approach ......................................................................................................................... 54

Measuring GDP: A Summary ......................................................................................................................... 55

Real versus Nominal GDP .................................................................................................................................. 55

Purchasing Power Parity ...................................................................................................................................... 55

EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT .................................................................................................... 56

Types of Unemployment ..................................................................................................................................... 56

Structural Unemployment ............................................................................................................................... 57

Cyclical Unemployment ................................................................................................................................... 58

THE BUSINESS CYCLE ........................................................................................................................................ 58

Economic indicators ............................................................................................................................................. 63

ANATOMY OF INFLATION .............................................................................................................................. 65

What is inflation? ................................................................................................................................................... 65

Laspeyres Price Index ...................................................................................................................................... 67

WHY DOES INFLATION OCCUR? ............................................................................................................. 67

Supply Shock/Cost-Push Inflation .................................................................................................................... 67

Demand-Pull Inflation.......................................................................................................................................... 68

German Hyperinflation: Too Much Money Chasing Too Few Goods! .................................................. 69

Why worry about inflation? ............................................................................................................................. 70

Getting the Inflation Rate Right ..................................................................................................................... 72

Consumer Price Indices (CPIs) ........................................................................................................................... 72

Headline Inflation ................................................................................................................................................. 72

Core Inflation ......................................................................................................................................................... 73

Policies For Controlling Inflation ....................................................................................................................... 73

Reasons for Widening gap between CPI and WPI .......................................................................................... 76

FISCAL POLICY ...................................................................................................................................................... 82

Classical Economics .............................................................................................................................................. 83

Keynesian Economics .......................................................................................................................................... 83

Expansionary Fiscal Policy .................................................................................................................................. 83

Increased Government Spending ....................................................................................................................... 83

Contractionary Fiscal Policy ................................................................................................................................ 84

The Effects of Government Spending .............................................................................................................. 84


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Built-In Stabilizers ............................................................................................................................................ 84

Difference between revenue and capital flows ............................................................................................ 84

India‘s fiscal policy architecture .......................................................................................................................... 85

MONETARY POLICY ........................................................................................................................................... 86

The Three Functions of Money .......................................................................................................................... 87

The Money Supply ................................................................................................................................................ 88

BUDGET, DEFICITS, AND TAXATION ........................................................................................................ 90

Origin of the Budget ........................................................................................................................................ 90

What is the size of the budget? ....................................................................................................................... 91

EXPENDITURE, REVENUE, & DEFICIT ..................................................................................................... 91

Types of Expenditure and Revenue ................................................................................................................... 91

Types of Deficit ..................................................................................................................................................... 92

Size and Composition of Deficits ....................................................................................................................... 92

PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION ............................................................................................................................. 95

Types of Taxes ....................................................................................................................................................... 96

Composition of Taxes .......................................................................................................................................... 97

RESERVE BANK OF INDIA ............................................................................................................................. 102

Functions of RBI ................................................................................................................................................. 103

Organisation ......................................................................................................................................................... 103

Subsidiaries of the RBI ....................................................................................................................................... 103

Monetary Management ....................................................................................................................................... 106

Monetary Policy in India .................................................................................................................................... 106

Monetary Policy Framework ............................................................................................................................. 106

Institutional Mechanism for Monetary Policy-making .................................................................................. 108

Issuer of Currency ............................................................................................................................................... 109

Currency Management........................................................................................................................................ 109

Currency Distribution ......................................................................................................................................... 110

Coin Distribution ................................................................................................................................................ 110

Special Type of Notes ......................................................................................................................................... 111

Exchange of Notes.............................................................................................................................................. 111

Combating Counterfeiting ................................................................................................................................. 111

Banker to the central Government ................................................................................................................... 112

Banker to the State Government ...................................................................................................................... 112

Management of Public Debt ............................................................................................................................. 113

Banker to Banks................................................................................................................................................... 113

Lender of Last Resort ......................................................................................................................................... 114


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Financial Regulation and Supervision .............................................................................................................. 114

Regulatory and Supervisory Functions ............................................................................................................ 115

Foreign Exchange Reserves Management ....................................................................................................... 124

Deployment of Reserves .................................................................................................................................... 125

Foreign Exchange Management ....................................................................................................................... 126

Exchange Rate Policy ......................................................................................................................................... 128

Market Operations .............................................................................................................................................. 129

Domestic Foreign Exchange Market Operations .......................................................................................... 130

Money Market ...................................................................................................................................................... 130

Payment and Settlement Systems ..................................................................................................................... 131

Developmental Role ........................................................................................................................................... 133

Rural credit ....................................................................................................................................................... 133

Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development .............................................................................. 136

Export Credit................................................................................................................................................... 137

Financial Inclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 138

Customer Service ............................................................................................................................................ 138

THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................... 141

Major stock exchanges (top 21 by market capitalization) ........................................................................ 142

Major Stock Indices of the World .................................................................................................................... 143

Interest rates and financial markets....................................................................................................................... 148

Functions of interest rates ................................................................................................................................. 148

International factors affecting interest rates ................................................................................................... 148

Price and yield – a key relationship .................................................................................................................. 149

The yield curve ..................................................................................................................................................... 149

The Global Foreign Exchange Rate System ........................................................................................................ 151

What is the ideal exchange rate system that a country should adopt? ........................................................ 151

Macroeconomic characteristics of exchange rate regimes ............................................................................ 153

Dollarization and the choice of an exchange rate regime ............................................................................. 155

The IMF exchange rate arrangements .................................................................................................................. 156

The special drawing right (SDR) ....................................................................................................................... 158

THE MONEY MARKET ..................................................................................................................................... 158

Government Securities Market in India ............................................................................................................... 160

Treasury Bills (T-bills) .................................................................................................................................... 161

Cash Management Bills (CMBs) ................................................................................................................... 161

Dated Government Securities ...................................................................................................................... 162

1. Fixed Rate Bonds ......................................................................................................................................... 162


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2. Floating Rate Bonds ................................................................................................................................... 162

3. Zero Coupon Bonds .................................................................................................................................... 163

4. Capital Indexed Bonds ............................................................................................................................... 163

5. Bonds with Call/ Put Options ................................................................................................................. 163

6. Special Securities .......................................................................................................................................... 163

State Development Loans (SDLs) ............................................................................................................... 164

Q2. Why should one invest in Government securities? ........................................................................... 164

A. Primary (Urban) Co-operative Banks ........................................................................................................ 164

B. Rural Co-operative Banks ............................................................................................................................. 165

Q3. How are the Government Securities issued? ...................................................................................... 165

Q4. What are the different types of auctions used for issue of securities? ............................................ 165

Q5. What are the Open Market Operations (OMOs)? ............................................................................ 168

Q5 (b) What is meant by buyback of Government securities? ............................................................... 168

Q6. What is Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF)? ................................................................................... 168

Q7. How and in what form can Government Securities be held? .......................................................... 169

a. Physical form: .................................................................................................................................................... 169

b. Demat form: ....................................................................................................................................................... 169

Q8. How does the trading in Government securities take place? ........................................................... 169

i. Over the Counter (OTC)/ Telephone Market ......................................................................................... 169

Q9. Who are the major players in the Government Securities market? ................................................ 170

Q10. How are the dealing transactions recorded by the dealing desk? .................................................. 170

Q11. Why does the price of Government security change? .................................................................... 171

Q12. How do the Government securities transactions settle? ................................................................ 171

Primary Market ...................................................................................................................................................... 171

Secondary Market ................................................................................................................................................. 171

i) Coupon Yield ...................................................................................................................................................... 173

ii) Current Yield ..................................................................................................................................................... 173

Illustration: ................................................................................................................................................................ 173

i. Overnight market - The tenor of transactions is one working day. ................................................... 174

ii. Notice money market – The tenor of the transactions is from 2 days to 14 days. ........................ 174

iii. Term money market – The tenor of the transactions is from 15 days to one year. ..................... 174

What are the different money market instruments? ................................................................................... 174

List of Primary Dealers ........................................................................................................................................... 176

THE EQUITY MARKET ..................................................................................................................................... 179

Characteristics ...................................................................................................................................................... 179

Preference shares ............................................................................................................................................ 180


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Depository receipts ......................................................................................................................................... 181

Exchange traded funds ....................................................................................................................................... 181

ETFs in India .................................................................................................................................................. 181

Schemes ..................................................................................................................................................................... 181

Asset Size ................................................................................................................................................................... 181

Investment banks ............................................................................................................................................ 183

Venture capitalists ........................................................................................................................................... 183

Market cap of Top Indian Companies ........................................................................................................ 183

Financial Times Global 500 .......................................................................................................................... 184

Fortune Global 500 ........................................................................................................................................ 185

Fortune 2013 list ............................................................................................................................................. 185

Indian Companies in Fortune 500 ............................................................................................................... 186

List of Indian businesswomen .......................................................................................................................... 186

India‘s Top CEO‘s .............................................................................................................................................. 189

ECONOMIC PLANNING .................................................................................................................................. 191

Essentials of Economic Planning ..................................................................................................................... 191

Importance of Economic Planning with respect to Mixed Economy & Under-Developed Countries 192

Stages of Economic Development ........................................................................................................... 193

State vs. Market ........................................................................................................................................... 194

Types of Economic Planning ............................................................................................................................ 194

Planning by Inducements .............................................................................................................................. 194

Planning by Directions ................................................................................................................................... 195

Physical and Financial Planning ................................................................................................................... 196

Centralised Planning and Decentralised Planning ..................................................................................... 196

Structural and Functional Planning.............................................................................................................. 197

Indicative and Imperative Planning ............................................................................................................. 197

Democratic and Totalitarian Planning ........................................................................................................ 197

Fixed Plan and Rolling Plan Fixed Plan ...................................................................................................... 198

Merits of Fixed Planning ........................................................................................................................................ 198

Demerits of Fixed Planning: .................................................................................................................................. 198

Rolling Plan ...................................................................................................................................................... 198

Merits of Rolling Plan: ............................................................................................................................................ 198

Demerits of Rolling Plan: ....................................................................................................................................... 198

Short-term, Medium and Long-term Planning .......................................................................................... 199

Corrective and Developmental Planning .................................................................................................... 199

Capitalist and Socialist Planning ................................................................................................................... 199


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Planning under Mixed Economy ................................................................................................................. 200

Neo-classical counterrevolution ............................................................................................................................ 200

REFERENCE .......................................................................................................................................................... 201

BANKING SECTOR IN INDIA ........................................................................................................................ 202

History of Indian Banking System.................................................................................................................... 202

Classification .................................................................................................................................................... 202

Basel III ............................................................................................................................................................ 203

Microfinance ........................................................................................................................................................ 203

Salient Features of Microfinance ...................................................................................................................... 204

Gaps In Financial System and Need for Microfinance ............................................................................ 204

Channels of Micro Finance ........................................................................................................................... 204

SHG – BANK LINKAGE PROGRAMME ............................................................................................ 205

Micro Finance Institutions ....................................................................................................................... 205

Controversy on MFI ...................................................................................................................................... 205

BANKING SECTOR REFORMS ...................................................................................................................... 207

Asset Classification.............................................................................................................................................. 209

Regulations for Asset Classification ............................................................................................................. 209

Weak Public Sector Banks ............................................................................................................................. 209

Difference between Growth and Development............................................................................................. 211

BALANCE OF TRADE ........................................................................................................................................ 212

The Balance Of Payments Sub-Division ......................................................................................................... 212

The Current Account ..................................................................................................................................... 212

The Capital Account ...................................................................................................................................... 212

The Financial Account ................................................................................................................................... 213

COMPOSITION OF FOREIGN TRADE .............................................................................................. 213

IMPORT POLICY: THE PRE-REFORM PERIOD .................................................................................. 217

Export Policy: The Pre-Reform Period ........................................................................................................... 217

The Three Phases of Export Policy ............................................................................................................. 217

Export Promotion Policies: An Overall View ........................................................................................... 218

FOREIGN TRADE POLICY (2009-14) ................................................................................................... 219

TYPES OF UNEMPLOYMENT ........................................................................................................................ 219

Disguised Unemployment ............................................................................................................................. 220

The Phillips Curve .......................................................................................................................................... 221

Tables : .................................................................................................................................................................. 224

Export and import shares of countries in India‘s trade ................................................................................ 224

Trade policy measures – Recent initiatives ..................................................................................................... 224

CIVIL SERVICES PRELIMS : Ecology & Environment

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Table of Contents STRUCTURE AND TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT ...........................................................3

Ecology : Meaning And Definitions .........................................................................4

Ecological Niche ....................................................................................................4

Ecosystem.............................................................................................................4

Meaning And Concept............................................................................................4

Properties of Ecosystems .......................................................................................5

Types of Ecosystems ..............................................................................................6

BIOSPHERE AS AN ECOSYSTEM ..............................................................................8

System ..................................................................................................................8

The Biosphere .......................................................................................................8

Biogeochemical Cycles ...........................................................................................9

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS—THE BIOMES .......................................................... 10

Natural vegetation of the world ............................................................................ 11

Climatic Gradients And Vegetation Types ............................................................. 12

Forest Biome ....................................................................................................... 12

Low-Latitude Rainforest ....................................................................................... 13

Monsoon Forest ................................................................................................... 14

Subtropical Evergreen Forest ............................................................................... 15

Mid-latitude Deciduous Forest ............................................................................. 17

Needle Leaf Forest ............................................................................................... 18

Sclerophyll Forest ................................................................................................ 19

Savanna and Grassland Biomes ........................................................................... 21

Grassland Biome ................................................................................................. 23

Desert and Tundra Biomes .................................................................................. 24

Desert Biome ...................................................................................................... 24

Tundra Biome ..................................................................................................... 26

MARINE BIOMES ................................................................................................... 28

Main Characteristic Features ............................................................................... 28

Types of Marine Biomes ....................................................................................... 29



Marine Biological Communities ............................................................................ 30

Plantkton Community ......................................................................................... 31

Phytoplanktons ................................................................................................... 31

Nekton Community ............................................................................................. 33

Benthos Community ............................................................................................ 33

Ecological Productivity ......................................................................................... 33

Food Chains in Marine Biome .............................................................................. 34

HUMAN INFLUENCE ON RADIATION ...................................................................... 35

Heat Balance ....................................................................................................... 35

CORAL BLEACHING ............................................................................................... 38

URBANIZATION AND CLIMATE ............................................................................... 40

Urbanization and Heat Island .............................................................................. 40

BIO-DIVERSITY, BIO-SPHERE RESERVE AND WILDLIFE CONSERVATION ............. 41

Biodiversity: Meaning and Definitions .................................................................. 41

BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS ..................................................................................... 43

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY ....................................................................... 44

List of Biosphere Reserves ................................................................................... 45

Coral Gardening .................................................................................................. 49

Biosphere Reserve ............................................................................................... 49

Evolution of the Concept...................................................................................... 49

Zoning of Biosphere Reserve ................................................................................ 50

Functional Pattern of Biosphere Reserve .............................................................. 51

Core Area ............................................................................................................ 51

Buffer Zone ......................................................................................................... 52

Transition Area ................................................................................................... 52

Clustered Biosphere Reserve ................................................................................ 53

BIODIVERSITY (WILDLIFE) CONSERVATION IN INDIA ............................................ 54

Wildlife Status in India ........................................................................................ 54

National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) Project ............................. 55

Biodiversity (Biological Diversity) Act .................................................................... 55

Bio-safety Protocol ............................................................................................... 56

WETLANDS & MANGROVES ................................................................................... 58



NATIONAL PARKS .................................................................................................. 59

Protected areas of India for an overview of all Indian protected areas ..................... 59

DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS IN INDIA ......................... 64

Earthquake-Prone Areas ...................................................................................... 64

Cyclone-Prone Areas ............................................................................................ 66

Tidal Surge-prone Areas ...................................................................................... 67

Flood-Prone Areas ............................................................................................... 68

Drought-Prone Areas ........................................................................................... 68

Zone 1 ................................................................................................................ 69

Zone 2 ................................................................................................................ 69

Zone 3 ................................................................................................................ 71

NATIONAL POLICY ON DISASTER MANAGEMENT ................................................... 72

Responsibilities of NDMA ..................................................................................... 73

ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS ........................................................................................ 74

Union List-I Entries ............................................................................................. 75

Environmental Protection Act (EPA), 1986 ............................................................ 75

Definitions under Section 2 of EPA ....................................................................... 75

General Powers of Central Govt. Under EPA, 1986 ................................................ 76

General Environmental Laws ............................................................................... 76

CIVIL SERVICES PRELIMS : Indian History

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Table Of Contents Ancient History ................................................................................................................................................................. 11

The Sources Of Indian History ...................................................................................................................................... 11

Indigenous Literary Sources ............................................................................................................................................ 13

Brahamanical Literature ................................................................................................................................................... 14

The Upanishads ................................................................................................................................................................. 14

The Epics ........................................................................................................................................................................... 15

The Puranas ....................................................................................................................................................................... 15

Buddhist Literature ........................................................................................................................................................... 15

Jain Literature .................................................................................................................................................................... 15

Secular Literature .............................................................................................................................................................. 15

Biographical Works .......................................................................................................................................................... 15

Grammatical Works .......................................................................................................................................................... 16

Dramas And Poetical Works ........................................................................................................................................... 16

Scientific Works ................................................................................................................................................................ 16

Foreign Accounts .............................................................................................................................................................. 16

Brief Chronology Of Ancient India ............................................................................................................................... 18

Early Civilisations Of The Northwest ........................................................................................................................... 19

A Lost Civilization ............................................................................................................................................................ 19

The Investigation Of Past ............................................................................................................................................... 20

Indus Valley Civilisation Or The Harappan Civilisation ............................................................................................ 20

Chief Characteristics ......................................................................................................................................................... 21

Extent.................................................................................................................................................................................. 23

The Saraswati River .......................................................................................................................................................... 23

Cultural Development ...................................................................................................................................................... 24

New Research And Writing ............................................................................................................................................ 24

Anatomy Of Various Sites ............................................................................................................................................... 26

Smaller Settlements ........................................................................................................................................................... 27

Hariyupia In The Rig Veda ............................................................................................................................................. 28

Aryan Invasion Of India? ................................................................................................................................................ 28

Recent Research ................................................................................................................................................................ 29

The Vedic Age ................................................................................................................................................................... 36



Continuing Debate About Original Home Of Aryans ............................................................................................... 36

The Early Vedic Period .................................................................................................................................................... 37

The Vedas As A Mirror Of Historical Experience ...................................................................................................... 37

Four Vedas ......................................................................................................................................................................... 39

Vedangas (Limbs Of Vedas) ........................................................................................................................................... 39

Upvedas .............................................................................................................................................................................. 39

Brahamanas ........................................................................................................................................................................ 40

Upanishads ......................................................................................................................................................................... 40

Six Systems Of Philosophy (Darshan)........................................................................................................................... 41

The Expansion Of Aryan Settlements........................................................................................................................... 41

Later Vedic Age ................................................................................................................................................................. 41

The Role Of The King ..................................................................................................................................................... 42

The Rise Of The Gangetic Culture And The Great Empires Of The East ............................................................ 43

The Penetration Of The East ......................................................................................................................................... 43

Urbanisation In The Ganges Valley ............................................................................................................................... 45

The Rise Of Buddhism .................................................................................................................................................... 46

Brief History Of Buddhist Councils .............................................................................................................................. 47

Jainism................................................................................................................................................................................. 49

Branches In Jainism .......................................................................................................................................................... 51

The West Under Persian Domination ........................................................................................................................... 52

The Origins Of The Early State ..................................................................................................................................... 52

The Impact Of Alexander’s Indian Campaign ............................................................................................................. 54

The Foundation Of The Maurya Empire ..................................................................................................................... 55

The Political System Of The Arthashastra ................................................................................................................... 55

Books Of Arthashastra .................................................................................................................................................... 56

Ashoka, The Beloved Of The Gods .............................................................................................................................. 57

Detailed Account Of The Inscriptions Of Ashoka ..................................................................................................... 63

Art And Architecture During The Mauryan Period .................................................................................................... 63

Taxila University ............................................................................................................................................................... 65

Jivaka ................................................................................................................................................................................... 65

Panini (Between 4th And 7th Century B.C.) ................................................................................................................... 66

Patanjali (Second Century B.C.)...................................................................................................................................... 66

The End Of The Maurya Empire And The Northern Invaders ............................................................................... 66

Greek Rulers Of The Northwest.................................................................................................................................... 67



The Shakas: New Invaders From Central Asia ............................................................................................................ 69

The Kushana Empire: A Short-Lived Asian Synthesis ............................................................................................... 71

The Splendour Of The ‘Dark Period ............................................................................................................................. 76

The Satavahanas Of The Deccan: Their Prosperity And Piety ................................................................................. 77

The Amaravati Sculptures ............................................................................................................................................... 77

The Classical Age Of The Guptas.................................................................................................................................. 78

The Structure Of The Gupta Empire ............................................................................................................................ 79

Subjection And Alliance: Shakas And Vakatakas ........................................................................................................ 81

Kalidasa And Classical Sanskrit Literature .................................................................................................................... 82

An Age Of Religious Tolerance And Political Consolidation ................................................................................... 83

Internal And External Challenges: Pushyamitras And Huns ..................................................................................... 84

The ‘Flowering’ Of Gupta Classical Culture ................................................................................................................ 86

Mathematics And Technology ........................................................................................................................................ 86

Dissemination Of Knowledge: The Nalanda Monastic College ............................................................................... 87

The Vakataka Achievement At Ajanta .......................................................................................................................... 88

History Of South India .................................................................................................................................................... 88

Cholas, Pandyas And Cheras .......................................................................................................................................... 88

Cholas ................................................................................................................................................................................. 89

Pandyas ............................................................................................................................................................................... 89

Cheras ................................................................................................................................................................................. 89

Sangam Literature ............................................................................................................................................................. 90

International Trade And The Roman Connection ...................................................................................................... 90

The Rise And Conflicts Of Regional Kingdoms ......................................................................................................... 92

Harsha ................................................................................................................................................................................. 92

The Rise Of Regional Centres ........................................................................................................................................ 94

The Pala Dynasty Of East India ..................................................................................................................................... 97

The Chalukya Dynasty Of Badami................................................................................................................................. 98

The Pallava Dynasty Of Kanchipuram ......................................................................................................................... 99

The Resurgence Of The Chola Dynasty ..................................................................................................................... 100

The Great Merchants Of South India ......................................................................................................................... 102

Medieval India ................................................................................................................................................................. 103

The Delhi Sultanate ........................................................................................................................................................ 103

Qutb-Ud-Din Aibak And Aram Shah ......................................................................................................................... 103

Early Career ..................................................................................................................................................................... 103



His Difficulties ................................................................................................................................................................ 103

His Efforts And Achievements .................................................................................................................................... 104

Aram Shah ........................................................................................................................................................................ 105

Sultan Iltutmish (1211-1236 A.D.) ............................................................................................................................... 105

Organisation Of The Group Of Forty Slaves, Viz. Turkan-I-Chihalgani ............................................................. 105

Defeat Of Yildiz .............................................................................................................................................................. 105

The Impending Mongol Invasion ................................................................................................................................ 105

The Defeat Of Qabacha ................................................................................................................................................ 106

Investiture From The Caliph ........................................................................................................................................ 106

An Estimate ..................................................................................................................................................................... 106

The Struggle For Power Between Sultans And The Group Of Forty Slaves (Turkan-I-Chihalgani) ............... 107

1236-1265 A.D. ............................................................................................................................................................... 107

Rukn-Ud-Din Firoz Shah (1236 A.D.) ........................................................................................................................ 108

Sultana Raziyya (1236-1240 A.D.) ................................................................................................................................ 109

Muizzudin Bahram Shah (1240-1242 A.D.) ............................................................................................................... 110

Ala-Ud-Din Masud Shah (1242-1246 A.D.) ............................................................................................................... 110

Nasir-Ud-Din Mahmud Shah (1246-1265 A.D.) ....................................................................................................... 111

Ghiyas-Ud-Din Balban .................................................................................................................................................. 112

Kaiqubad And Kayumars (Ghiyas-Ud-Din Balban (1265-1287 A.D.) .................................................................. 112

Early Career ..................................................................................................................................................................... 112

His Difficulties ................................................................................................................................................................ 112

Balban's Achievements................................................................................................................................................... 112

Balban’s Theory Of Kingship And Restoration Of The Prestige Of The Sultan ................................................ 113

The Destruction Of ‘The Forty’ ................................................................................................................................... 113

The Suppression Of Revoits ......................................................................................................................................... 114

The Mongols .................................................................................................................................................................... 114

Death Of Balban ............................................................................................................................................................. 114

Kaiqubad And Shams-Ud-Din Kayumars (1287-1290 A.D.) .................................................................................. 114

The Khalji Dynasty ......................................................................................................................................................... 115

Jalal-Ud-Din Firozshah Khalji (1290-1296 A.D.) ...................................................................................................... 115

Murder Of Jalal-Ud-Din ................................................................................................................................................ 117

Ala-Ud-Din Khalji (1296-1316 A.D.) .......................................................................................................................... 118

Early Career ..................................................................................................................................................................... 118

Theory Of Kingship ....................................................................................................................................................... 118



The Invasion Of South India And The Defence Against The Mongols ............................................................... 118

Fixing Up Prices Of Everything ................................................................................................................................... 119

Administrative Reforms ................................................................................................................................................. 121

The Episode Of Padmini ............................................................................................................................................... 122

Downfall Of The Khalji Empire .................................................................................................................................. 122

The So-Called Tughluq Dynasty .................................................................................................................................. 123

Ghiyas-Ud-Din Tughluq Shah (1320-1325 A.D.) ...................................................................................................... 123

Muhammad Bin Tughluq (1325-1351 A.D.) .............................................................................................................. 123

Muhammad Tughluq’s Ambitious Plans ..................................................................................................................... 123

Domestic Policy .............................................................................................................................................................. 124

The Introduction Of Token Currency (1329-1330 A.D.) ........................................................................................ 125

The Mongol Invasion ..................................................................................................................................................... 125

Extension Of The Empire (Foreign Policy) ............................................................................................................... 125

Death Of Muhammad Tughluq .................................................................................................................................... 126

Firuz Shah Tughluq (1351-1388 A.D.) ........................................................................................................................ 126

The Sayyid Dynasty ........................................................................................................................................................ 127

Khizr Khan (1414-1421 A.D.) ...................................................................................................................................... 127

Mubarak Shah (1421-1434 A.D.) .................................................................................................................................. 127

Ala-Ud-Din Alam Shah (1445-1450 A.D.) ................................................................................................................. 128

The States Of Central And Southern India In The Period Of The Sultanate Of Delhi ..................................... 129

The Bahmani Sultanate Of The Deccan ..................................................................................................................... 129

The Gajapatis Of Orissa ................................................................................................................................................ 130

The Foundation Of The Vijayanagar Empire ............................................................................................................ 132

Vijayanagar’s Glory And Doom ................................................................................................................................... 133

Cultural Development In India .................................................................................................................................... 136

(From The 13th To The 15th Century) ......................................................................................................................... 136

Architecture ..................................................................................................................................................................... 136

The Sufi Movement ........................................................................................................................................................ 137

The Chishti And Suharwardi Silsilahs.......................................................................................................................... 138

The Bhakti Movement ............................................................................................................................................... 139

The Vaishnavite Movement..................................................................................................................................... 141

Literature And Fine Arts ........................................................................................................................................... 142

Fine Arts ................................................................................................................................................................... 144



The Rise And Fall Of The Mughal Empire ................................................................................................................ 146

The First Battle Of Panipat (20 April 1526) ............................................................................................................... 148

The Battle Of Khanwa ................................................................................................................................................... 149

Significance Of Babur’s Advent Into India ................................................................................................................ 150

Humayun .......................................................................................................................................................................... 151

Sher Khan......................................................................................................................................................................... 152

Sher Shah And The Sur Empire (1540-55) ................................................................................................................. 153

Battle Of Sammel ............................................................................................................................................................ 154

Administration ................................................................................................................................................................. 154

Age Of Akbar .................................................................................................................................................................. 155

Second Battle Of Panipat ,5 November 1556 ............................................................................................................ 155

Bairam Khan .................................................................................................................................................................... 155

Consolidation ................................................................................................................................................................... 156

Revenue System............................................................................................................................................................... 156

Mansabdari System ......................................................................................................................................................... 158

Foreign Relations Of Mughals ...................................................................................................................................... 159

Relations With The Portuguese .................................................................................................................................... 159

Relations With The Ottoman Empire ......................................................................................................................... 159

Din-I-Ilahi ........................................................................................................................................................................ 160

Akbar Namah .................................................................................................................................................................. 160

Death................................................................................................................................................................................. 161

The Deccan And South India ....................................................................................................................................... 161

(Up To 1656) ................................................................................................................................................................... 161

Cultural Contribution Of The Deccan States............................................................................................................. 162

India In The First Half Of The Seventeenth Century .............................................................................................. 163

Nur Jahan ......................................................................................................................................................................... 163

Shah Jahan’s Rebellion ................................................................................................................................................... 164

Shah Jahan ........................................................................................................................................................................ 164

Administration ................................................................................................................................................................. 165

Cultural And Religious Developments ........................................................................................................................ 166

Religious Ideas And Beliefs, And Problems Of Integration .................................................................................... 166

Climax And Disintegration Of The Mughal Empire ................................................................................................ 168

Aurangzeb ........................................................................................................................................................................ 168

Aurangzeb’s Reign — His Religious Policy ................................................................................................................ 169



Architecture ..................................................................................................................................................................... 170

Chronology ...................................................................................................................................................................... 173

Who Is Who In Medieval India .................................................................................................................................... 176

Mughal Twilight .............................................................................................................................................................. 187

The Emergence Of Regional States And The East India Company ...................................................................... 187

The ‘Fault Lines’ Of Mughal Control .......................................................................................................................... 187

Mughals Post Aurangzeb ............................................................................................................................................... 188

Regional Powers .............................................................................................................................................................. 193

Hyderabad ........................................................................................................................................................................ 193

Awadh ............................................................................................................................................................................... 193

Bengal................................................................................................................................................................................ 194

Emergence Of The Nawab Of Murshidabad ............................................................................................................. 195

Mysore .............................................................................................................................................................................. 195

Anglo Mysore Wars ........................................................................................................................................................ 196

Rajputs .............................................................................................................................................................................. 197

Sikhs .................................................................................................................................................................................. 197

The Punjab Under Ranjit Singh .................................................................................................................................... 197

Anglo Sikh Wars.............................................................................................................................................................. 198

Marathas ........................................................................................................................................................................... 198

Europeans In India ......................................................................................................................................................... 200

The Portuguese................................................................................................................................................................ 200

The Dutch ........................................................................................................................................................................ 201

The British East India Company .................................................................................................................................. 201

The French ....................................................................................................................................................................... 203

Anglo-French Conflicts ................................................................................................................................................. 204

Robert Clive And The Diwani Of Bengal................................................................................................................... 207

Warren Hastings: Architect Of An Empire ................................................................................................................ 208

Absconding Peasants And The Permanent Settlement ............................................................................................ 213

Permanent Settlement .................................................................................................................................................... 214

Subsidiary Alliance .......................................................................................................................................................... 217

The Uses Of Education ................................................................................................................................................. 218

Dalhousie And The Policy Of Annexation (1848-1856) .......................................................................................... 221

Revolt Of 1857 ................................................................................................................................................................ 222

The Colonial Economy .................................................................................................................................................. 227



The Ebb And Flow Of Silver ....................................................................................................................................... 227

The Fate Of Indian Industry ......................................................................................................................................... 230

Foundation Of The Congress ....................................................................................................................................... 230

Ilbert Bill Controversy.................................................................................................................................................... 233

Congress Sessions ........................................................................................................................................................... 234

Chronology (1877-1942) ................................................................................................................................................ 239

India After Curzon ......................................................................................................................................................... 240

Administrative Reforms ................................................................................................................................................. 240

The Partition Of Bengal, 1905 ...................................................................................................................................... 241

The Growth And Development Of The Indian National Movement ................................................................... 242

First Phase, 1885-1905 ................................................................................................................................................... 243

Period Of Moderate Politics Or Tea-Party Politics ................................................................................................... 243

Official Attitude Towards The Congress .................................................................................................................... 244

Second Phase, 1905—1919 ........................................................................................................................................... 245

Rise Of Extremism Or Radical Politics ....................................................................................................................... 245

Causes For The Rise Of Extremism ............................................................................................................................ 246

The Objectives And Methods Of The Extremist Group......................................................................................... 247

The Extremist Programme Of Action ........................................................................................................................ 248

Indian Nationalists And World War I ......................................................................................................................... 249

Home Rule Movement................................................................................................................................................... 249

The Lucknow Session, 1916 .......................................................................................................................................... 250

Annie Besant .................................................................................................................................................................... 250

The Revolutionary Terrorist Movement ..................................................................................................................... 252

The Third Phase Or The Gandhian Era, 1919-1947 ................................................................................................. 256

Aim Of Swaraj Through Non-Violence & Non-Cooperation ................................................................................ 256

The Non-Cooperation Movement, 1920-22 .............................................................................................................. 257

The Civil Disobedience Movement, 1930-34 ............................................................................................................. 258

The Great War And The Constitutional Deadlock ................................................................................................... 258

Assessment Of Gandhi’s Role In India’s Struggle For Independence ................................................................... 260

Gandhi Timeline Before 1920’s .................................................................................................................................... 260

Gandhiji In Champaran Ahmedabad And Kheda ..................................................................................................... 262

Rowlatt Act ...................................................................................................................................................................... 263

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre ............................................................................................................................................. 263

Home Rule League ......................................................................................................................................................... 264



Lucknow Pact .................................................................................................................................................................. 264

Indian Liberal Party ........................................................................................................................................................ 265

Tej Bahadur Sapru .......................................................................................................................................................... 265

Nehru Report................................................................................................................................................................... 266

Lahore Conspiracy Case ................................................................................................................................................ 268

Meerut Conspiracy Case ................................................................................................................................................ 268

Karachi Session ............................................................................................................................................................... 268

Round Table Conferences, 1930-1932 ........................................................................................................................ 268

Communal Award ........................................................................................................................................................... 271

Lucknow Session 1936 ................................................................................................................................................... 273

The Faizpur Congress Session (December 1936) ...................................................................................................... 273

Demand For Pakistan..................................................................................................................................................... 273

C.R.Formula ..................................................................................................................................................................... 274

Desai-Liaquat Pact .......................................................................................................................................................... 275

Indian National Army .................................................................................................................................................... 275

Royal Indian Navy Mutiny ............................................................................................................................................ 276

Subhash Chandra Bose .................................................................................................................................................. 277

Cellular Jail ....................................................................................................................................................................... 279

The Pattern Of Constitutional Reform ....................................................................................................................... 279

The Morley–Minto Reform And Separate Electorates ............................................................................................. 280

The Montagu–Chelmsford Reform And Responsible Government ...................................................................... 280

Federalism And The Government Of India Act Of 1935 ....................................................................................... 281

The Second World War, The Cripps Mission And ‘Quit India’ .............................................................................. 282

The Simla Conference And Its Aftermath .................................................................................................................. 285

The Cabinet Mission Scheme And The Advent Of Partition ................................................................................. 286

Operation Mountbatten And ‘Plan Balkan’ ................................................................................................................ 288

Integration Of States ...................................................................................................................................................... 290

Foreign Policy Of Non-Alignment .............................................................................................................................. 291

Indo-China Relations ..................................................................................................................................................... 292

The Chinese Attack, 1962 .............................................................................................................................................. 293

Chronology 1858-1964 ................................................................................................................................................... 296

CIVIL SERVICES PRELIMS : General Geography


Table of Contents

THE SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY .......................................................................... 5

The Earth’s Four Spheres .............................................................................. 6

THE GEOGRAPHER’S TOOLS ........................................................................... 9

Latitude ....................................................................................................... 10

Longitude ..................................................................................................... 12

Map Scale .................................................................................................... 13

Isolines ........................................................................................................ 14

Digital Technology in Geography.................................................................. 16

Remote Sensing ........................................................................................... 16

Global Positioning Systems .......................................................................... 18

Geographic Information Systems ................................................................. 19

EARTH–SUN GEOMETRY AND THE SEASONS............................................... 20

Our Place in Space....................................................................................... 20

The Shape of Earth ...................................................................................... 21

Earth’s Orbit Around the Sun ...................................................................... 21

The Earth’s Rotation and Axial Tilt .............................................................. 22

The Seasons ................................................................................................. 24

Solstice and Equinox ................................................................................... 25

THE GLOBAL ENERGY SYSTEM..................................................................... 28

The Electromagnetic Spectrum .................................................................... 28

Composition of the Atmosphere ................................................................... 29

Constant Gases............................................................................................ 30

Variable Gases ............................................................................................. 30

Particulates .................................................................................................. 33

Heat Transfer ............................................................................................... 35

Flow of Solar Radiation in the Atmosphere .................................................. 36

Interaction of Solar Radiation and the Earth’s Surface ................................ 37



The Global Radiation Budget ....................................................................... 39

GLOBAL TEMPERATURE PATTERNS.............................................................. 42

The Troposphere .......................................................................................... 43

The Stratosphere.......................................................................................... 43

The Mesosphere ........................................................................................... 44

The Thermosphere ....................................................................................... 45

Large-Scale Geographic Factors That Influence Air Temperature................. 45

Local Factors That Influence Air Temperature ............................................. 47

Human Interactions: The Urban Effect on Temperature .............................. 49

Other Local Factors That Influence Temperature ......................................... 50

The Annual Range of Surface Temperature (A Holistic Assessment) ............ 50

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, WIND, AND GLOBAL CIRCULATION ................. 53

Factors That Influence Air Pressure ............................................................. 53

Atmospheric Pressure Systems .................................................................... 55

Low-Pressure Systems ................................................................................. 55

High-Pressure Systems ................................................................................ 55

The Direction of Airflow................................................................................ 57

Unequal Heating of Land Surfaces ............................................................... 57

Coriolis Force ............................................................................................... 58

Global Pressure and Atmospheric Circulation ............................................. 60

Midlatitude Circulation ................................................................................ 62

Polar Circulation .......................................................................................... 63

Seasonal Migration of Pressure Systems ...................................................... 64

Local Wind Systems ..................................................................................... 66

Land–Sea Breezes ........................................................................................ 67

Topographic Winds ...................................................................................... 67

Oceanic Circulation Gyres and Thermo-haline Circulation .......................... 68

El Niño ......................................................................................................... 69

ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE AND PRECIPITATION .......................................... 70

The Hydrosphere and the Hydrologic Cycle.................................................. 70



Humidity ...................................................................................................... 72

Maximum, Specific, and Relative Humidity.................................................. 72

Dew-Point Temperature ............................................................................... 74

Adiabatic Processes...................................................................................... 77

The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate ...................................................................... 77

The Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate ...................................................................... 78

Cloud Classification ..................................................................................... 79

Fog ............................................................................................................... 81

Precipitation................................................................................................. 82

Types of Precipitation ................................................................................... 82

Precipitation Processes ................................................................................ 83

Air Masses and Fronts ................................................................................. 88

Air Masses ................................................................................................... 89

Fronts .......................................................................................................... 90

Key Concepts To Remember About Air Masses And Fronts.......................... 92

Evolution and Character of Midlatitude Cyclones ........................................ 92

Upper Airflow and the 500-mb Pressure Surface ......................................... 93

Interaction of Upper Airflow and Surface Airflow ......................................... 94

Cyclogenesis ................................................................................................ 95

Key Concepts To Remember About The Formation Of Midlatitude Cyclones 97

GLOBAL CLIMATES AND GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE .................................. 98

Climate and the Factors That Affect It ......................................................... 98

Köppen Climate Classification ..................................................................... 99

THE GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SOILS ......................... 102

Soil-Forming (Pedogenic) Processes............................................................ 102

Soil-Forming Factors.................................................................................. 103

Key Concepts to Remember about Pedogenic Processes And Soil-Forming

Factors ....................................................................................................... 106

Soil Profiles (Reading the Soil).................................................................... 107

Soil horizons. ............................................................................................. 107

Key Concepts To Remember About Soil Science And Classification ........... 109



PLATE TECTONICS ....................................................................................... 111

Continental and Oceanic Crust.................................................................. 112

Plate Boundaries........................................................................................ 112

Divergent Margins ...................................................................................... 113

Continental Rifting..................................................................................... 113

Seafloor Spreading ..................................................................................... 113

Convergent Margins ................................................................................... 114

Subduction Zone Trenches ........................................................................ 114

Back-Arc Basins ........................................................................................ 115

Continental Collision ................................................................................. 115

Accretion and Subduction.......................................................................... 116

Mountain Building ..................................................................................... 116

Transform Faults ....................................................................................... 117

Hot Spots ................................................................................................... 117

Volcanoes And Volcanism .......................................................................... 118

Six Types of Eruptions ............................................................................... 120

The Major Types of Volcanic Landforms..................................................... 121

Stratovolcanoes.......................................................................................... 121

Shield Volcanoes ........................................................................................ 123

Submarine Volcanoes ................................................................................ 123

Calderas..................................................................................................... 123

Complex Volcanoes .................................................................................... 123

Pyroclastic Cones ....................................................................................... 124

Volcanic Fields ........................................................................................... 124

Fissure Vents ............................................................................................. 124

Volcanoes Related to Plate Boundaries ...................................................... 126

Rift Volcanoes ............................................................................................ 127

Intra plate Volcanism ................................................................................. 128

EARTHQUAKES ............................................................................................ 128

The Causes of Earthquakes ....................................................................... 129



Natural Forces ........................................................................................... 129

Tectonics.................................................................................................... 129

Volcanism .................................................................................................. 130

Artificial Induction ..................................................................................... 130

Reservoir Induction .................................................................................... 131

Seismology and Nuclear Explosions ........................................................... 131

The Effects of Earthquakes ........................................................................ 131

Surface Phenomena ................................................................................... 132

Tsunamis ................................................................................................... 132

Seiches....................................................................................................... 133

WEATHERING AND MASS MOVEMENT ....................................................... 134

Mechanical Weathering .............................................................................. 135

Chemical Weathering ................................................................................. 138

Human Interactions: Acid Rain .................................................................. 139

Key Concepts To Remember About Weathering ......................................... 139

Mass Wasting............................................................................................. 140

Rockfall ...................................................................................................... 141

Soil Creep .................................................................................................. 142

Landslides.................................................................................................. 142

Avalanches................................................................................................. 144

CIVIL SERVICES PRELIMS : Indian Geography


Table of Contents

INDIA—LOCATION, EXTENT AND PHYSICAL FEATURES ......................................................... 8

Location and Extent ............................................................................................................... 8

India at a Glance .................................................................................................................... 8

India’s Neighbours ............................................................................................................... 10

Political Divisions ................................................................................................................. 11

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES...................................................................................................... 12

THE NORTHERN MOUNTAINS ................................................................................................. 12

Origin of the Himalayan Mountain System .......................................................................... 12

The Himalaya Mountains ..................................................................................................... 15

The Himalaya Ranges ........................................................................................................... 15

The Trans-Himalayan Ranges .............................................................................................. 18

The Eastern Hills ................................................................................................................. 18

Significance of the Northern Mountains ............................................................................... 19

THE NORTHERN PLAINS ......................................................................................................... 21

The Rajasthan Plain ............................................................................................................. 22

The Punjab-Haryana Plains ................................................................................................. 23

The Ganga Plain ................................................................................................................... 23

The Brahmaputra Plain ........................................................................................................ 24

Significance of the Northern Plains ...................................................................................... 24

The Peninsular Plateaus ...................................................................................................... 25

Plateaus of Peninsular India ................................................................................................ 25

Hill Ranges of Peninsular India ............................................................................................ 28

The Western Ghats or Sahyadris .......................................................................................... 28

The Eastern Ghats ............................................................................................................... 30

Significance of Peninsular Plateau ....................................................................................... 30

Comparison between the Himalayan & the Peninsular Rivers .............................................. 31

The Coastal Plains and the Islands ...................................................................................... 31

The Western Coastal Plain ................................................................................................... 32

The Eastern Coastal Plain .................................................................................................... 33

Significance of Coastal Plains ............................................................................................... 34

The Indian Islands ............................................................................................................... 34

INDIA—THE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ...................................................................................... 35

Factors Affecting the Climate of India .................................................................................. 35

Salient Features of the Climate of India ............................................................................... 38

MECHANISM OF MONSOONS ................................................................................................. 39



CYCLE OF SEASONS ............................................................................................................... 41

Distribution of Annual Rainfall ............................................................................................ 46

India—Withdrawal of Monsoon ................................................................................................ 47

Areas of Very Heavy Rainfall ................................................................................................ 48

Characteristics of Rainfall in India ....................................................................................... 49

El- NINO AND THE INDIAN MONSOON ................................................................................... 50

Somalian Current................................................................................................................. 52

Burst of Monsoon ................................................................................................................. 52

DROUGHTS ............................................................................................................................. 53

FLOODS ................................................................................................................................... 55

Flood Prone Areas of India ................................................................................................... 55

RIVER BASINS OF INDIA ......................................................................................................... 56

TYPES OF LAKES..................................................................................................................... 59

The Tectonic Lakes .................................................................................................................. 60

The Crater Lakes ...................................................................................................................... 60

Glacial Lakes (Tarns)................................................................................................................ 60

Fluvial Lakes ............................................................................................................................ 60

Aeolian Lakes ........................................................................................................................... 61

Dissolution Lakes .................................................................................................................... 61

Lagoons .................................................................................................................................... 61

Landslide Lakes ....................................................................................................................... 61

Main Lakes of India.................................................................................................................. 61

WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA ............................................................................................... 67

Water Harvesting in India .................................................................................................... 68

Rain-water Harvesting.......................................................................................................... 69

The Inter-State Water Disputes ............................................................................................ 73

International Agreements for Surface Water Resources ....................................................... 74

The Indus Water Treaty ........................................................................................................ 74

National Water Grid ............................................................................................................. 75

The Ganga-Kaveri Link Canal .............................................................................................. 76

The Brahmaputra-Ganga Link Canal ................................................................................... 77

The Narmada Link Canal to Gujarat and Rajasthan ............................................................ 78

The Chambal Link Canal ..................................................................................................... 78

Links between the Rivers of the Western Ghats to the East ................................................. 78

The National Water Policy .................................................................................................... 78

MAIN WATERFALLS OF INDIA ................................................................................................. 79

SOILS OF INDIA ....................................................................................................................... 84

Types of Soils in India .......................................................................................................... 84

Alluvial Soil .......................................................................................................................... 84



Black Soil ............................................................................................................................. 85

Red Soil ................................................................................................................................ 86

Laterite Soil .......................................................................................................................... 87

Mountain Soil....................................................................................................................... 87

Desert Soil............................................................................................................................ 88

Soil Erosion .......................................................................................................................... 89

Land Use Planning ............................................................................................................... 91

NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA .......................................................................................... 93

Types of Natural Vegetation ..................................................................................................... 94

Uses of Important Trees ........................................................................................................... 99

National Forest Policy......................................................................................................... 100

Classification of Forests ..................................................................................................... 103

INDIAN IRRIGATION .............................................................................................................. 104

Geographical Factors Favouring Irrigation in India ............................................................ 106

Means of Irrigation ............................................................................................................. 106

Tank Irrigation ................................................................................................................... 106

Merits of Tank Irrigation .................................................................................................... 107

Demerits of Tank Irrigation ................................................................................................ 107

Well and Tube-Well Irrigation ............................................................................................. 107

Merits of Well and Tube well Irrigation ............................................................................... 108

Demerits of Well and Tube Well Irrigation .......................................................................... 109

Canal Irrigation .................................................................................................................. 109

Merits of Canals Irrigation ................................................................................................. 110

Demerits of Canal Irrigation ............................................................................................... 110

MINERALS IN INDIA-I ............................................................................................................ 111

Iron ore, Manganese, Bauxite and Limestone..................................................................... 111

Types of Minerals ............................................................................................................... 111

Distribution of Minerals ..................................................................................................... 112

IRON ORE .............................................................................................................................. 112

Types of Iron Ore ................................................................................................................ 113

Reserves of Iron Ore ........................................................................................................... 113

MANGANESE ......................................................................................................................... 116

Areas of Manganese Production In India ............................................................................ 117

BAUXITE ................................................................................................................................ 118

Reserves of Bauxite in India ............................................................................................... 119

Areas of Bauxite Production ............................................................................................... 121

Consumption and Trade .................................................................................................... 122

LIMESTONE ........................................................................................................................... 122

Areas of Limestone Production ........................................................................................... 122



MINERALS IN INDIA-II ........................................................................................................... 124

Coal and Petroleum ............................................................................................................ 124

Types of Coal ...................................................................................................................... 124

Occurrence of Coal In India ............................................................................................... 125

The Gondwana Coalfields ................................................................................................... 125

The Tertiary Coalfields ....................................................................................................... 126

Inventory of Geological Resources of Coal in India ............................................................. 126

Areas of Coal Production in India ....................................................................................... 128

Consumption of Coal In India ............................................................................................ 129

Problems of Coal Mining In India ....................................................................................... 129

PETROLEUM .......................................................................................................................... 130

Origin and Occurrence of Petroleum ...................................................................................... 130

Reserves of Petroleum in India ........................................................................................... 130

Areas of Petroleum Production ........................................................................................... 131

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA ........................................................................................................ 136

Types of Farming in India .................................................................................................. 136

Agricultural Seasons .......................................................................................................... 138

Kharif Season ..................................................................................................................... 138

Rabi Season ....................................................................................................................... 138

Zaid Season........................................................................................................................ 139

Green Revolution in India ...................................................................................................... 139

Merits of the High Yielding Varieties .................................................................................. 140

Geographical Constraints in the Adoption of New Seeds .................................................... 141

RAINBOW REVOLUTION ........................................................................................................ 144

DRY FARMING ....................................................................................................................... 146

Significant Features of Dry Farming .................................................................................. 146

Main Problems of Dry Farming .......................................................................................... 148

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA-MAJOR CROPS-1 ........................................................................... 149

Rice, Wheat, Millets and Pulses ......................................................................................... 149

Rice .................................................................................................................................... 149

Conditions for Growth of Rice ............................................................................................ 149

Methods of Rice Cultivation in India .................................................................................. 150

Areas of Rice Production .................................................................................................... 150

WHEAT .................................................................................................................................. 151

Conditions for Growth of Wheat ......................................................................................... 151

Methods of Wheat Cultivation in India ............................................................................... 151

Millets ................................................................................................................................ 152

Jowar ................................................................................................................................. 152

Bajra .................................................................................................................................. 153



Conditions for Growth of Bajra .......................................................................................... 153

Areas of Bajra Production .................................................................................................. 153

Ragi .................................................................................................................................... 153

Conditions for Growth of Ragi ............................................................................................ 154

Areas of Ragi Production .................................................................................................... 154

Pulses ................................................................................................................................ 154

Gram .................................................................................................................................. 154

Arhar or Tur ....................................................................................................................... 154

Masur or Lentil .................................................................................................................. 155

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA-MAJOR CROPS-II ........................................................................... 155

Sugar Cane, Oilseeds, Cotton and Jute.............................................................................. 155

Sugar Cane ........................................................................................................................ 155

Conditions for Growth of Sugar cane ................................................................................. 155

Sugar Cane Cultivation in India ......................................................................................... 156

Areas of Sugar Cane Production ........................................................................................ 157

Comparison between North India and South India for Sugar Cane Cultivation ................. 157

Problems of Sugar Cane Cultivation in India ..................................................................... 158

Oilseeds ............................................................................................................................. 158

Groundnut ......................................................................................................................... 159

Conditions for growth of Groundnuts ................................................................................ 159

Areas of Groundnut Production ......................................................................................... 159

Sesamum (Til) .................................................................................................................... 160

Conditions for growth of Sesamum (Til) ............................................................................. 160

Areas of Sesamum (Til) Production .................................................................................... 160

Rapeseed and Mustard....................................................................................................... 160

Conditions for Growth of Rapeseed and Mustard ............................................................... 161

Areas of Rapeseed and Mustard Production ....................................................................... 161

Linseed ............................................................................................................................... 161

Conditions for Growth of Linseed ....................................................................................... 161

Areas of Linseed Production ............................................................................................... 161

Castor Seed ........................................................................................................................ 162

Conditions for Growth of Castor Seed ................................................................................ 162

Areas of Castor Seed Production ........................................................................................ 162

Sunflower Seed .................................................................................................................. 162

Conditions for Growth of Sunflower Seed ........................................................................... 162

Areas of Sunflower Seed Production ................................................................................... 163

Cotton Seed ........................................................................................................................ 163

Soyabean ........................................................................................................................... 163

Conditions for Growth of Soyabean .................................................................................... 163



Areas of Soyabean Production ............................................................................................ 163

COCONUT .............................................................................................................................. 164

Conditions for Growth of Coconut ...................................................................................... 164

Cultivation ......................................................................................................................... 164

Areas .................................................................................................................................. 164

COTTON ................................................................................................................................. 164

Conditions for Growth of Cotton ........................................................................................ 164

Types of Cotton .................................................................................................................. 165

Methods of Cultivation ....................................................................................................... 165

Areas of Cotton Production ................................................................................................ 166

JUTE ...................................................................................................................................... 167

Conditions for Growth of Jute ............................................................................................ 167

Method of Cultivation and Processing ................................................................................ 167

Areas of Jute Production .................................................................................................... 168

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA-MAJOR CROPS-III.......................................................................... 169

Tea, Coffee and Rubber ...................................................................................................... 169

Tea ..................................................................................................................................... 169

Types of Tea ....................................................................................................................... 169

Conditions for Growth of Tea ............................................................................................. 169


Areas of Tea Production ..................................................................................................... 171

COFFEE ................................................................................................................................. 171

Types of Coffee ................................................................................................................... 172

Conditions for Growth of Coffee ......................................................................................... 172

Methods of Cultivation and Processing .............................................................................. 173

Areas of Coffee Production ................................................................................................. 173

RUBBER ................................................................................................................................ 173

Conditions for Growth of Rubber ....................................................................................... 174


Areas of Rubber Production ............................................................................................... 175

INDIA-INDUSTRIES ............................................................................................................... 176

Growth of Industries in India ............................................................................................. 176

Liberalisation ..................................................................................................................... 177

Location of Industries ........................................................................................................ 177

Classification of Industries ................................................................................................. 179

Major Industrial Regions of India ....................................................................................... 180

SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONE (SEZ) ......................................................................................... 182

Defining Feature ................................................................................................................ 182

Objectives of Special Economic Zone.................................................................................. 182



Historical Perspective ......................................................................................................... 182

Conditions for Ideal SEZ .................................................................................................... 183

Special Economic Zones of India ........................................................................................ 183

INDIA-AGRO–BASED INDUTSRIES ........................................................................................ 184

Sugar Industry ................................................................................................................... 184

Location of Sugar Industry ................................................................................................. 184

Distribution of Sugar Industry ........................................................................................... 185

Difference between Sugar Industry Of Northern And Southern India................................. 185

THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES ................................................................................................... 187

Cotton Textiles ................................................................................................................... 187

Growth and Development ................................................................................................... 187

Location of Cotton Textile Industry .................................................................................... 187

Distribution of Cotton Textile Industry In India ................................................................. 188

Silk Textiles ........................................................................................................................ 191

Distribution of Silk Textile Mills In India ............................................................................ 191

Jute Textiles ....................................................................................................................... 191


Location of Jute Industry In India ...................................................................................... 192

Distribution of Jute Mills In India ...................................................................................... 193

Woollen Textiles ................................................................................................................. 193

Distribution of Woollen Mills In India................................................................................. 193

INDIA-MINERAL-BASED INDUSTRIES .................................................................................. 195

The Iron and Steel Industry ............................................................................................... 195


Locational Factors .............................................................................................................. 196

Distribution of Iron and Steel Industry .............................................................................. 196

Problems of Iron And Steel Industry In India ..................................................................... 202

Heavy Engineering ............................................................................................................. 202

Industrial Machinery .......................................................................................................... 202

Machine Tools .................................................................................................................... 203

Railway Equipment ............................................................................................................ 203

Automobile Industry .......................................................................................................... 204

Shipbuilding Industry ........................................................................................................ 205

Aircraft Industry ................................................................................................................ 205

Petrochemicals ................................................................................................................... 206

Electronics Industry ........................................................................................................... 206

Means of Transport ............................................................................................................ 207

Waterways .......................................................................................................................... 208

REFRENCE ............................................................................................................................ 210



International Airports of India ............................................................................................ 210

Major Ports in India ........................................................................................................... 211

Important National Highways ............................................................................................. 211

Railway Gauges .................................................................................................................. 213

The Konkan Railway .......................................................................................................... 214

The Railway Zones ............................................................................................................. 214

The Main Scheduled Tribes of India ................................................................................... 215

CIVIL SERVICES PRELIMS : Indian Polity


Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ..................................................... 9

Need for a constitution ........................................ 10

Types of constitutions ......................................... 10

Written and Unwritten constitutions ............................ 10

federal and unitary constitutions .............................. 11

confederation ................................................. 11

constitutionalism ............................................. 11

indian constitution: milestones in history ..................... 12

legislature of various countries ............................... 21

bicameral countries ........................................... 23

SALIENT FEATURES OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION ...................... 25

Power resides with the people .................................. 25

rule of law prevails........................................... 25

social document ............................................... 25

written constitution........................................... 25

preamble ...................................................... 26

federal structure ............................................. 26

parliamentary government ....................................... 27

separation of powers........................................... 28

secular state ................................................. 29

independent judiciary.......................................... 29

judicial review ............................................... 29

fundamental rights ............................................ 30

directive principles of state policy ........................... 30

fundamental duties ............................................ 30

flexibility of constitution and its basic structure ............ 30

universal adult suffrage ....................................... 31

emergency provisions........................................... 31

independent agencies........................................... 32

PREAMBLE ........................................................ 33

Purpose ....................................................... 33

nature and scope .............................................. 33



preamble: an aid to interpretation ............................. 38

limitations of preamble as an internal aid to construction ..... 39

CITIZENSHIP ..................................................... 39

Parliament’s power to regulate right of Citizenship by law and the

Citizenship Act, 1955.......................................... 41

Idea of Justice I- Fundamental Rights ........................... 43

What is Justice? .............................................. 43

Nature of Fundamental Rights ................................... 43

The constitution of india ...................................... 45

contents ...................................................... 45

Fundamental Rights-Contents .................................... 60

Right to Equality ............................................. 60

Right to Freedom .............................................. 61

Right against Exploitation ..................................... 65

Right to Freedom of Religion ................................... 65

Cultural and Educational Rights ................................ 66

Right to Constitutional Remedies ............................... 66

Idea of Justice II-Directive Principles of State Policy .......... 67

Features of Directive Principles of State Policy ............... 68

Directive Principles of State Policy: Contents ................. 68

Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Rights-

Inter-Relationship ............................................ 70

Parliamentary Democracy ......................................... 73

Characteristics of the Parliamentary Form of Government ........ 73

Constitutional or Nominal and Real Executive ................... 73

Plural Executive .............................................. 74

Ministerial Responsibility and Collective Responsibility ....... 74

Parliamentary Sovereignty ...................................... 75

Parliamentary Control over Administration ...................... 76

INDIAN FEDERALISM: NATURE AND PROBLEMS .......................... 77

Written Constitution........................................... 77

Supremacy of the Constitution .................................. 77

Rigid Constitution ............................................ 77

Division of Powers ............................................ 78

Independent Judiciary.......................................... 78

Bicameral Legislature.......................................... 78



Unitary features of the Indian Constitution .................... 78

A Strong Centre ............................................... 78

Single Citizenship ............................................ 79

Single Constitution for Union and State ........................ 79

Centre Can Change the Name and Boundaries of States ............ 79

Single Unified Judiciary ....................................... 79

Unequal Representation of States in the Rajya Sabha ............ 79

Common All-India Services ...................................... 79

Emergency Provisions........................................... 80

Political Executive at the Union Level ......................... 80

THE PRESIDENT OF INDIA .......................................... 81

Powers of the President ........................................ 81

Executive Powers .............................................. 81

Legislative Powers ............................................ 82

Financial Powers .............................................. 83

Judicial Powers ............................................... 84

Emergency Powers .............................................. 84

Consequence of the Proclamation ................................ 85

Financial Emergency ........................................... 86

Position of the President ...................................... 86

Steps to Curb President’s Power-Amendment of Article 74 ........ 86

Working of the Constitution .................................... 87

VICE-PRESIDENT .................................................. 91

Functions ..................................................... 91

The Council of Ministers ........................................ 92

Composition ................................................... 92

THE CONSTITUTION (NINETY-FIRST AMENDMENT) ACT, 2003 ............ 92

Council of Ministers and Cabinet ............................... 93

Functions of the Cabinet ....................................... 94

Executive Functions ........................................... 94

Legislative functions.......................................... 94

Financial powers .............................................. 94

Cabinet Committees ............................................ 95

N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar Committee’s Report ..................... 96

Recommendations of the Administrative Reforms Commission ....... 98

Ministries and Departments ..................................... 99



Working of the Ministries/Departments .......................... 99

The Secretariat .............................................. 100

Executive Organization of the Department ...................... 100

MINISTRIES/DEPARTMENTS OF THE GOVERNMENT ....................... 100

THE PRIME MINISTER ............................................. 104

Appointment of the Prime Minister ............................. 104

The Prime Minister as the Head of the Council of Ministers .... 105

The Prime Minister and the Parliament ......................... 106

The Link Between the President and Cabinet .................... 106

Spokesman of the Government on Foreign Policy ................. 107

The Prime Minister’s Control over Intelligence Agencies ....... 107

Administrative and Executive Functions of the Prime Minister .. 107

Position of the Prime Minister ................................ 108

PMO .......................................................... 108

THE PARLIAMENT ................................................. 110

The Lok Sabha ................................................ 110

Speaker of the Lok Sabha ...................................... 112

Power and Functions of the Speaker ............................ 113

The Rajya Sabha .............................................. 114

Rajya Sabha: Its Composition .................................. 114

Leader of the House ......................................... 116

Power and Functions of the Rajya Sabha ........................ 118

Legislative Powers ........................................... 119

Constitutional Amendments ..................................... 119

The Role of the Rajya Sabha ................................... 120

Power of the Parliament ....................................... 120

Financial Powers ............................................. 121

The Finance Commission ........................................ 122

Appointment .................................................. 122

Composition .................................................. 122

Functions of Finance Commission ............................... 122

Finance Commission .......................................... 123

Year of Establishment ....................................... 123

Chairman .................................................... 123

Operational Duration ........................................ 123

Finance Commission And Planning Commission .................... 123



Judicial Powers .............................................. 125

Parliamentary Committees ...................................... 126

PARLIAMENTARY TERMS ............................................ 129

ANTI-DEFECTION LAW ............................................. 136

Provisions of the Act......................................... 136

Disqualification ............................................. 136

THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA ..................................... 146

The Appointment Of Judges ..................................... 146

Qualification of Judges ....................................... 147

Tenure ....................................................... 147

Removal ...................................................... 147

Salary of the Judges.......................................... 147

Prohibition of Practice after Retirement ...................... 148

The seat of the supreme court ................................. 148

Supreme court: a court of record .............................. 148

Jurisdiction and powers of the supreme court .................. 149

Original Jurisdiction......................................... 149

Appellate Jurisdiction ........................................ 149

Advisory Jurisdiction......................................... 150

Writ Jurisdiction ............................................ 151

Supreme Court And Judicial Review ............................. 152

Judicial Review of the Constitutional Amendments .............. 153

Judicial Review of Legislative Enactments and Ordinances ...... 153

HIGH COURT ..................................................... 155

Organisation Of High Court .................................... 155

Appointment of Judges......................................... 155

Qualifications of Judges ...................................... 156

Oath or Affirmation .......................................... 156

Tenure of Judges ............................................. 156

Removal of Judges ............................................ 156

Salaries and Allowances ....................................... 157

Transfer of Judges ........................................... 157

Acting Chief Justice.......................................... 157

Additional and Acting Judges .................................. 158

Retired Judges ............................................... 158

Independence of High court .................................... 158



Jurisdiction and Powers of high court ......................... 159

Control over Subordinate Courts ............................... 162

A Court of Record ............................................ 162

Power of Judicial Review ...................................... 163

GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTS ............................................ 165

Structure of accounts and flow of funds ....................... 165

Consolidated fund of india .................................... 165

Contingency fund of india ..................................... 166

Public account ............................................... 166

COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR GENERAL OF INDIA ....................... 167

Audit Jurisdiction ........................................... 167

Nature of Audit .............................................. 167

ELECTION COMMISSION ............................................ 169

Composition .................................................. 169

Independence ................................................. 170

Powers and functions.......................................... 170

UNION PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION ................................ 171

Historical background......................................... 172

Provisions for independent working of the upsc ................ 172

Composition .................................................. 173

Functions .................................................... 173

ATTORNEY GENERAL AND SOLICITOR GENERAL OF INDIA ................. 174

Appointment and term.......................................... 175

Duties and functions.......................................... 175

Rights and limitations ........................................ 175

SOLICITOR GENERAL OF INDIA ..................................... 176

CENTRAL INFORMATION COMMISSION ................................. 177

Composition .................................................. 178

Tenure and service conditions ................................. 178


CENTRAL VIGILANCE COMMISSION ................................... 179

Composition .................................................. 180

Functions .................................................... 180

Jurisdiction ................................................. 181

Constitutional Protection to Civil Servants ................... 181

Constitutional Safeguards ..................................... 181



ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS IN INDIA ................................ 182

Reports on Indian Administration, 1946-1997 ................... 183

Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA) .............. 184

Administrative Reforms Commission (1966-1970) ................. 184

FIFTH PAY COMMISSION AND ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS ............... 185

Second Administrative Reforms Commission (2005) ............... 186

NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR SCs ................................... 187

Evolution of the commission ................................... 188

Functions of the commission ................................... 188

Report of the commission ...................................... 188

Powers of the commission ...................................... 189

NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR STs ................................... 189

Functions of the commission ................................... 190

Report of the commission ...................................... 190

Powers of the commission ...................................... 191

National Human Rights Commission ............................... 191

Preamble To The Universal Declaration Of Human Rights, 1948 ... 192

Constitution of National Human Rights Commission .............. 192

Removal of a Member of the Commission ......................... 193

Term of Office of Members ..................................... 193

Officers and Staff of the Commission .......................... 193

Functions and Powers of the Commission ........................ 193

Powers Relating to Enquiries .................................. 194

STATE ADMINISTRATION ........................................... 196

THE GOVERNOR ................................................. 196

Appointment of the Governor ................................... 196

Selection of Type of Persons as Governor ...................... 196

Term ......................................................... 197

Transfer of the Governor ...................................... 197

Emoluments ................................................... 197

Immunities ................................................... 197

Power of the Governor......................................... 198

Position of the Governor ...................................... 200

Position of the Governor After 1967 ........................... 202

THE CHIEF MINISTER ............................................. 204

Appointment of the Chief Minister ............................. 204



Powers and Functions.......................................... 204

Allocation of Portfolios ...................................... 204

COUNCIL OF MINISTERS.......................................... 206

Chief Secretary .............................................. 207

EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS/DIRECTORATES ............................ 209

ADVOCATE GENERAL OF THE STATE .................................. 211

Appointment and term.......................................... 211

Duties and functions.......................................... 211

CENTRE-STATE RELATIONS ......................................... 212

Legislative relations......................................... 212

Administrative relations ...................................... 214

Financial relations .......................................... 217

STATE INFORMATION COMMISSION ................................... 218

Composition .................................................. 219

Tenure and service conditions ................................. 219


STATE PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION ................................ 220

Composition .................................................. 221

Removal ...................................................... 221

Independence ................................................. 222

Functions .................................................... 222

Joint state public service commission ......................... 223

SPECIAL STATUS OF JAMMU & KASHMIR .............................. 224

Features Of J&K Constitution .................................. 224

Panchayati Raj ................................................. 226

The Concept Of Panchayati Raj ................................. 226

G.V.K. Rao Committee (1985) ................................. 227

L.M.Singhvi Committee (1986) ................................ 227

THE CONSTITUTION (SEVENTY-THIRD AMENDMENT) ACT, 1992 .......... 227

Urban Local Government ......................................... 235

The Constitution (74th Amendment) Act, 1992 ................... 235

Table of Contents

Right To Information Act 2005 ................................................................................................... 2

Overview Of The Rti Act 2005 ................................................................................................. 2

How The Rti Act Has Helped : Success Stories ....................................................................... 6

Issues In Implementation Of The Rti Act 2005 ....................................................................... 7

Large Pendency Of Cases Before Information Commissions................................................ 7

Who Is Eligible To Seek Information? ..................................................................................... 8

Rights Conferred On Citizens Under The Act .......................................................................... 8

Process For Making A Request For Information And Appeal ................................................. 10

Obligations Of Public Authorities Under The Act .................................................................. 12

Maintenance Of Records ....................................................................................................... 13

Procedure To Be Followed By Pio For Disposal Of Request For Information ......................... 14

Fee For Seeking Information................................................................................................. 14

Time Limit For Supply Of Information .................................................................................. 17

Table Summarizes The Time Limit For Disposal Of Applications In Different Situations: ..... 17

Third Party Information ........................................................................................................ 18

Cyber Laws In India ................................................................................................................. 19

Governing Laws .................................................................................................................... 19

Scope And Applicability ........................................................................................................ 19

The Major Acts, Which Got Amended After Enactment Of Ita ............................................... 20

Consumer Protection And National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission ..................... 22

Confonet Project ................................................................................................................... 23

Consumer Rights .................................................................................................................. 23

Department Of Consumer Affairs ......................................................................................... 24

Bureau Of Indian Standards ................................................................................................ 24

Bis Hallmark ........................................................................................................................ 25

Isi Mark ................................................................................................................................ 25

Exports And Import Laws ........................................................................................................ 26

Competition Protection Laws.................................................................................................... 31

admin

Typewritten text

Basic Laws in India

CIVIL SERVICES PRELIMS : General Science


Table Of Contents

General Science, Mathematics, And Technology……………………………………………………………… 32

What Is The Difference Between Science And Technology? ..................................................................... 26

How Does An Independent Variable Differ From A Dependent Variable? ................................................. 26

What Is High Technology Or High Tech? ................................................................................................ 26

What Is Nanotechnology? ....................................................................................................................... 26

How Large Is A Nanometer? ................................................................................................................... 27

What Is The Oldest Continuously Published Scientific Journal? ............................................................. 27

When Was The First Nobel Prize Awarded? ............................................................................................. 27

Who Are The Youngest And Oldest Nobel Laureates In The Areas Of Physics, Chemistry, And Physiology

Or Medicine? ......................................................................................................................................... 27

Are There Any Multiple Nobel Prize Winners? ......................................................................................... 27

Who Was The First Woman To Receive The Nobel Prize? ......................................................................... 28

How Many Women Have Been Awarded The Nobel Prize In Chemistry, Physics, Or Physiology Or

Medicine? .............................................................................................................................................. 28

When Was The First Time Two Women Shared The Nobel Prize In The Same Field? ................................ 28

Is There A Nobel Prize In Mathematics? .................................................................................................. 29

What Is The Turing Award? .................................................................................................................... 29

Numbers ................................................................................................................................................ 30

What Are Roman Numerals? .................................................................................................................. 30

What Are Fibonacci Numbers? ............................................................................................................... 30

What Is A Perfect Number? .................................................................................................................... 30

How Large Is A Googol? .......................................................................................................................... 30

Computers ............................................................................................................................................. 32

What Is An Algorithm? ........................................................................................................................... 32

What Was The Name Of The Personal Computer Introduced By Apple In The Early 1980s? .................... 32

What’s The Difference Between A “Bit” And A “Byte”? ............................................................................. 32

What Is A Silicon Chip? ......................................................................................................................... 32

What Are The Sizes Of Silicon Chips? ..................................................................................................... 33

What Is The Central Processing Unit Of A Computer? ............................................................................ 33

How Is The Speed Of A Cpu Measured? .................................................................................................. 33

What Is The Difference Between Ram And Rom? .................................................................................... 33

What Are Some Newer Forms Of Portable Storage Media? ...................................................................... 33

What Is A Usb Port? ............................................................................................................................... 34



Is Assembly Language The Same Thing As Machine Language? .............................................................. 34

Who Invented The Cobol Computer Language? ....................................................................................... 35

Which Was The First Widely Used High-Level Programming Language? .................................................. 35

How Did The Linux Operating System Get Its Name? ............................................................................. 35

Open-Source Software (Oss) ................................................................................................................... 35

What Is A Pixel? ..................................................................................................................................... 35

Internet ................................................................................................................................................. 36

What Is The Internet? ............................................................................................................................ 36

Who Coined The Term “Information Superhighway”? .............................................................................. 36

Who Invented The World Wide Web? ...................................................................................................... 36

What Is The Client/Server Principle And How Does It Apply To The Internet? ......................................... 37

What Is A Uniform Resource Locator, Or Url? ........................................................................................ 37

What Are Some Common Top Level Domain (Tld) Suffixes? .................................................................... 37

What Is The Most Popular Search Engine? ............................................................................................. 37

When Was Google Founded? .................................................................................................................. 38

What Is Spam? ...................................................................................................................................... 38

What Is Wi-Fi? ....................................................................................................................................... 38

When Was The Term Web 2.0 First Used? .............................................................................................. 38

What Is Web 2.0? ................................................................................................................................... 38

Web 3.0 ................................................................................................................................................. 39

What Is Inertia? ..................................................................................................................................... 41

What Is Superconductivity? ................................................................................................................... 41

What Are Some Practical Applications Of Superconductivity? ................................................................. 41

What Is String Theory? .......................................................................................................................... 41

What Is The Role Of Friction In Striking A Match?.................................................................................. 42

What Is Friction? ................................................................................................................................... 42

Why Is A Lubricant, Such As Oil, Often Used To Counter The Force Of Friction? .................................... 42

Why Do Golf Balls Have Dimples? .......................................................................................................... 42

Does Water Running Down A Drain Rotate In A Different Direction In The Northern Versus The Southern

Hemisphere? .......................................................................................................................................... 42

What Is The Speed Of Light? .................................................................................................................. 43

What Are The Primary Colors In Light? .................................................................................................. 43

How Do Polarized Sunglasses Reduce Glare? ......................................................................................... 43

Why Does The Color Of Clothing Appear Different In Sunlight Than It Does In A Store Under Fluorescent

Light? .................................................................................................................................................... 43

What Is The Difference Between Special And General Relativity? ............................................................ 43

How Do Sound Waves Differ From Light Waves? .................................................................................... 44

Does Sound Travel Faster In Air Or Water? ............................................................................................ 44



Who Was The First Person To Break The Sound Barrier? ....................................................................... 44

When Is A Sonic Boom Heard? ............................................................................................................... 44

What Is The Doppler Effect? ................................................................................................................... 45

What Is A Decibel? ................................................................................................................................. 45

What Are The Characteristics Of Alpha, Beta, And Gamma Radiation? ................................................... 45

Electricity And Magnetism ..................................................................................................................... 46

How Does An Electromagnet Work? ....................................................................................................... 46

If A Magnetic Bar Is Cut In Two, Will It Yield A North Pole And A South Pole Magnet? ............................ 46

How Do Permanent Magnets Differ From Temporary Magnets? ............................................................... 46

What Materials Are Used To Make The Most Powerful Permanent Magnets? ........................................... 46

Why Is Static Electricity Greater In Winter Than Summer?..................................................................... 46

How Do Dryer Sheets And Hair Conditioner Reduce Or Prevent Static Electricity? .................................. 47

How Did The Electrical Term Ampere Originate? .................................................................................... 47

How Did The Electrical Unit Volt Originate? ........................................................................................... 47

How Did The Electrical Unit Watt Originate? .......................................................................................... 47

What Materials Are The Best And Worst Conductors Of Electricity? ....................................................... 47

How Do Lead-Acid Batteries Work? ........................................................................................................ 48

Matter ................................................................................................................................................... 48

What Is An Atom? .................................................................................................................................. 48

Who Is Generally Regarded As The Discoverer Of The Electron, The Proton, And The Neutron? .............. 48

What Is A Chemical Bond? ..................................................................................................................... 48

What Are The Major Types Of Bonds? .................................................................................................... 48

When Was The First Atomic Theory Proposed? ....................................................................................... 49

Who Proposed The Modern Theory Of The Atom? ................................................................................... 49

Who Invented The Cyclotron?................................................................................................................. 49

What Is The Fourth State Of Matter?...................................................................................................... 49

What Is The Difference Between Nuclear Fission And Nuclear Fusion? ................................................... 50

How Did The Quark Get Its Name?......................................................................................................... 50

What Are Subatomic Particles? .............................................................................................................. 50

Why Is Liquid Water Denser Than Ice? ................................................................................................... 51

What Substance, Other Than Water, Is Less Dense As A Solid Than As A Liquid? .................................. 51

Chemical Elements ................................................................................................................................ 51

Who Are Some Of The Founders Of Modern Chemistry? ......................................................................... 51

Who Developed The Periodic Table? ....................................................................................................... 51

What Are The Alkali Metals? .................................................................................................................. 52

What Are The Alkaline Earth Metals? ..................................................................................................... 53

What Are The Transition Elements? ....................................................................................................... 53

What Are The Transuranic Chemical Elements And The Names For Elements 102 To 109? .................... 53



Which Are The Only Two Elements In The Periodic Table Named After Women? ..................................... 54

Which Elements Are The “Noble Metals”? ............................................................................................... 54

What Distinguishes Gold And Silver As Elements? ................................................................................. 54

What Is Harkin’s Rule? .......................................................................................................................... 55

What Are Some Chemical Elements Whose Symbols Are Not Derived From Their English Names? .......... 55

Which Elements Are Liquid At Room Temperature? ................................................................................ 55

Which Chemical Elements Are The Most Abundant On Earth? ............................................................... 55

Why Are The Rare Gases And Rare Earth Elements Called “Rare”? ......................................................... 55

What Is An Isotope? ............................................................................................................................... 56

Which Elements Have The Most Isotopes? .............................................................................................. 56

What Is Heavy Water? ............................................................................................................................ 56

What Does Half-Life Mean? .................................................................................................................... 56

Which Elements Have The Highest And Lowest Boiling Points? .............................................................. 56

Which Element Has The Highest Density? .............................................................................................. 57

What Is The Density Of Air? ................................................................................................................... 57

Which Elements Are The Hardest And Softest?....................................................................................... 57

What Are Isomers? ................................................................................................................................. 57

What Are The Gas Laws? ....................................................................................................................... 58

What Is A Lewis Acid? ............................................................................................................................ 58

Alloys List .............................................................................................................................................. 58

What Is The Kelvin Temperature Scale? ................................................................................................. 66

How Are Celsius Temperatures Converted Into Fahrenheit Temperatures? ............................................. 66

How Is “Absolute Zero” Defined? ............................................................................................................ 67

Does Hot Water Freeze Faster Than Cold? .............................................................................................. 67

What Is Stp? .......................................................................................................................................... 67

What Is The Ph Scale? ........................................................................................................................... 67

What Is Nuclear Magnetic Resonance? ................................................................................................... 68

What Is A Mole In Chemistry? ................................................................................................................ 68

Astronomy And Space ............................................................................................................................ 69

What Was The Big Bang? ....................................................................................................................... 69

What Is The Big Crunch Theory?............................................................................................................ 69

How Old Is The Universe? ...................................................................................................................... 69

How Old Is The Solar System? ............................................................................................................... 69

What Are Quasars? ................................................................................................................................ 70

Stars ..................................................................................................................................................... 70

What Is A Supernova? ............................................................................................................................ 70

What Are The Four Types Of Nebulae? ................................................................................................... 70

Why Do Stars Twinkle? .......................................................................................................................... 71



What Is A Binary Star? .......................................................................................................................... 71

What Is A Black Hole?............................................................................................................................ 71

What Is A Pulsar? .................................................................................................................................. 71

What Is The Most Massive Star? ............................................................................................................ 72

Which Stars Are The Brightest? ............................................................................................................. 72

What Is The Milky Way? ......................................................................................................................... 72

What Is The Big Dipper? ........................................................................................................................ 72

Where Is The North Star? ....................................................................................................................... 73

Which Star Is The Closest To Earth? ...................................................................................................... 73

What Is The Ecliptic? ............................................................................................................................. 73

Why Does The Color Of The Sun Vary? .................................................................................................. 73

How Long Does It Take Light From The Sun To Reach Earth? ................................................................ 73

How Long Is A Solar Cycle? .................................................................................................................... 73

What Is A Solar Flare? ........................................................................................................................... 74

What Is The Sunspot Cycle?................................................................................................................... 74

What Is Solar Wind? .............................................................................................................................. 74

When Do Solar Eclipses Happen? .......................................................................................................... 74

Planets And Moons ................................................................................................................................ 75

How Far Are The Planets From The Sun? ............................................................................................... 75

Which Are The Hottest And Coldest Planets? .......................................................................................... 75

Which Planets Have Rings? .................................................................................................................... 76

What Are The Colors Of The Planets? ..................................................................................................... 77

What Is The Gravitational Force On Each Of The Planets, The Moon, And The Sun Relative To Earth? ... 77

Which Planets Are Visible To The Naked Eye? ........................................................................................ 77

Which Planets Are Called “Inferior” Planets And Which Are “Superior” Planets? ...................................... 77

Is A Day The Same On All The Planets? .................................................................................................. 78

What Are The Jovian And Terrestrial Planets? ........................................................................................ 78

What Is Unique About The Rotation Of The Planet Venus? ..................................................................... 78

Is It True That The Rotation Speed Of Earth Varies? .............................................................................. 78

Is Earth Closer To The Sun In Winter Than In Summer In The Northern Hemisphere? ........................... 79

What Is The Precession Of The Equinoxes? ............................................................................................ 79

How Many Dwarf Planets Are In The Solar System? ............................................................................... 79

What Is A Small Solar System Body?...................................................................................................... 79

What Are Kuiper Belt Objects? ............................................................................................................... 79

How Far Is The Moon From Earth? ........................................................................................................ 80

How Many Moons Does Each Planet Have? ............................................................................................ 80

What Are The Phases Of The Moon? ....................................................................................................... 80

What Are Moonquakes? ......................................................................................................................... 81



Why Does The Moon Always Keep The Same Face Toward Earth? .......................................................... 81

What Are The Names Of The Full Moon During Each Month? ................................................................. 81

Is The Moon Really Blue During A Blue Moon? ....................................................................................... 81

Why Do Lunar Eclipses Happen? ........................................................................................................... 82

What Is The Difference Between A Hunter’s Moon And A Harvest Moon? ................................................ 83

What Is The Largest Crater On The Moon? ............................................................................................. 83

What Is The Genesis Rock? .................................................................................................................... 83

Comets And Meteorites .......................................................................................................................... 83

Where Are Asteroids Found? .................................................................................................................. 83

From Where Do Comets Originate? ........................................................................................................ 84

How Does A Meteorite Differ From A Meteoroid? ..................................................................................... 84

When Do Meteor Showers Occur? .......................................................................................................... 84

Observation And Measurement .............................................................................................................. 85

Who Was The First Astronomer Royal? ................................................................................................... 85

What Is A Light Year? ............................................................................................................................ 85

Besides The Light Year, What Other Units Are Used To Measure Distances In Astronomy? ..................... 85

What Are The Differences Between Reflecting And Refracting Telescopes? .............................................. 85

For Whom Is The Hubble Space Telescope Named? ................................................................................ 86

Exploration ............................................................................................................................................ 86

What Is The Difference Between Zero-Gravity And Microgravity? ............................................................ 86

What Is Meant By The Phrase “Greening Of The Galaxy”?....................................................................... 86

When Was The Outer Space Treaty Signed? ........................................................................................... 86

Who Was The First Man In Space? ......................................................................................................... 87

Who Was The First Woman In Space? .................................................................................................... 87

Who Was The First Space Tourist? ......................................................................................................... 88

What Are The Liquid Fuels Used By The Space Shuttles? ....................................................................... 88

What Was The Cause Of The Columbia Space Shuttle Disaster? ............................................................ 88

What Is The Purpose Of The International Space Station (Iss)? ............................................................... 88

When Was The First Module Of The International Space Station Launched? .......................................... 88

Which Nations Contribute To The International Space Station? .............................................................. 89

What Are The Van Allen Belts? ............................................................................................................... 90

Why Is The Sky Blue? ............................................................................................................................ 90

Physical Characteristics ......................................................................................................................... 90

What Is The Interior Of The Earth Like? ................................................................................................. 90

What Causes Sinkholes? ........................................................................................................................ 91

What Is At The Center Of Earth? ............................................................................................................ 91

How Does The Temperature Of The Earth Change As One Goes Deeper Underground? ........................... 92

What Is The Tallest Mountain? ............................................................................................................... 92



Which Elements Are Contained In Earth’s Crust? .................................................................................. 92

Water..................................................................................................................................................... 92

Does Ocean Water Circulate? ................................................................................................................. 92

How Much Of Earth’s Surface Is Land And How Much Is Water? ............................................................ 93

If Earth Were A Uniform Sphere, How Much Water Would Cover The Surface? ....................................... 93

If You Melted All The Ice In The World, How High Would The Oceans Rise? ............................................ 93

What Fraction Of An Iceberg Shows Above Water? ................................................................................. 93

What Color Is An Iceberg? ...................................................................................................................... 93

What Is An Aquifer? ............................................................................................................................... 94

What Is The Chemical Composition Of The Ocean? ................................................................................ 94

Why Is The Sea Blue? ............................................................................................................................ 94

What Causes Waves In The Ocean? ........................................................................................................ 94

What Is A Tidal Bore? ............................................................................................................................ 95

What Are Rip Tides And Why Are They So Dangerous? ........................................................................... 95

Where Are The World’s Highest Tides? ................................................................................................... 95

Is There One Numerical Value For Sea Level? ......................................................................................... 95

What Is The Difference Between An Ocean And A Sea? ........................................................................... 95

How Much Salt Is In Brackish Water? .................................................................................................... 96

How Salty Is Seawater? .......................................................................................................................... 96

What Is The Bearing Capacity Of Ice On A Lake? .................................................................................... 96

Where Is The World’s Deepest Lake? ...................................................................................................... 96

Where Are The Five Largest Lakes In The World Located? ....................................................................... 97

What Is A Yazoo? ................................................................................................................................... 97

Which Of The Great Lakes Is The Largest? ............................................................................................. 97

Which Lake Is No Longer One Of The Five Largest Lakes In The World? ................................................. 97

What Are The Longest Rivers In The World? ........................................................................................... 98

What Is The World’s Highest Waterfall? .................................................................................................. 98

Land ...................................................................................................................................................... 98

Are There Tides In The Solid Part Of The Earth As Well As In Its Waters? ............................................... 98

How Much Of Earth’s Surface Is Covered With Ice? ................................................................................ 99

Which Is Purer: Glacier Ice Or Regular Ice? ............................................................................................ 99

How Much Of Earth’s Surface Is Permanently Frozen? ........................................................................... 99

Do Loud Noises Cause Avalanches? ....................................................................................................... 99

Which Are The World’s Largest Deserts? .............................................................................................. 100

What Is Quicksand?............................................................................................................................. 100

How Is Speleothem Defined? ................................................................................................................ 100

What Is A Tufa? ................................................................................................................................... 100

Where Is The Deepest Cave In The World? ............................................................................................ 101



Where Is The Longest Cave System In The World? ................................................................................ 101

How Does A Stalactite Differ From A Stalagmite? ................................................................................. 101

Volcanoes And Earthquakes ................................................................................................................ 101

How Many Kinds Of Volcanoes Are There? ........................................................................................... 101

Where Is The Circle Of Fire? ................................................................................................................. 102

How Many Different Kinds Of Faults Have Been Identified? .................................................................. 102

Where Is The San Andreas Fault? ........................................................................................................ 102

How Does A Seismograph Work? .......................................................................................................... 102

What Is The Richter Scale? .................................................................................................................. 102

What Is The Modified Mercalli Scale? ................................................................................................... 103

The Modified Mercalli Scale .................................................................................................................. 103

What Is A Tsunami?............................................................................................................................. 104

Where Do Most Tsunamis Occur? ........................................................................................................ 104

Observation And Measurement ............................................................................................................ 105

What Is Magnetic Declination? ............................................................................................................. 105

Which Direction Does A Compass Needle Point At The North Pole? ....................................................... 105

What Are The Major Eras, Periods, And Epochs In Geologic Time? ....................................................... 105

What Is The Prime Meridian? ............................................................................................................... 106

What Is Mercator’s Projection For Maps? .............................................................................................. 106

What Are Landsat Maps? ..................................................................................................................... 107

What Do The 7.5 Minute Quadrangle Maps Represent? ........................................................................ 107

What Is Global Positioning System (Gps) And How Does It Work? ......................................................... 107

Climate And Weather ........................................................................................................................... 108

Which Is Colder—The North Pole Or The South Pole? ........................................................................... 108

What Is A Heat Wave? .......................................................................................................................... 108

What Is The Heat Index? ...................................................................................................................... 108

Why Are The Hot, Humid Days Of Summer Called “Dog Days”? ............................................................ 109

Air Phenomena .................................................................................................................................... 109

What Is A Bishop’s Ring? ..................................................................................................................... 109

When Does The Green Flash Phenomenon Occur? ............................................................................... 109

How Often Does An Aurora Appear? ..................................................................................................... 109

What Is Cloud Seeding? ....................................................................................................................... 109

What Is Lightning? ............................................................................................................................... 110

What Is The Color Of Lightning? .......................................................................................................... 110

How Long Is A Lightning Stroke?.......................................................................................................... 110

Does Lightning Ever Strike Twice In The Same Place? .......................................................................... 111

Why Are Lightning Rods Important? ..................................................................................................... 111

What Is Saint Elmo’s Fire? ................................................................................................................... 111



What Are Fulgurites? ........................................................................................................................... 111

How Do Rainbows Occur? .................................................................................................................... 111

What Conditions Must Be Met In Order To See A Rainbow? .................................................................. 112

Is There Such A Thing As A Completely Circular Rainbow? .................................................................. 112

What Is The Order Of Colors In A Rainbow? ......................................................................................... 112

Wind .................................................................................................................................................... 112

Where Do Haboobs Occur? .................................................................................................................. 112

What Is The Coriolis Effect? ................................................................................................................. 112

When Was Jet Stream Discovered? ...................................................................................................... 113

What Is A Siberian Express? ................................................................................................................ 113

Why Are The Horse Latitudes Called By That Name? ............................................................................ 113

What Are Halcyon Days? ...................................................................................................................... 113

What Is An Alberta Clipper? ................................................................................................................. 114

What Is A Chinook? ............................................................................................................................. 114

What Is The Beaufort Scale? ................................................................................................................ 114

What Is Meant By The Wind Chill Factor? ............................................................................................ 114

How Does A Cyclone Differ From A Hurricane Or A Tornado? ............................................................... 115

Who Are Storm Chasers? ..................................................................................................................... 115

How Are Hurricanes Classified? ........................................................................................................... 115

Precipitation ........................................................................................................................................ 116

What Is A “White-Out”? ........................................................................................................................ 116

What Is The Dew Point? ....................................................................................................................... 116

What Is The Greatest Amount Of Rainfall Ever Measured? ................................................................... 117

What Is The Difference Between Freezing Rain And Sleet? .................................................................... 117

How Does Snow Form? ........................................................................................................................ 117

Is It Ever Too Cold To Snow? ................................................................................................................ 118

Are All Snowflakes Shaped Alike? ........................................................................................................ 118

When Does Frost Form? ....................................................................................................................... 118

Weather Prediction .............................................................................................................................. 118

What Is The Difference Between Weather And Climate? ........................................................................ 118

Who Prepared The First Weather Map? ................................................................................................ 118

What Is Doppler Radar? ....................................................................................................................... 119

When Did Modern Weather Forecasting Begin? .................................................................................... 119

What Is Barometric Pressure And What Does It Mean?......................................................................... 119

Minerals, Metals, And Other Materials ................................................................................................. 119

What Are The Three Main Groups Of Rocks? ........................................................................................ 119

What Is Petrology And What Does A Petrologist Do? ............................................................................. 120

How Does A Rock Differ From A Mineral? ............................................................................................. 120



What Is The Mohs Scale? ..................................................................................................................... 120

What Is Pitchblende? ........................................................................................................................... 121

What Is Galena? .................................................................................................................................. 121

What Is Stibnite? ................................................................................................................................. 121

What Are Cape May Diamonds? ........................................................................................................... 121

What Are The Four “C”S Of Diamonds? ................................................................................................ 121

What Is Cubic Zirconium? ................................................................................................................... 121

How Does The Emerald Get Its Color? .................................................................................................. 122

Which Two Gems Contain The Mineral Corundum? ............................................................................. 122

What Is A Tiger’s Eye?.......................................................................................................................... 122

Metals ................................................................................................................................................. 122

What Are The Precious Metals? ............................................................................................................ 122

What Is 24 Karat Gold? ........................................................................................................................ 122

Is White Gold Really Gold? ................................................................................................................... 123

What Is Fool’s Gold? ............................................................................................................................ 123

What Is Sterling Silver? ........................................................................................................................ 123

What Is German Silver? ....................................................................................................................... 123

Which Metal Is The Main Component Of Pewter? ................................................................................. 123

What Is High Speed Steel? ................................................................................................................... 124

What Is Technetium? ........................................................................................................................... 124

Natural Substances ............................................................................................................................. 124

What Is Obsidian? ............................................................................................................................... 124

What Is Red Dog? ................................................................................................................................ 124

What Is Diatomite? .............................................................................................................................. 124

What Is Fly Ash? .................................................................................................................................. 125

In Coal Mining What Is Meant By Damp? ............................................................................................. 125

What Is Fuller’s Earth? ........................................................................................................................ 125

Why Are Essential Oils Called “Essential”? ........................................................................................... 125

What Is Gutta Percha? ......................................................................................................................... 125

What Is Ambergris? ............................................................................................................................. 126

What Are Natural Fibers? ..................................................................................................................... 126

How Is Silk Made? ............................................................................................................................... 126

What Is Cashmere? .............................................................................................................................. 127

Man-Made Products ............................................................................................................................. 127

What Are The Major Distinguishing Characteristics Of Ceramics? ........................................................ 127

What Are Composite Materials? ........................................................................................................... 127

Why Is Styrofoam A Good Insulator? .................................................................................................... 127

How Is Dry Ice Made? .......................................................................................................................... 127



Why Is Sulfuric Acid Important? .......................................................................................................... 128

What Is Aqua Regia? ............................................................................................................................ 128

Who Developed The Process For Making Ammonia? ............................................................................. 128

What Is Buckminsterfullerene? ............................................................................................................ 128

What Is The Lightest Known Solid? ...................................................................................................... 129

Is Glass A Solid Or A Liquid? ............................................................................................................... 129

What Is Crown Glass? .......................................................................................................................... 130

What Are The Advantages Of Tempered Glass?..................................................................................... 130

How Is Bulletproof Glass Made? ........................................................................................................... 130

What Is The Float Glass Process? ......................................................................................................... 130

What Is Belgian Block? ........................................................................................................................ 130

What Is Solder? ................................................................................................................................... 131

What Is Slag? ....................................................................................................................................... 131

What Is Creosote? ................................................................................................................................ 131

What Is Carbon Black? ........................................................................................................................ 131

What Is The Chemical Used In Watches To Make Them Glow In The Dark? .......................................... 132

How Is Parchment Paper Made? ........................................................................................................... 132

How Is Sandpaper Made? ..................................................................................................................... 132

Why Is Acid-Free Paper Important? ...................................................................................................... 132

Why Is Titanium Dioxide The Most Widely Used White Pigment? .......................................................... 132

When And Where Was Gunpowder Invented? ....................................................................................... 133

How Are Colored Fireworks Made? ....................................................................................................... 133

What Is The Chemical Formula For Tnt? .............................................................................................. 133

Why Can’t Metal Objects Be Placed In A Microwave? ............................................................................ 133

What Are Man-Made Fibers? ................................................................................................................ 133

What Is Kevlar? ................................................................................................................................... 134

Who Invented Teflon?........................................................................................................................... 134

What Type Of High-Technology Material Is Used In Space Vehicles For Its Heat-Resistant Properties? .. 134

Energy ................................................................................................................................................. 135

Why Are Coal, Oil, And Natural Gas Called Fossil Fuels? ..................................................................... 135

How And When Was Coal Formed? ...................................................................................................... 135

What Is Cannel Coal? .......................................................................................................................... 135

What Is A Miner’s Canary? ................................................................................................................... 135

What Is The Process Known As Hydrocarbon Cracking? ....................................................................... 135

Why Was Lead Added To Gasoline And Why Is Lead-Free Gasoline Used In Cars? ................................ 136

What Is A Reformulated Gasoline? ....................................................................................................... 136

What Kinds Of Additives Are In Gasoline And Why? ............................................................................. 136

What Do The Octane Numbers Of Gasoline Mean? ............................................................................... 137



How Is Gasohol Made? ......................................................................................................................... 137

How Does Ethanol Differ From Gasohol? .............................................................................................. 137

What Are The Main Components Found In Motor Vehicle Exhaust? ..................................................... 137

What Is The Cleanest Fossil Fuel? ........................................................................................................ 137

What Are Synthetic Fuels? ................................................................................................................... 138

What Is Cogeneration? ......................................................................................................................... 138

What Is Biomass Energy? .................................................................................................................... 138

Which Woods Have The Best Heating Quality In A Wood-Burning Stove? ............................................. 139

What Are The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Geothermal Power? ................................................... 139

Nuclear Energy .................................................................................................................................... 139

Which Countries Produce The Most Commercial Nuclear Power?.......................................................... 139

What Actually Happened At Three Mile Island? .................................................................................... 140

What Caused The Chernobyl Accident? ................................................................................................ 140

Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster .................................................................................................... 141

What Is Vitrification? ........................................................................................................................... 141

Measures And Measurement ................................................................................................................ 141

What Is The Weight Per Gallon Of Common Fuels? .............................................................................. 141

How Much Does A Barrel Of Oil Weigh? ............................................................................................... 141

How Many Gallons Are In A Barrel Of Oil? ........................................................................................... 141

How Many Gallons Of Gasoline Are In One Barrel Of Oil? ..................................................................... 141

How Do Various Energy Sources Compare? ......................................................................................... 142

What Are The Approximate Heating Values Of Fuels? ........................................................................... 143

What Are The Fuel Equivalents To Produce One Quad Of Energy? ........................................................ 143

How Much Heat Will 100 Cubic Feet Of Natural Gas Provide? .............................................................. 143

How Is A Heating Degree Day Defined? ................................................................................................ 143

What Does The Term Cooling Degree Day Mean?.................................................................................. 144

Consumption And Conservation ........................................................................................................... 144

How Does The Energy Star Program Promote Energy Efficiency? .......................................................... 144

What Are The Advantages Of Compact Fluorescent Light Bulbs Over Incandescent Light Bulbs? .......... 144

Is It More Economical To Run An Automobile With Its Windows Open Rather Than Using Its Air

Conditioner? ........................................................................................................................................ 144

When Is It More Economical To Restart An Automobile Rather Than Let It Idle? ................................... 145

How Much Gasoline Is Wasted By Underinflated Tires? ........................................................................ 145

What Is The Ecological Footprint? ........................................................................................................ 146

What Percentage Of Earth’s Surface Is Forest Area? ............................................................................. 146

What Percentage Of Earth’s Surface Is Tropical Rain Forest? ............................................................... 146

What Is The Largest Rain Forest? ......................................................................................................... 146

What Is The Importance Of The Rain Forest? ....................................................................................... 146



What Is Limnology? ............................................................................................................................. 146

What Is An Estuary? ............................................................................................................................ 147

What Is Eutrophication? ...................................................................................................................... 147

What Does It Mean When A Lake Is Brown Or Blue? ............................................................................ 147

What Is Red Tide And What Causes It? ................................................................................................ 147

What Are Cyanobacterial Blooms? ....................................................................................................... 147

What Is A Trophic Level? ...................................................................................................................... 148

How Does A Food Chain Function? ...................................................................................................... 148

What Is A Food Web? ........................................................................................................................... 148

Why Do Ecosystems Need Decomposers? ............................................................................................. 148

What Is Air Pollution? .......................................................................................................................... 149

What Are The Health Effects Of The Major Air Pollutants? .................................................................... 149

What Is The Pollutant Standard Index? ................................................................................................ 150

What Are The Greenhouse Gases? ....................................................................................................... 150

What Is The Greenhouse Effect? .......................................................................................................... 150

How Do Chlorofluorocarbons Affect Earth’s Ozone Layer? .................................................................... 151

How Large Is The Antarctic Ozone Hole? .............................................................................................. 151

What Are The Components Of Smog? ................................................................................................... 151

What Is The Kyoto Protocol?................................................................................................................. 152

What Is Acid Rain? .............................................................................................................................. 152

How Acidic Is Acid Rain? ...................................................................................................................... 153

Which Pollutants Lead To Indoor Air Pollution? .................................................................................... 153

Why Is Radon A Health Hazard? .......................................................................................................... 154

How Are Hazardous Waste Materials Classified? .................................................................................. 155

What Chemicals Were Initially Banned By The Stockholm Convention On Persistent Organic Pollutants?

............................................................................................................................................................ 155

What Are Pcbs?.................................................................................................................................... 156

What Are Operation Ranch Hand And Agent Orange? .......................................................................... 156

Green Economy ................................................................................................................................... 157

Planetary Boundaries........................................................................................................................... 157

Iso 14000 ............................................................................................................................................ 158

Iso 9000 .............................................................................................................................................. 158

United Nations Conference On Sustainable Development (Uncsd)......................................................... 158

What Are Brown Fields? ....................................................................................................................... 159

What Are The Sources Of Oil Pollution In The Oceans? ........................................................................ 159

What Do The Numbers Inside The Recycling Symbol On Plastic Containers Mean? ............................... 160

What Is E-Cycling? .............................................................................................................................. 160

Which Parts Of The World Have The Largest Protected Areas? .............................................................. 161



How Did The Dodo Become Extinct? .................................................................................................... 161

What Is The Difference Between An “Endangered” Species And A “Threatened” Species? ...................... 162

How Is It Determined That A Species Is “Endangered”? ........................................................................ 162

What Is A Dolphin-Safe Tuna? ............................................................................................................. 162

Cells .................................................................................................................................................... 164

What Is The Origin Of The Term “Cell”? ................................................................................................ 164

What Are The Differences Between Prokaryotic And Eukaryotic Cells?.................................................. 164

What Groups Of Organisms Have Prokaryotic Cells And Which Ones Have Eukaryotic Cells? ............... 164

What Are Organelles? .......................................................................................................................... 165

What Are The Largest And Smallest Organelles In A Cell? .................................................................... 165

What Cell Structures Are Unique To Plant Cells And Which Ones Are Unique To Animal Cells? ............ 165

What Are The Major Components Of The Eukaryotic Cell? ................................................................... 165

How Do The Cells Of Bacteria, Plants, And Animals Compare To Each Other? ...................................... 166

What Is The Major Function Of The Nucleus? ...................................................................................... 167

When Was The Nucleus First Described? ............................................................................................. 167

Do All Cells Have A Nucleus? ............................................................................................................... 167

How Thick Is The Plasma Membrane? .................................................................................................. 167

What Are The Main Components Of The Plasma Membrane? ................................................................ 167

What Are The Main Functions Of The Plasma Membrane?.................................................................... 167

What Are Stem Cells And What Are Some Potential Uses Of Such Cells? .............................................. 167

What Is Mitosis And What Are The Stages Of This Process? .................................................................. 168

What Is Cell Cloning And How Is It Used In Scientific Research? .......................................................... 168

Viruses, Bacteria, Protists, And Fungi .................................................................................................. 168

What Is The Average Size Of A Virus? ................................................................................................... 168

Do Viruses Contain Both Dna And Rna? .............................................................................................. 169

What Is The Difference Between A Virus And A Retrovirus? .................................................................. 169

What Is A Bacteriophage? .................................................................................................................... 169

What Is The Difference Between A Virus And A Viroid? ........................................................................ 169

Who First Used The Term “Prion”? ....................................................................................................... 170

How Do Prions Work And What Diseases Have Been Linked To Prions? ................................................ 170

What Is The Difference Between A Plasmid And A Prion? ...................................................................... 170

When Were Bacteria Discovered? ......................................................................................................... 170

How Many Groups Are Identified In The Domain Bacteria?................................................................... 170

What Are Archaebacteria? .................................................................................................................... 171

What Is The Most Abundant Group Of Organisms? .............................................................................. 171

How Did The Discovery Of Bacteria Impact The Theory Of Spontaneous Generation? ........................... 171

Which Criteria Were Used To Form What Is Referred To As The Classical Approach Of Bacterial

Taxonomy? .......................................................................................................................................... 172



What Period Of Time Has Come To Be Known As The Golden Age Of Microbiology? .............................. 172

What Are The Main Components Of A Bacterial Cell? ........................................................................... 173

How Do Viruses Compare To Bacteria? ................................................................................................ 174

How Many Genes Are In A Typical Bacterial Cell? ................................................................................. 174

Do Bacteria All Have The Same Shape? ................................................................................................ 174

How Do Bacteria Reproduce? ............................................................................................................... 174

How Quickly Do Bacteria Reproduce? .................................................................................................. 174

Where Are Bacteria Found? ................................................................................................................. 175

Are Any Bacteria Visible To The Naked Eye? ........................................................................................ 175

What Are Koch’s Postulates? ................................................................................................................ 175

How Dangerous Is Clostridium Botulinum? ......................................................................................... 175

How Are Bacteria Cultured? ................................................................................................................. 176

Who First Proposed The Kingdom Protista? .......................................................................................... 176

What Are The Characteristics Of The Protists? ..................................................................................... 176

What Are The Major Groups Of Organisms In The Kingdom Protista? ................................................... 176

Which Protist Is An Indicator Of Polluted Water? .................................................................................. 177

What Slime Mold Serves As A Model Organism In Developmental Biology? ........................................... 177

What Characteristics Do All Fungi Share? ............................................................................................ 177

What Organisms Are Included In The Kingdom Fungi? ......................................................................... 177

Where Are Fungi Found? ..................................................................................................................... 178

Since Fungi Lack Chlorophyll Necessary To Produce Their Own Food How Do They Obtain Food? ........ 178

How Many Kinds Of Mushrooms Are Edible?........................................................................................ 178

What Is Unusual About Amanita Mushrooms? ..................................................................................... 178

What Antidote Is Available For Mushroom Poisoning? .......................................................................... 178

What Are Truffles? ............................................................................................................................... 178

What Do Truffles Look Like? ................................................................................................................ 179

What Are Lichens? ............................................................................................................................... 179

What Is The Relationship Between Lichens And Pollution? ................................................................... 179

What Is The Role Of Yeast In Beer Production? .................................................................................... 180

Is The Same Strain Of Yeast Used To Make Lager Beers And Ales? ....................................................... 180

What Cheeses Are Associated With Fungi? ........................................................................................... 180

Dna, Rna, And Chromosomes .............................................................................................................. 181

What Is Dna? ....................................................................................................................................... 181

What Are The Component Molecules Of Dna? ...................................................................................... 181

How Is A Dna Molecule Held Together? ................................................................................................ 181

What Are The Nitrogenous Bases Of Dna? ............................................................................................ 181

What Term Was Originally Used For Dna? ........................................................................................... 182

What Is The Law Of Complementary Base Pairing?............................................................................... 182



How Is Dna Unzipped? ......................................................................................................................... 182

What Is Needed For Dna Replication? .................................................................................................. 182

Is Dna Always Copied Exactly? ............................................................................................................ 182

What Is A Mutation? ............................................................................................................................ 182

How Fast Is Dna Copied? ..................................................................................................................... 183

What Is Polymerase Chain Reaction? ................................................................................................... 183

How Is Dna Organized In The Nucleus?................................................................................................ 183

Is All Dna Found In The Nucleus? ........................................................................................................ 183

How Much Dna Is In A Typical Human Cell? ........................................................................................ 183

What Is The Difference Between Dna And Rna? .................................................................................... 184

When Was Rna Discovered? ................................................................................................................. 184

Where Is Rna Formed? ......................................................................................................................... 184

How Many Types Of Rna Are Found In Eukaryotic Cells? ..................................................................... 184

How Are Chromosomes Assembled? ..................................................................................................... 184

When Were Chromosomes First Observed? .......................................................................................... 185

Which Organism Has The Largest Number Of Chromosomes? .............................................................. 185

How Many Chromosomes Are In A Human Body Cell? .......................................................................... 185

What Are The Components Of A Gene? ................................................................................................ 185

What Is The Average Size Of A Gene? ................................................................................................... 185

What Is The Difference Between A Gene And A Chromosome? .............................................................. 185

How Are Genes Controlled? .................................................................................................................. 186

Do Both Sides Of Dna Contain Genes? ................................................................................................. 186

What Is The P53 Gene? ........................................................................................................................ 186

How Can The Entire Genome Fit Into The Nucleus Of A Cell? ............................................................... 186

Genetics And Evolution ........................................................................................................................ 186

Who Is Generally Known As The Founder Of Genetics? ........................................................................ 186

What Is A Pedigree? ............................................................................................................................. 187

What Is Meant By The Modern Era Of Genetics? .................................................................................. 187

What Was The Human Genome Project (Hgp), And What Were Its Goals? ............................................. 187

What Is A Genome? ............................................................................................................................. 187

How Are Genes Physically Found In A Specific Genome? ...................................................................... 188

What Is Genetic Engineering? .............................................................................................................. 188

What Was The First Commercial Use Of Genetic Engineering? ............................................................. 189

What Are Some Examples Of Genetic Engineering In Animals And Microbes? ....................................... 189

What Was The First Animal To Be Successfully Cloned?....................................................................... 190

What Was The First Mammal To Be Successfully Cloned? .................................................................... 190

What Is Evolution? .............................................................................................................................. 190

What Is Lamarckian Evolution? ........................................................................................................... 190



Who Was Charles Darwin? ................................................................................................................... 191

What Were The Beagle Voyages? .......................................................................................................... 191

What Is The Significance Of Darwin’s Finches? .................................................................................... 191

Who Was Alfred Russel Wallace? .......................................................................................................... 191

Who Coined The Phrase “Survival Of The Fittest”? ............................................................................... 191

Why Is Evolution A Theory? ................................................................................................................. 192

What Is Müllerian Mimicry? ................................................................................................................. 192

What Is Batesian Mimicry? .................................................................................................................. 192

What Is The Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis? ............................................................................................ 192

Who Verified The Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis? .................................................................................... 192

What Is The Red Queen Hypothesis? .................................................................................................... 193

Classification, Laboratory Tools, And Techniques ................................................................................. 193

Who Devised One Of The Earliest Systems For Animal And Plant Classification? .................................. 193

What Is The Difference Between A Domain And A Kingdom? ................................................................ 193

What Is Cell Culture? ........................................................................................................................... 193

How Does An In Vivo Study Differ From An In Vitro Study? .................................................................. 193

What Distinguishes The Different Types Of Microscopes? ..................................................................... 194

Who Invented The Compound Microscope? .......................................................................................... 194

Who Invented The Electron Microscope? .............................................................................................. 194

Which Radioisotope Is Most Commonly Used For Biological Specimens? .............................................. 194

What Is Electrophoresis? ..................................................................................................................... 195

How Has Centrifugation Been Used In Biological Applications? ............................................................ 195

What Are The Uses For Chromatography? ............................................................................................ 195

How Is Chromatography Used To Identify Individual Compounds? ....................................................... 195

What Is Spectroscopy? ......................................................................................................................... 196

What Is Bioinformatics? ....................................................................................................................... 196

What Are The Major Subdivisions Of Botany? ...................................................................................... 197

Who Is Known As The Founder Of Botany? .......................................................................................... 197

What Contributions Did John And William Bartram Make To Botany? ................................................. 198

Which Plants Have Been Used To Create Dyes? .................................................................................... 198

What Plants Are Commonly Used In The Perfume Industry? ................................................................. 198

What Parts Of Plants Are Used For Spices? .......................................................................................... 199

What Are Some Common Culinary Herbs? ........................................................................................... 199

What Plants Produce Essential Oils That Are Commonly Used In Aromatherapy? ................................. 200

When Was The First Plant Patent Issued? ............................................................................................ 200

Plant Diversity ..................................................................................................................................... 200

What Are The Four Major Groups Of Plants? ........................................................................................ 200

What Are Bryophytes And Where Are They Found? .............................................................................. 201



Why Are Mosses Important?................................................................................................................. 201

How Can Bryophytes Be Used As Bio Indicators? ................................................................................. 201

What Are The Uses Of Peat Moss? ........................................................................................................ 201

What Are The Four Groups Of Seedless, Vascular Plants? .................................................................... 201

What Are Gymnosperms And Which Plants Are Included In This Group? ............................................. 202

What Are Some Economically Important Angiosperms? ........................................................................ 202

Among Angiosperms What Is The Most Important Family? ................................................................... 202

What Is A Weed? .................................................................................................................................. 202

How Do Hardwoods Differ From Softwoods? ......................................................................................... 203

Plant Structure And Function .............................................................................................................. 203

What Are The Major Parts Of Vascular Plants? ..................................................................................... 203

Is There A Relationship Between The Size Of The Root System And The Size Of The Shoot System?...... 203

What Are The Specialized Cells In Plants? ............................................................................................ 203

What Conditions Are Necessary For Seed Germination? ....................................................................... 204

What Is A Seed? ................................................................................................................................... 204

What Are The Functions Of Stems? ...................................................................................................... 204

What Are The Parts Of A Leaf And The Major Functions Of Leaves? ...................................................... 205

Why Do Tree Leaves Change Color In The Fall? .................................................................................... 205

How Does Water Move Up A Tree? ........................................................................................................ 205

What Are The Functions Of The Root System? ..................................................................................... 205

How Deep Does The Root System Penetrate The Soil?........................................................................... 206

What Are Effective Types Of Pollination? .............................................................................................. 206

What Is Tropism? ................................................................................................................................. 206

What Are The Major Classes Of Plant Hormones? ................................................................................. 207

What Are The Parts Of A Flower? ......................................................................................................... 209

What Is Meant By An “Imperfect” Flower? ............................................................................................ 209

What Flowers Are Designated As Symbolic Of Each Month Of The Year? .............................................. 209

What Are The Symbolic Meanings Of Flowers, Herbs, And Other Plants? .............................................. 209

What Are Carnivorous Plants? ............................................................................................................. 210

What Plants Can Be Used To Determine Blood Type? ........................................................................... 210

What Is Wormwood? ............................................................................................................................ 210

What Is Locoweed? .............................................................................................................................. 211

What Are The Distinguishing Characteristics Of Pine, Spruce, And Fir Trees? ...................................... 212

What Is The Composition Of Synthetic Soil? ......................................................................................... 213

What Are The Macronutrients And Micronutrients Of Plants?............................................................... 213

What Is The Function Of Various Plant Nutrients? ............................................................................... 213

What Do The Numbers On A Bag Of Fertilizer Indicate? ....................................................................... 214

What Does “Ph” Mean When Applied To Soil? ....................................................................................... 214



What Is The Best Soil Ph For Growing Plants? ...................................................................................... 214

What Is Hydroponics? .......................................................................................................................... 214

What Is Ikebana? ................................................................................................................................. 215

What Is The Secret Of Bonsai, The Japanese Art Of Growing Dwarf Trees? ........................................... 215

What Is Meant By Xeriscaping? ............................................................................................................ 215

Who Is The “Father Of Zoology”? .......................................................................................................... 216

Who Is The “Father Of Modern Zoology”? ............................................................................................. 216

What Is The Largest Invertebrate? ........................................................................................................ 216

How Are Animals Classified? ................................................................................................................ 216

Animal Characteristics And Activities ................................................................................................... 216

What Is The Difference Between An Invertebrate And A Vertebrate? ..................................................... 216

What Invertebrate Lives In Both Marine And Freshwaters And Is One Of The Most Important Of All

Animals? ............................................................................................................................................. 217

What Are The Major Characteristics Of All Chordates? ......................................................................... 217

What Are The Three Major Groups Of Chordates? ................................................................................ 217

What Are The Major Features Shown By All Vertebrates? ..................................................................... 217

What Group Of Animals Was The First To Make A Partial Transition From Water To Land? .................. 218

What Are The Largest And Smallest Vertebrates? ................................................................................. 218

What Is The Largest Group Of Vertebrates?.......................................................................................... 218

Besides Humans, Which Animals Are The Most Intelligent?.................................................................. 219

Do Animals Have Color Vision? ............................................................................................................ 219

What Is The Frequency That Separates Animal Hearing From Human? ................................................ 219

What Is The Basic Composition Of A Sponge? ...................................................................................... 221

What Are The Most Common Tapeworm Infections In Humans? ........................................................... 221

In What Ways Are Earthworms Beneficial? ........................................................................................... 221

What Are The Major Groups Of Mollusks? ............................................................................................ 222

How Are Pearls Created? ...................................................................................................................... 222

Which Mollusks Produce The Most Cultured Pearls? ............................................................................ 222

Why Are Arthropods Considered The Most Biologically Successful Phylum Of Animals? ....................... 223

Do Male Mosquitoes Bite Humans? ...................................................................................................... 223

Which Is Stronger—Steel Or The Silk From A Spider’s Web? ................................................................ 223

What Is The Largest Group Of Insects That Has Been Identified And Classified? ................................... 223

How Does A Butterfly Differ From A Moth? ........................................................................................... 223

What Are Chondrichthyes? .................................................................................................................. 224

How Many Kinds Of Sharks Are There And How Many Are Dangerous? ................................................ 224

What Is A Mermaid’s Purse? ................................................................................................................ 224

How Far From Shore Do Shark Attacks Occur? .................................................................................... 224

Is The Whale Shark A Mammal Or A Fish? ........................................................................................... 224



What General Characteristics Do All Fishes Have In Common? ............................................................ 225

How Is The Age Of A Fish Determined? ................................................................................................ 225

What Does The Word “Amphibian” Mean? ............................................................................................ 225

What Are The Major Groups Of Amphibians? ....................................................................................... 225

What Is The Fastest Snake On Land? ................................................................................................... 225

Do All Birds Fly? .................................................................................................................................. 226

How Fast Do Birds Fly? ....................................................................................................................... 226

Why Do Birds Migrate Annually? ......................................................................................................... 226

Which Bird Migrates The Greatest Distance?........................................................................................ 226

What Is Unusual About The Way The Emperor Penguin’s Eggs Are Incubated? .................................... 226

Which Birds Lay The Largest And Smallest Eggs? ................................................................................ 227

Why Don’t Birds Get Electrocuted When They Sit On Wires? ................................................................ 227

What Names Are Used For Groups Or Companies Of Mammals? .......................................................... 228

Do Any Mammals Fly? ......................................................................................................................... 228

What Are Some Animals That Have Pouches?....................................................................................... 229

Do Camels Store Water In Their Humps? ............................................................................................. 229

What Is The Difference Between An African Elephant And An Indian Elephant? ................................... 229

Why Do Cows Have Four Stomachs? .................................................................................................... 230

Which Scientific Disciplines Study The Human Body? .......................................................................... 231

What Were Aristotle’s Contributions To Anatomy? ................................................................................ 231

Who Is Considered The Founder Of Physiology? ................................................................................... 231

Who Coined The Term Homeostasis?.................................................................................................... 231

Which Chemicals Constitute The Human Body?................................................................................... 231

What Is The Average Life Span Of Cells In The Human Body?............................................................... 232

What Percent Of Human Body Weight Is Water?................................................................................... 232

Tissues, Organs, And Glands ............................................................................................................... 233

What Are The Levels Of Structural Organization In Vertebrate Animals, Including Humans? ................ 233

What Are The Four Major Types Of Tissue? .......................................................................................... 233

What Is The Matrix In Blood? ............................................................................................................... 234

What Is The Hardest Substance In The Body? ...................................................................................... 234

What Are The Three Types Of Muscle Tissue? ...................................................................................... 234

What Type Of Cell Is Found In Nerve Tissue? ....................................................................................... 234

What Is The Largest Nerve In The Body? .............................................................................................. 234

How Many Different Types Of Neurons Are Found In Nerve Tissue? ...................................................... 234

What Is The Size And Location Of The Heart? ....................................................................................... 234

What Is The Largest Organ In The Human Body? ................................................................................. 235

Are Both Of The Lungs Identical? ......................................................................................................... 235

What Are The Major Divisions Of The Brain? ........................................................................................ 235



What Regulates Body Temperature In Humans? .................................................................................. 235

What Is An Organ System? .................................................................................................................. 236

What Is A Gland? ................................................................................................................................. 236

Which Gland Is The Largest? ............................................................................................................... 237

How Many Sweat Glands Are Present In The Body? .............................................................................. 237

What Are The Seven Endocrine Glands?............................................................................................... 237

Bones And Muscles .............................................................................................................................. 237

How Many Bones Are In The Human Body? ......................................................................................... 237

What Are The Major Divisions Of The Human Skeleton?....................................................................... 238

What Is The Smallest Bone In The Body? ............................................................................................. 238

How Does Exercise Affect Bone Tissue? ................................................................................................ 238

What Are The Functions Of The Muscular System? .............................................................................. 238

How Many Muscles Are In The Human Body? ...................................................................................... 239

Which Are The Largest And Smallest Muscles In The Human Body? ..................................................... 239

What Is The Longest Muscle In The Human Body? ............................................................................... 239

What Are The Hamstring Muscles? ...................................................................................................... 239

Which Muscle Is The Most Variable Among Humans? .......................................................................... 239

How Many Muscles Does It Take To Produce A Smile And A Frown? ..................................................... 239

Why Does Excessive Exercise Cause Muscles To Become Stiff And Sore?.............................................. 240

Skin, Hair, And Nails ........................................................................................................................... 240

What Organs Are Included In The Integumentary System? ................................................................... 240

What Is The Purpose Of Goose Bumps? ............................................................................................... 241

What Are The Various Layers Of The Skin? .......................................................................................... 241

What Is Dermatoglyphics? ................................................................................................................... 241

Who First Used Fingerprints As A Means Of Identification? .................................................................. 241

Do Identical Twins Have The Same Fingerprints? ................................................................................. 241

Why Does Hair Turn Gray As Part Of The Aging Process? ..................................................................... 241

Blood And Circulation .......................................................................................................................... 242

What Are The Functions Of The Circulatory System? ........................................................................... 242

What Is The Difference Between The Cardiovascular System And The Circulatory System? .................. 242

Which Structures And Organs Constitute The Cardiovascular System? ................................................ 242

How Hard Does The Heart Work? ......................................................................................................... 242

Does Your Heart Stop Beating When You Sneeze? ................................................................................ 243

What Are The Functions Of Blood? ...................................................................................................... 243

What Is The Normal Ph Of Blood? ........................................................................................................ 244

What Is The Amount Of Carbon Dioxide Found In Normal Blood? ........................................................ 244

How Much Blood Does The Average-Sized Adult Human Have? ............................................................ 244

Why Is Blood Sticky? ........................................................................................................................... 244



What Is The Largest Artery In The Human Body? ................................................................................. 244

What Is The Largest Vein In The Human Body? .................................................................................... 244

Why Does Blood In The Veins Look Blue? ............................................................................................ 244

How Big Are Capillaries? ...................................................................................................................... 245

Who Discovered The Abo System Of Typing Blood? .............................................................................. 245

What Are The Preferred And Permissible Blood Types For Transfusions? .............................................. 245

Which Blood Type Is The Universal Donor And Which Is The Universal Recipient? ............................... 245

What Is The Rh Factor? ....................................................................................................................... 245

How Often Can A Person Donate Blood? .............................................................................................. 245

What Are The Blood Group Combinations That Can Normally Be Used To Prove That A Man Is Not The

Father Of A Particular Child? ............................................................................................................... 246

What Are The Primary Functions Of The Lymphatic System? ............................................................... 246

Which Blood Type Is The Rarest? ......................................................................................................... 246

What Are The Functions Of The Spleen? .............................................................................................. 246

How Do T Cells Differ From B Lymphocytes? ........................................................................................ 247

How Much Lymph Is In The Body? ....................................................................................................... 248

How Does The Immune System Work? ................................................................................................. 248

What Is The Composition Of Lymph? ................................................................................................... 248

What Is The Route The Fluid Travels In The Body? ............................................................................... 248

What Are The Major Functions Of The Respiratory System? ................................................................. 248

What Are The Two Types Of Cells Found In The Peripheral Nervous System? ....................................... 250

How Do Neurons Transmit Information To Other Neurons? .................................................................. 250

Where Is The Spinal Cord Located? ...................................................................................................... 250

How Many Types Of Sensory Receptors Have Been Identified? .............................................................. 250

Which Organ Is Most Sensitive To Touch, Temperature, And Pain? ...................................................... 250

Are Certain Areas Of The Tongue Associated With A Particular Taste Sensation?.................................. 250

What Two Functions Are Performed By The Ear?.................................................................................. 251

What Are The Major Parts Of The Ear? ................................................................................................. 251

What Are The Three Bones In The Middle Ear? ..................................................................................... 251

What Is Sound And What Unit Measures It? ........................................................................................ 251

What Are Some Common Levels Of Sound And How Do They Affect Hearing? ....................................... 252

Where Are The Organs Of Equilibrium Located? ................................................................................... 253

What Are The Parts Of The Eye And Their Functions? .......................................................................... 253

What Determines Eye Color? ................................................................................................................ 255

What Is The Difference In The Functions Of The Rods And Cones Found In The Eyes? ......................... 255

What Is Nearsightedness? .................................................................................................................... 255

What Is Farsightedness? ...................................................................................................................... 255

What Does It Mean To Have 20/20 Vision? .......................................................................................... 255



What Are The Similarities And Differences Between The Nervous System And The Endocrine System? . 256

What Are The Organs Of The Endocrine System? ................................................................................. 256

What Are Hormones? ........................................................................................................................... 256

Which Endocrine Glands Produce Which Hormones? ........................................................................... 256

What Are Endorphins? ......................................................................................................................... 257

Digestion ............................................................................................................................................. 257

What Are The Steps In The Digestive Process?...................................................................................... 257

What Are The Major Organs Of The Digestive System? ......................................................................... 258

What Was The Likely Purpose Of The Human Appendix?...................................................................... 258

What Is The Purpose Of Primary Teeth? ............................................................................................... 259

What Is The Role Of The Small Intestine In Nutrient Processing? .......................................................... 260

What Are The Major Parts Of The Urinary System? .............................................................................. 260

What Is Urea And Where Is It Produced? .............................................................................................. 260

How Much Fluid Do The Kidneys Remove From The Blood? ................................................................. 260

Health And Medicine ............................................................................................................................ 260

What Is The Composition Of Cigarette Smoke? ..................................................................................... 260

What Is The Effect Of Radiation On Humans? ...................................................................................... 260

How Much Radiation Does The Average Dental X Ray Emit? ................................................................ 261

How Does The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Epa) Classify Carcinogens? ............................... 261

How Is Body Mass Index (Bmi) Calculated? .......................................................................................... 262

What Is “Good” And “Bad” Cholesterol? ................................................................................................ 267

Diseases, Disorders, And Other Health Problems ................................................................................. 267

What Is The Difference Between Human Immunodeficiency Virus (Hiv) And Aids? ................................ 267

What Are The Symptoms And Signs Of Aids? ....................................................................................... 267

How Is The Term Zoonosis Defined? ..................................................................................................... 268

What Is Meant By Vectors In Medicine? ............................................................................................... 268

Which Species Of Mosquito Causes Malaria And Yellow Fever In Humans? .......................................... 268

What Is “Mad Cow Disease” And How Does It Affect Humans? .............................................................. 268

How Is Lyme Disease Carried? ............................................................................................................. 268

Why Is Legionnaire’s Disease Known By That Name? ........................................................................... 269

Which Name Is Now Used As A Synonym For Leprosy?......................................................................... 269

How Many Types Of Herpes Virus Are There? ....................................................................................... 269

How Are Warts Caused? ....................................................................................................................... 270

What Is The Difference Between Type I And Type Ii Diabetes? .............................................................. 270

What Causes A Stomach Ulcer? ........................................................................................................... 270

How Serious Is Osteoporosis? .............................................................................................................. 270

What Is Carpal Tunnel Syndrome? ....................................................................................................... 271

Which Is The Most Common Type Of Arthritis? .................................................................................... 271



How Does Tennis Elbow Differ From Golfer’s Elbow? ............................................................................ 271

What Are The Symptoms Of Guillain-Barré Syndrome? ........................................................................ 271

How Serious Is Bell’s Palsy? ................................................................................................................. 272

What Is Lou Gehrig’s Disease? ............................................................................................................. 272

What Are The Causes Of Epilepsy? ...................................................................................................... 272

What Is A Concussion? ........................................................................................................................ 272

What Are The Two Forms Of Stroke? .................................................................................................... 273

What Are Two Of The Most Common Forms Of Dementia? ................................................................... 273

What Are The Seven Warning Signs Of Alzheimer’s Disease? ................................................................ 274

What Is Meningitis? ............................................................................................................................. 274

What Is Presbycusis? ........................................................................................................................... 274

How Does Jet Lag Affect One’s Body? ................................................................................................... 275

What Is The “Christmas Factor”? ......................................................................................................... 275

What Is The Medical Term For A Heart Attack? .................................................................................... 275

How Are The Forms Of Cancer Classified? ............................................................................................ 275

What Are Dust Mites? .......................................................................................................................... 275

What Is Dyslexia And What Causes It? ................................................................................................. 276

What Are Vitamins And Minerals? ........................................................................................................ 276

Which Foods Contain Trans Fats?........................................................................................................ 277

What Is Lactose Intolerance? ............................................................................................................... 277

What Is Anorexia? ................................................................................................................................ 277

What Is Progeria? ................................................................................................................................. 278

What Is Pelvic Inflammatory Disease? .................................................................................................. 278

Health Care ......................................................................................................................................... 278

Which Symbol Is Used To Represent Medicine? .................................................................................... 278

Who Is Generally Regarded As The Father Of Medicine? ....................................................................... 279

What Is The Hippocratic Oath? ............................................................................................................ 279

Who Was The Founder Of Modern Medicine? ....................................................................................... 279

What Is The Difference Between Osteopathic Medicine, Homeopathy, Naturopathy, And Chiropractic

Medicine? ............................................................................................................................................ 280

What Are The Different Domains Of Complementary And Alternative Medicine? ................................... 280

What Are Some Examples Of Bio-Field Therapies? ............................................................................... 280

What Is Reflexology? ............................................................................................................................ 281

What Is Aromatherapy? ....................................................................................................................... 281

What Is The Difference Between An Ophthalmologist, Optometrist, And Optician? ............................... 281

Diagnostic Equipment, Tests, And Techniques ..................................................................................... 281

How Is Blood Pressure Measured? ....................................................................................................... 281

What Is The Meaning Of The Numbers In A Blood Pressure Reading? ................................................... 282



Is There A Name For The Heart-Monitoring Machine That People Sometimes Wear For A Day Or Two While

Carrying On Their Normal Activities? ................................................................................................... 282

What Are The Normal Test Ranges For Total Cholesterol, Low-Density Lipoproteins (Ldl), And High-

Density Lipoproteins (Hdl)? .................................................................................................................. 282

Who Invented The Pacemaker?............................................................................................................. 282

What Are X Rays? ................................................................................................................................ 283

What Is Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging? .................................................................................... 283

What Is Ultrasound? ............................................................................................................................ 283

What Is The Instrument A Doctor Uses To Check Reflexes? .................................................................. 284

How Are Cat Or Ct Scans Used To Study The Human Body? ................................................................ 284

When Were Hearing Aids Invented? ...................................................................................................... 284

Drugs And Medicines ........................................................................................................................... 284

What Is Pharmacognosy? ..................................................................................................................... 284

Why Do Physicians Use The Symbol Rx When They Write Their Prescriptions? ..................................... 285

What Is A Controlled Substance? ......................................................................................................... 285

Surgery And Other Treatments ............................................................................................................ 285

How Does Minimally Invasive Surgery Differ From Traditional, Major, Open Surgery? .......................... 285

How Does A Cardiac Pacemaker Differ From An Implantable Defibrillator? ........................................... 286

Who Was The First Test-Tube Baby? .................................................................................................... 286

What Is Lithotripsy?............................................................................................................................. 286

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