t kit language learning

Methodology in language learning


www.training-youth.net

No.2

Methodologyin Language Learning

T-kit

Council of Europe publishingF-67075 Strasbourg Cedex

© Council of Europe and European Commission, July 2000

Reproduction of material from this publication is authorisedfor non-commercial educational purposes only, provided the source is quoted.

This document does not necessarily express the official view of the European Commission orthe Council of Europe, their member states or the organisations co-operating with the institutions.

Welcome to the T-Kit series

Some of you may have wondered : what does T-kit mean ? We canoffer at least two answers. The first is as simple as the full version inEnglish : “Training Kit”. The second has more to do with the sound ofthe word that may easily recall “Ticket”, one of the travelling documentswe usually need to go on a journey. So, on the cover, the little figurecalled “Spiffy” holds a train ticket to go on a journey to discover newideas. In our imagination, this T-kit is a tool that each of us can use inour work. More specifically, we would like to address youth workersand trainers and offer them theoretical and practical tools to workwith and use when training young people.

The T-kit series has been the result of a one-year collective effort involv-ing people from different cultural, professional and organisationalbackgrounds. Youth trainers, youth leaders in NGOs and professionalwriters have worked together in order to create high quality publi-cations which would address the needs of the target group whilerecognising the diversity of approaches across Europe to each subject.

This T-kit is part of a series of 4 titles first published in the year 2000,to be followed by more in subsequent years. It is one of the productsof the Partnership Programme on Youth Worker Training run by theEuropean Commission and the Council of Europe. Besides the T-kits,the partnership between the two institutions has resulted in other areasof co-operation such as training courses, the magazine “Coyote” anda dynamic internet site.

To find out more about developments in the Partnership (new pub-lications, training course announcements, etc.) or to download theelectronic version of the T-kits, visit the Partnership web site :

www.training-youth.net.

Methodologyin language learning

T-Kit

Coordination T-kit series:Silvio Martinelli

Editors of this T-kit:Anne Dussap, Philip Curran

Authors of this T-kit: (see also last page)Philip CurranSandrine DeguentSian Williams LundHeather MilettoCarla Van der Straeten

Other contributorsJohn O’ReganJohn Watermann

Editorial CommitteeBernard Abrignani

Institut National de la Jeunesseet de l’Education Populaire

Elisabeth HardtEuropean Federationfor Intercultural Learning

Esther HookwayLingua Franca

Carol-Ann MorrisEuropean Youth Forum

Heather RoyWorld Association of Girl Guidesand Girl Scouts

SecretariatSabine Van Migem (Administrative support)Genevieve Woods (Librarian)

Cover Page and Spiffy CharacterThe Big Family

A special thank is also due to:Patrick Penninckx for having co-ordinatedthe launch of T-kit series, provided continuoussupport and ensured the link with the otherprojects of the Partnership Agreement.Anne Cosgrove and Lena Kalibataite for thecontribution given in the first phase of theproject.

All the publishers and authors that havegiven permission to reproduce theircopyrighted material.

Last, but not least, all the people that indifferent capacities, at different momentsand in different ways have contributed tomake all this possible!

European Youth Centre Strasbourg30 Rue Pierre de CoubertinF-67000 Strasbourg, France

Tel: +33-3-8841 2300 – Fax: +33-3-8841 2777

European Youth Centre BudapestZivatar ucta 1-3

H-1024 Budapest, HungaryTel: +36-1-2124078 – Fax: +36-1-2124076

Council of EuropeDirectorate of Youth and Sport

European CommissionDG Education and Culture

Unit D5: Youth Policy and Programme

Rue de la Loi, 200B-1049 Brussels, Belgium

Tel: +32-2-295 1100 – Fax: +32-2-299 4158


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Contents

Introduction

................................................................................................................................ 7

1. Reflections on language learning ................................................................................. 9

1.1 Language learning and language teaching ....................................................................... 10

1.2 Roles of learners and facilitators ....................................................................................... 13

1.3 What are learning styles? ....................................................................................................15

1.4 Correction of errors ............................................................................................................ 16

2. Task-Based Learning ......................................................................................................... 21

2.1 Introduction and clarification of terms ............................................................................. 21

2.2 Task-Based Language Learning ......................................................................................... 21

2.2.1 Background to Task-Based Language Learning .......................................................... 21

2.2.2 Task-Based Language Learning ................................................................................... 22

2.2.3 Task-Based methodology .............................................................................................. 23

2.2.4 Language ability and learning styles .......................................................................... 27

2.3 Factors to consider ............................................................................................................. 27

2.3.1 Learners’ profile ............................................................................................................ 27

2.3.2 Negotiating the course content ..................................................................................... 28

2.3.3 Location of course and resources available ................................................................. 28

2.3.4 The intercultural dimension ......................................................................................... 28

2.4 Concrete example of a task: Preparing a meal ................................................................. 30

3. Examples of Task-Based Learning ............................................................................... 33

3.1 Task from No Materials ...................................................................................................... 33

3.2 Exploitation of a photograph ............................................................................................. 35

3.3 Exploitation of a newspaper article ................................................................................... 44

4. Selecting and using materials ...................................................................................... 55

4.1 General considerations ...................................................................................................... 55

4.2 Various sources of materials .............................................................................................. 56

4.2.1 Materials from the learners .......................................................................................... 56

4.2.2 Materials from television .............................................................................................. 56

4.2.3 Pictures ......................................................................................................................... 57

4.2.4 Objects as materials ..................................................................................................... 57

4.2.5 Leaflets .......................................................................................................................... 58

4.2.6 Games ........................................................................................................................... 58

4.2.7 Songs and sounds ......................................................................................................... 58

4.2.8 The locality of the course .............................................................................................. 58

4.2.9 Information technology ................................................................................................ 58


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Contents

5. DIY Section and feedback .............................................................................................. 61

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 61

5.2 Material ............................................................................................................................... 62

5.3 Blank planning sheet ......................................................................................................... 63

5.4 Materials exploitation: 101 ways of making the most of what you’ve got ..................... 65

APPENDIX 1 : Methodology in language learning T-Kit Evaluation form ....... 67

APPENDIX 2 : References and further reading ............................................................ 69

APPENDIX 3 : Feedback to DIY section ........................................................................... 71


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Language skills and intercultural awarenessare essential in the organisation of internationalevents. More and more youth organisationsnow need to be able to provide their membersor European volunteers with the necessaryskills to communicate in international settings(international events or volunteering in a hostcountry). This T-Kit presents a methodologyfor learning language and developing commu-nicative ability in a target language.

It is not a language method but rather a glo-bal methodology inspired by the ‘Task BasedLearning’ approach and approaches based onintercultural learning. The authors (languageteachers experienced in training Europeanyouth leaders) have chosen this methodologybecause it simulates authentic communicationsituations, providing learners with the neces-sary vocabulary to realise successfully, in thetarget language, an activity close to their ownreality. The methodology has proved to beparticularly suited to youth work and non-formal education contexts. It has been chosenamongst many other language teaching/lear-ning methodologies because it can be adapted todifferent target languages, to different learningenvironments and to different learning needs.Furthermore, this methodology requires activeparticipation, initiative and the involvement ofthe learner.

The T-Kit has been produced for the benefit of:• language trainers/teachers looking for an

innovative approach to language lear-ning in a non-formal education context

• all those helping others in the acquisi-tion of language (language facilitators)

The T-Kit is divided into six main sections fromthe theoretical to the practical.

The authors also wanted to give the user anopportunity to develop their own compten-cies to implement the methodology.

At the end of the T-Kit there is a self-trainingsection with exercises and some suggestionsfor their use with learners.

Section 1 begins with a general introduction tolanguage learning and teaching; it describes theevolution of language teaching and languagelearning approaches, and considers the rolesof learners and facilitators (trainers).

Sections 2, 3 and 4 present the theory of TaskBased Learning and provide some concreteexamples of the methodology applied in thecontext of non-formal education.

Section 5 is the training part of the T-Kit. Inthis part there are guided exercises to try outthe methodology, and some feedback.

The French version will be slightly differentfrom the English T-Kit particularly in Section 3,since the examples chosen in the English ver-sion are not adaptable to the French language.But, as regards the content,the two versions aresimilar.

We hope you will enjoy reading and using theT-Kit for your training and we look forward toreceiving feedback from you about your expe-riences.

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Introduction


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All teachers and learners bring with them aphilosophy of what teaching and learning is.This philosophy is more likely to be implicitlyrather than explicitly held, especially by lear-ners, and so taken for granted. Such philoso-phies are formed by our own experiences ofeducation and learning from the earliest daysof childhood onwards. We all accept as beingthe norm those educational experiences whichare part of our socio-cultural context. Onlywhen we are able to experience other approa-ches, are we able to question and evaluate ourown.

Pedagogic principles and practice are instilledin trainee teachers and they carry these intothe classroom with them. Very rarely are theroles of teachers and learners examined andquestioned. In spite of efforts to encouragelearner development, learner independenceand even autonomous learning, most class-room situations are still teacher-centred. Thisis not a criticism, simply a reporting of realityfrom several observational studies. It’s notsurprising. Traditional approaches providesecurity for all concerned. However, the richestlearning environment will be created byteachers with the range of knowledge andskills to vary their approach to suit individualsand specific groups and contexts.

It is also difficult to measure language lear-ning qualitatively. Language is not a body ofknowledge, a set of facts, which can be me-morised and regurgitated for the purposes of testsand examinations. It is an innate human abilityand as such organic. It grows and develops infavourable environments, shrivels with neglectand is affected by emotional factors. There arevarious levels of competencies which can bemeasured but each performance of languagewill be different from the next. Spoken com-petence is the most immediate but also themost fragile and volatile. We all know how arti-culate, erudite and focussed we can be whensitting in a relaxed group of friends and puttingthe world to rights. But can we do the samein front of an audience? Or at a job interview?Or in the courtroom? Or when we’re tired,unwell, in or out of love? Every human factoraffects our ability to use even our mothertongue competently and all these factors arecarried over into second language contexts.

So, what to do about it? It is paramount to bearin mind the aims and purposes of any teachingsituation. Why are people learning the language?By and large, most people learn a second andsubsequent languages for one of the followingbroad purposes:

• Work• Leisure• Social Integration• Academic Purposes

In the context of European youth work, needswill probably cover all these aspects but withless emphasis on academic purposes.

We would guess that many qualified languageteachers started their careers as non-experts.Finding themselves abroad and being askedto teach someone their language they just didit – and enjoyed it! Sometimes simply whileon holiday, in the bar, at the disco – any-where! They would be asked ’How do you saythis in your language ?’ ’Tell me what your nameis in …..?’ ’What does this expression mean ?’etc. Some of the best teaching and learninghas taken place in such non-formal contexts.

Another level of non-formal learning contextsis where youth workers need to prepare them-selves or others for international work, or whenthey have to go into a situation where theyneed another language to participate in localyouth projects.

Moreover, there will always be many learningcontexts where trained teachers are not avail-able, and teaching and learning will be carriedout much more naturalistically. We would sug-gest that most people would manage to teachtheir native language to a willing and moti-vated learner. The purpose of this T-Kit is togive such non-teachers both the tools and theconfidence to maximise the situation.

Here we would like to describe the example ofa new tri-lateral programme involving Sweden-Italy-UK. The programme is called Work Away(in the UK) and Breaking Barriers in Swedenand Italy. The project managers in the UK arethe Prince’s Trust, a charitable organisation setup in 1976 by Prince Charles to help youngpeople who have not had the usual pathwaysto follow in life or who have screwed up inone way or another (crime, drugs, disastrous

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1. Reflections on language learning

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relationships etc). The Scheme is targeted at18-24 year olds ’at risk of being excluded fromlong-term employment’. The project identi-fies such young people locally, provides workexperience pre-departure, a pre-departuretraining week (usually residential); on-arrivaltraining for two weeks; job placements inthose countries before returning home withenhanced employment possibilities. An inte-resting project in its pilot year (1999/2000)and running as a demonstration project.

Edwards Language School is the training part-ner in Britain and provides both pre-departuretraining for outgoing UK young people andon-arrival training for incoming people fromSweden and Italy.

During the pre-departure training, there areactivities to raise awareness of the reality ofliving and working abroad, intercultural aware-ness workshops, and language input.

For the language input, native speaker infor-mants in their mid to late 20s were chosenprecisely because they were not trained teachers.These informants were briefed about their roleby a qualified and experienced language teacher.They were provided with frameworks for fourinput sessions, broadly covering the “Waystagelevel”* of language. They had timetabled inputsessions but everything was negotiable. It wasobserved that the learners themselves choseto make these sessions quite school-like, eventhough they took place in rooms which werenot classrooms. Each was offered a learner fileand most of them used them diligently and inthe manner of real students. They asked for,and were provided with, the language they feltthey needed. Punctuality and attendance wereexcellent.

As the course was residential, the informantsspent social time with participants and soinput and learning continued at all times.

Although the pre-departure training took placeover only five or six days, with many otherissues to be addressed apart from language,we felt it was an excellent example of howlearning takes place in a non-formal context.Learners’ needs and interests were paramount;teachers were not authority figures; and fear,which is the most negative emotion for a lan-guage classroom, was totally absent.

An essential ingredient, when using non-qua-lified informants, however, is the backgroundpreparation of a professional and experiencedteacher, who prepares worksheets, providesframeworks and suggestions of functionaltasks and is there in the background to mo-nitor the learning process.

This publication is intended to be the back-ground teacher for the many native speakerinformants or facilitators who find themselvescalled upon to teach their own language innon-formal contexts. Section 1.2 on “the rolesof learners and facilitators” gives more infor-mation for further reflection.

1.1 Language learningand language teaching

A background to modern language learningThe roots of modern language teaching andlearning grew and developed in the twentiethcentury. The century saw travel by land, seaand air become ever more accessible to greaternumbers of people, initially in Europe and NorthAmerica but eventually on a global levelencompassing all continents. No longer wasforeign travel the domain of pious pilgrims andmissionaries, intrepid explorers and conquerors,and the rich and leisured who travelled with anentourage of servants. Increasingly, foreigntravel became accessible to the majority inthe developed world. Alongside this, the dis-covery of electricity and the birth of the ageof wire-less communication enabled peoples tohave contact with each other, wherever theylived or worked.

In previous centuries only the classical lan-guages of Latin and Greek had been studiedas foreign languages by the minority who hadaccess to formal education. Later, French, whichhad been the language of the upper classes in,for example, Russia and England, was inclu-ded. Native speaker nannies and teachers wereemployed to tutor children in their own home.

In the 20th Century, Europe was the arena fortwo world wars. In addition, and maybe as aresult, other sociological phenomena took place.Women became more equal citizens, claiming

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Waystage level (‘Threshold level’ Vantage level) corresponds to a scaling of communication skills in a target foreign languageset up by the Modern Language Project from the Council of Europe. The waystage level corresponds to the basic commu-nication skills.


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their right to education and suffrage; the needfor peaceful co-habitation instead of barbaricterritorial battles became paramount. By the endof the century most countries in Europe haddeveloped democratic systems of government.

Provision of universal basic education becamea reality. Working conditions were improvedalongside social benefits for the poor, sick andunderprivileged. By the second half of the cen-tury, widespread travel for work and leisurebecame the norm. With greater life expectancy,even people in the third-age were able to travelin a way that had been denied them in theiryouth.

In the wake of these sociological, political andeconomic changes, education policies developedto include modern languages in state schoolcurricula. The transition of language teachingand learning from classic, dead languages (whichhad been studied as a means to enter highereducation and the professions) to modern vivantlanguages is set out in the overview below.

Grammar translation methodIn Europe, the 16th century saw the foundationof grammar schools, where pupils were givena rigorous introduction to Latin grammar rules,study of declensions and conjugations, trans-lation and practice in writing model sentences,mainly by using parallel bilingual texts and dia-logue. After a grasp of the basics of the languagepupils went on to study advanced grammar andrhetoric. This discipline was seen as the ne-cessary mental gymnastics to equip pupils withthe mental agility for all forms of higher edu-cation. No wonder, then, that when modernlanguages entered the curriculum of Europeanschools from the 18th Century onwards theyfollowed the same method of teaching andlearning.

This grammar-translation approach to mo-dern language teaching remained the only onein use well into the 20th century and is stillprevalent in modified forms in many contextsaround the world. This approach works wellenough when the purpose of knowledge of thelanguage is to have access to literary texts,which need to be discussed only in mothertongue. However, in the main, what worked forthe study of a dead language, where no oralinteraction was needed, imposed severe limi-tations for modern language learning. Pupilsacquired a knowledge of the syntax andrhetoric of the target language and until the

20th century were hardly ever called upon toactually use it for spoken interaction. The focusof learning was on reading and writing, withlittle or no attention given to listening andspeaking. Critics of this method believe thatlearners finish up knowing about the languagerather than knowing the language itself; inother words, the old argument about theoryand practice.

The direct methodThis method evolved around the end of the19th and beginning of the 20th centuries andfollowed on from the ideas of the ReformMovement led by French and German linguistsin the mid 1800s. The approach also becameknown as the Natural Method and its princi-ples were to use only the target language, tospeak slowly and clearly to learners, to seelearning as the four skills of listening, speak-ing, reading and writing; language should beheard first and seen later; grammar rules weregiven only after practice of them; translationshould be avoided.

This method is still widely used today, mostnotably by the worldwide Berlitz Schools. Criticsof the method say that it is too limiting, boringfor teachers and learners, and can only workwell for those whose learning style exactlymatches this approach. It also leaves little spacefor meaningful exchanges, or going off at atangent, which happens all the time in naturallanguage interaction.

The situational approachThis method contains elements of the DirectMethod and evolved from it. Language is taughtin situations at the station, in the restaurantand so on. New language is drilled orally insentence patterns. Vocabulary needed for thesituation is taught and tested. Most modernlanguage textbooks for secondary schools stillcontain elements of this approach. It uses thetried and tested PPP methodology (Presenta-tion, Practice, Production). The teacher presentsnew language, learners try it out in controlledpractice, such as mechanical drills, followedby so-called free production, when learnersproduce their own sentences using the modelinitially presented. This will be the approachand methodology most recognised by teach-ers and learners of modern languages.

The audio lingual methodThis method was developed for military purpo-ses by the USA during World War II. It consists

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of listening to dialogues on tape and respon-ding accordingly. The aim was to enable espio-nage personnel to assimilate spoken languageand be able to infiltrate enemy offices andpass themselves off as native speakers. Nativespeaker informants were also used to providemodels of the language and linguist coachesadvised individuals on how to learn and assi-milate. The method worked for the linguisticallyable and motivated who went on to becometop spies and infiltrators. It might be said thatif your life were in danger, you too could veryquickly become fluent in Russian, French oreven Martian!

This method spawned the use of languagelaboratories where learners sit with head-phones and ‘listen and repeat to their hearts’content – often just waiting for the bell tosound the end of the lesson!

The communicative approachThis approach arose out of the needs withinthe member countries of the Council of Europeto find an approach to teaching and learning themajor European languages, so that adult lear-ners could take advantage of the many oppor-tunities open to them in the new EuropeanUnion and Council of Europe countries. As thename suggests, this approach emphasised lear-ning language for mainly spoken communication.

Using the approaches which preceded it, com-municative language teaching (CLT) encou-raged oral competence without too much atten-tion to the teaching of structures (grammarrules) and vocabulary. It was felt that thesewould be implicit and learnt by osmosis, muchin the way that children learn their mothertongue. Naom Chomsky’s belief that he haddiscovered an area of the brain containing aLanguage Acquisition Device (LAD) and histheories on a Universal Grammar gave rise to aconfidence that everyone who wanted to learnanother language would do so.

Included in this broad and somewhat difficultto define approach is Wilkins’ Notional Syllabuswhich was used to develop the EuropeanFramework for modern language learning,which now defines six distinct levels from thesurvival Waystage level upwards. Foreign lan-guage learning in Europe was quite carriedaway by CLT for much of the 1970s and 80s.It was seen as being the way to learn Frenchwithout tears. Communicative competence wasthe aim of the method – it did not encompass

academic rigour and examination success. Theclassroom was to be a rehearsal room for real-life oral interactions and CLT undoubtedlyunderpinned some very creative teaching mate-rials and classroom practices.

However, it was not the answer to all languagelearning problems. Many teachers and learnersfelt uncomfortable at the lack of any formal,structured, step-by-step, bricklaying elementsto CLT. As with the Direct Method, CLT sui-ted only those learners whose learning stylematched this approach.

Total physical response (TPR)This approach was developed by James Asherin California. The method uses imperatives andrequires learners to be listeners and performers.Asher based his approach on the observationof child language learning, where he saw adultsusing imperatives to young children, who themreacted to them. Critics might say that it islike training a dog! The teacher gives a com-mand e.g. ‘Stand up !’ ‘Walk to the door !’ ‘Givethe book to John !’ etc and learners obey!

The Silent WayThis is another humanistic approach deve-loped by Gattegno in New York in the 1970s.Like TRP it claims to be non-threatening andstress-free and enables basic learners to feelconfidence from the beginning. Learners sim-ply listen to the native speakers conversingand only speak when they feel ready andmoved to do so. The US Peace Corps, whichprovided native-speaker volunteers to givelanguage instruction, mainly in Eastern Europeand South East Asia, from the 1970s onwards,used this approach extensively, but little isdocumented about their experiences.

Task-Based LearningThis approach puts the task to be completed atthe centre of the language learning session.Learners are given problems to solve, using thetarget language, and tasks to complete, indi-vidually and collaboratively. The teacher sup-plies whatever language is needed to facilitatethe successful outcome of the task. Learnersneed to actively seek the language and prac-tise the skills they need to achieve a successfuloutcome. This approach pre-supposes confi-dent, adventurous language learners, willing totake risks with language and to take respon-sibility for their own learning. It is intended tobe far removed from traditional teacher-centredapproaches, where control (supposedly) resides

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with the teacher for all facets of the learningprocess. Learner independence is encouragedand successful task achievement the onlyreward.

Topic-Driven approachesWith this approach, the topic is paramount.Learners select (or the teacher offers) a rangeof topics which are of interest and relevant tothem. The language around this topic is provi-ded by the teacher. This would include struc-tures and lexis, consideration of style andregister as appropriate. The essence of topic-driven approaches is that they contextualiselanguage. In addition, if learners have a choiceof topics, learning is more motivated.

Intercultural Language Learning (ICLL)This approach believes that language lear-ning and intercultural learning are integral partsof a whole. It is impossible to learn a languagethoroughly without being aware of intercul-tural issues. Conversely, it is impossible to beaware of intercultural issues without beingaware of the intrinsic linguistic elements atplay. These ideas are supported by the chickenand egg arguments about concepts and lan-guage. Does a concept produce the languageor does language spur the concept? It isundoubtedly true that although all humanscome with the innate power of language, con-cepts are by no means universal. So we cannever assume that what I mean by a word thatI use will match what you mean by a wordwhen you use it!

Intercultural language learning explores lan-guage interculturally. The approach involvesexploration of cultural concepts, stereotypes,generalisations, assumptions and the murkydepths beneath surface language. It involvesconfrontation, and the aim is to clear the airinterculturally so that we can truly live tole-rantly, contentedly, and constructively in a ‘vivela difference’ Europe!

This T-Kit concentrates on the latter threeapproaches, as they are the most appropriatefor non-formal contexts. However, as with allapproaches to teaching and learning, thesehave grown organically from those that havegone before. The emphasis is on the learnerand learning, rather than the teacher andteaching. Thus, we are able to go forward intothe 21st century using the skills and know-ledge of past centuries, choosing eclecticallythe approaches most suitable for our time andplace.

1.2 Roles of learnersand facilitators

This section will consider the roles of teachersand learners and how each side of the teach-ing/learning equation may need to examineand re-evaluate their roles and behaviourin order to maximise learning opportunities.This is particularly relevant in the context ofnon-formal education.

During the Seminar on ICL in Language Learn-ing held in Strasbourg in November 1998 thissubject was examined and four broad class-room cultures were defined. These were theultra-didactic, didactic, learner-centred, ultra-informal. Pages 47-49 in the Report [CEJ/TCICLL (98) 2] of the Workshop summarise theactivities and the chart below describes themain features of four classroom cultures.

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Classroom 1 :

Ultra-didactic

Formal classroom layout ; authoritarian teacher,strict hierarchical system, no opportunity forlearner initiatives ; learners as empty-vessels ;teacher as source of all knowledge; passive lear-ners essential ; all power resides with the teacher.

Classroom 2 : Didactic

Teacher-centred classroom layout ; teacher incontrol; lip-service only to learner participation;fairly rigid hierarchical system; control lies withthe teacher ; passive learners preferred.

Classroom 3 : Learner-centred

Task-based learning ; classroom layout flexible– teacher to set up classroom according to thetask in hand; learners encouraged to work col-laboratively; learners encouraged to find outfor themselves first and use the teacher as a finalarbiter ; varied activities to suit all learning styles ;active learners preferred ; relaxed hierarchicalsystem.

Classroom 4 : Ultra-informal

Haphazard approach; anything goes ; teacher asfellow-sufferer in life ; learners usually dictateclassroom practice ; teacher needs students toboost own morale ; affected friendships ; nohierarchical systems ; anarchy rules – OK?!


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The classroom culture that is required for thecontext of non-formal education necessitatesa collaborative approach to teaching and lear-ning. The teacher has the role of facilitator – hel-ping and encouraging learning to happen. He/shewill not feel that learning can only happen asand when specific items are taught.

Learners, too, must acknowledge that theirsis the more active role; they have to do thelearning! They need to be aware of their own

learning style and be willing to adapt andexpand their learning strategies.

There are as many teaching styles as thereare teachers and likewise as many learningstyles as there are learners! The most importantresource that teachers and learners bring intothe language learning environment is them-selves. From now onwards we shall refer tofacilitators and learners as this best describestheir roles in our context.

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The Facilitator’s Role

• To raise awareness of different learningstyles

• To supply accurate and appropriate mod-els of the language as needed for theactivities and tasks in hand

• To encourage learners to adopt adven-turous learning strategies

• To help create a good learning envi-ronment, without fear or inhibition

• To monitor learners’ use of the languageand correct errors when appropriate

• To be positive and encouraging aboutoutcomes and see all outcomes as suc-cesses

• To see learning as a collaborative processwith constant negotiation betweenfacilitators and learners to define aimsand working methods

The Learner’s Role

• To become aware of learning styles andbe willing to try new learning strategies

• To be an adventurous learner, willing totake risks, be a good guesser, and takeevery opportunity to learn, using the facil-itator and all other sources available.

• To work both independently and col-laboratively to achieve good languageand task outcomes

• To monitor their own and others’ lan-guage progress and become aware ofcommon errors

• To keep records of learning and reviewthem constantly

• To acknowledge their active role aslearner and be willing to negotiateaims and working methods with thefacilitator

Roles of facilitators and learnersmight be considered as follows :


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1.3 What are learningstyles?

Learning styles are partly innate and partlylearnt. We are all born with abilities and apti-tudes and then we are exposed to educationin all its forms, at home, in society, in formaleducation and in non-formal education. Thebiggest influences will probably be home andformal education. In the family we are pat-terned into the childhood role assigned to us– ‘eldest’ ‘youngest’ ‘only’ ‘late’ ‘difficult’ ‘wilful’‘beautiful’ ‘ugly’ ‘sporting’ ‘gifted’ ‘lazy’ and soon. In school we imbibe the learning norms ofour cultural context. We will learn to respect,obey, fear, hate, question or rebel against autho-rity. Authority comes in the form of teachers andSchool hierarchies. During these formativeyears we will learn to be more or less com-petitive; to think in terms of success and fai-lure; to experience fear in the classroom; toknow what we can and can’t do; to accept ourlimitations; to try to reach our potential; toenjoy or hate tests and exams (depending onour ability to do well or badly in them!) tolearn how to cheat the system; to avoid doingthings we dislike or find difficult; to shine and

be a star; to work with or against our peers – thisis the process of formal education. The roots ofthe word education seem so often to be forgot-ten. They are the Latin ex and ducare whichmeans to lead out – not to cram in!

When we finish with this stage of life, as wereach official adulthood, we can take control ofwhat and how we learn. Non-formal learningcontexts provide us with opportunities for life-long learning. Long ago, Freire (The Pedagogyof the Oppressed – 1972) spoke about de-schooling. His seminal work still has value. Amore recent series of essays on these themescan be found in Power, Pedagogy and Practice(ed. Hodge and Whiting, 1996). But the mes-sage is optimistic – we can empower ourselvesas learners, take responsibility and stop bla-ming other people, systems and circumstancesfor our lacks.

The graphic below shows the Learning StyleSpectrum with an explanation of styles. We canreflect on where we fit along that line at themoment and know that the best learner is onewho converges towards the middle, combiningabilities to learn studially with abilities to learnexperientially, and the flexibility to adapt styleto situation.

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From this we can perhaps draw up a list of‘dos’ and ‘don’ts’ for facilitators and learners innon-formal contexts. We have indicated who

we think these do’s and don’ts are for, using L forthe Learner; F for the Facilitator. Most of the timethey apply to both sides of the learning equation.

DO:• Acknowledge your role in the

learning adventure (L & F)

• See your role as expeditionguide and leader or the personwho has the language map (F)

• Be willing to experiment withnew learning strategies (L & F)

• Work as a team, using eachperson’s strengths and helpingthem with their weaknesses (L & F)

• Encourage your leaderto give of their best (L)

• Recognise that everyone learnsdifferently at different rates (L & F)

• Be patient and let learninghappen! (L & F)

• Enjoy the adventure ! (L & F)

DON’T :

• Put previous negativelearning experiences in yourrucksack when you packfor this journey ! (L)

• Think ‘teachers’and ‘learners’ (L & F)

• Blame the facilitatorif you don’t learn ! (L)

• Blame yourselfif you get it wrong! (L & F)

• Be competitive aboutachievements (L & F)

• Feel superior or inferior ! (L & F)

• Panic and give up! (L & F)


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Obviously, those are the two extremes and thebest learner, of languages or anything else, isthe one who can experiment with styles fromboth ends of the spectrum and reach a stylesomewhere in the middle to maximise theirlearning.

1.4 Errors !

Accuracy and fluencyin spoken language

Most learning situations (that is, any contextwith teachers and learners) include a clear con-cept of errors and error-correction. At its mostextreme errors can be seen as crimes and error-correction as punishment !

Teachers are trained to monitor learning andapply correctional procedures. Teachers know,learners don’t so they make mistakes and haveto be corrected! Error correction in languagelearning has a long history of debate withclearly defined and justified pedagogical rea-sons for one methodology or another. How-ever, for the purposes of this publication, let’s

create our own approach to errors and correc-tions. (See also Bartram & Walton 1991) forfurther commonsense procedures.

Errors will always occur in language learning.Learning is done by trial and error. You trysomething, if it achieves the outcome you need,it is considered correct and if it doesn’t, it’s obvi-ously incorrect! If you ask for a newspaperwhen you need a ticket, you will get a news-paper. You will then realise your mistake andtry to remedy it. If you are lucky, there will besomeone around who can tell you that theword you need is ticket. In the process youwill also have learnt how to buy a newspaper!

This trial and error approach, being adventu-rous, not being afraid to take risks and appearstupid are essential ingredients for languagelearning in a non-formal context. The role ofthe learner is to behave as above; to learn frommistakes made; to share this learning withothers; to monitor their own and others’ mis-takes; and to enjoy the adventure.

The role of a facilitator in error correction isto observe mistakes being made and to correctthem at the appropriate time and in the appro-priate way. That’s the tricky bit! If the aim oflearning is to achieve communication, errorcorrection must keep a low profile and onlybe seen by both sides as a means to negotiatemeaning.

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The Learning Style Spectrum

Experiental Studial

Experiential language learners learnbest when they can learn by doing;can ask questions and get quickanswers ; are not required to dis-play their knowledge in tests andexams ; do not have to record theirlearning ; can take risks and go attheir own pace; are not expected tolearn grammar rules or read andwrite the language too much ; canpractise speaking the language asmuch as possible; are not too worriedabout their mistakes and achievetheir aims of fluency.

Studial language learners learn bestwhen they are presented with lan-guage in written form; are givenrules for everything; can write every-thing down to record their learning;are given regular tests to confirmtheir progress ; do not need tospeak the language in unrehearsedsituations ; are required to readthe language and write answers toquestions about the text ; are con-stantly corrected and achieve theiraims of accuracy.


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The facilitator helped the learner to negotiatea successful outcome. The learner took risks,carried on until he/she achieved the suc-cessful outcome he/she had in mind. Errorsoccurred on both sides and were dealt withimplicitly. In a learning context, it would pro-bably be beneficial to deal with the learner’sspecific errors explicitly at a separate time. Thiscan be done by rehearsing conversations inthe form of contextualised role-plays so thatthe learner pre-plans and pre-learns languagenecessary for the exchange. This is pre-emp-tive error correction or avoidance.

If we reflect on our language learning experi-ences, error correcting by teachers has usuallyoccurred during tests which usually reveal howmuch we haven’t learnt during lessons, whichjust shows us how silly we are.

In non-formal contexts learners are encou-raged to monitor and self-correct or peer-correctwhenever they can. The best learning takesplace when the learner is aware that the errorhas been made.

When asked, most language learners put cor-recting my mistakes as one of the most impor-tant attributes for a good teacher. However, ifwe followed this through, we would do littleelse in life!

In any case, when the main aim of using lan-guage is for spoken communication, constantinterruptions to correct errors, great and small,will simply create a barrier to communication,rather than facilitate it. Statesmen and spokes-people representing various internationalorganisations are often interviewed in Englishon radio and television. I am always full ofadmiration for the fluency with which mostof them manage to communicate their mes-sages. If I wanted to be pedantic, I could finderrors in almost every utterance, either errorsof pronunciation, stress or usage. However, theonly errors that would need to be dealt withwould be those which create a barrier tocommunication – which are usually very few.Communication of ideas and information isalso a two-sided affair. If you do not want tounderstand, you won’t and if you do, youwill! The English saying ‘there’s none so deafas he who doesn’t wish to hear’ encapsulates thisphenomenon. (Do you have such a saying inyour language?)

The facilitator in our non-formal contextsshould always correct sensitively, clarifyingmeaning and providing correct forms only asnecessary; monitoring and noting commonerrors and dealing with them in a group at alater stage; monitoring and noting errors spe-cific to an individual and enlisting the help ofthe group in assisting that learner to use thecorrect forms; fluency will always be para-mount but accuracy must not be neglected.

The importance of accuracyin written language

Error correction for written English is diffe-rent. Writing is a higher form of language anda more advanced, academically learnt skill. Allhuman beings use spoken forms of languagebut globally, only a minority achieve literacy,that is the skills to read and write. Writingrequires higher levels of accuracy. It is neces-sary to think of purpose and audience whenwriting. Reasons for writing are, broadly speak-ing, for

• Work• Study• Pleasure

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Look at the following dialogueand then reflect on the ‘error-correction’L = learner and F = facilitator.

L. ‘One paper please.’

F. ‘One piece of paper?’ (Offering asheet of paper to write on.)

L. ‘No, one paper for London.’

F. ‘The Times ?’ (Offering the news-paper.)

L. ‘No, no, no.. One paper go London.’

F. ‘Oh! You need an application formto apply for a visa to go to London!’

L. ‘Yes, thank you!’


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Those who write for pleasure are authors,dramatists and poets, although sometimes thisoverlaps with work!

Work and study purposes are the main rea-sons for writing. Writing tasks around workinclude filling in forms, applying for jobs, writ-ten communications in the form of letters,memos, reports, proposals and, increasingly,all of these in e-mail format. Writing tasks forstudy include form filling, note taking, sum-mary writing, essay writing and dissertations.

The main difference between written and spo-ken communication is that the former requires

a much higher degree of accuracy to be trulyeffective. Spoken language is ephemeral and,unless it is recorded and analysed, mistakes inspoken language pass unnoticed much of thetime. Written language is a permanent formand there in black and white for everyone tosee. You cannot retract the written word, ordeny having said it or use any of the otherdisclaimers which we rely on when we simplyspeak.

When communication is spoken there is alwaysthe possibility that the hearer got it wrong,or simply misunderstood, and nobody can doanything about it. That is why, for legal pur-poses, you are asked to ‘put it in writing’!

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Spoken language

• Spontaneous and unrehearsed(unless a pre-planned speech or lecture,which is usually reading a written formof language)

• Ephemeral (unless recorded!)

• Full of false starts and uncompletedsentences, half-said allusions etc so noneed to think and speak syntactically

• No problems with spelling and hand-writing!

• Meaning conveyed with voice quality(pitch, intonation, volume etc)

• If face-to-face, has advantages of bodylanguage, eye-contact and other paralin-guistic features to aid communication(this is why telephone conversations areusually more difficult)

• Needs no special materials

• Betrays emotions

• Needs to be aware of pronunciation andprosodic features of spoken language

Written language

• Planned and able to be revised before use

• A permanent record (unless destroyed!)

• Needs awareness of style, register andrhetorical patterns of written commu-nication

• Can encounter problems of spelling

• Has the added dimension of legibility ifhandwritten

• Requires knowledge of syntax and itsaccurate use

• Needs more time and effort to produce

• Needs writing materials (pen, paper orcomputer and printer)

• Can only be effective in a context ofliteracy

• Can mask emotions

Some contrasting features of spokenand written language are shown below:


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A corollary to this table would be to say thatfluency is more important in spoken languageand accuracy is paramount in written language,therefore more error-correction is necessaryfor written language. But in non-formal con-texts we certainly do not want the ‘red-penapproach’ to correcting written forms of thelanguage.

Formal written communications are generallyquite formulaic. This means that model exam-ples can be adapted for specific use. Form fil-ling is usually standard; letter-writing has cer-tain conventions – forms of address, set phrases,closing sentences and salutations and so on –and can be learnt as a set of possible sentences.Report writing can also follow a formulaicstructure using headings to divide it into sec-tions. Minutes of a meeting are very formulaicin English and can be learnt this way.

The facilitator’s role should be to produce modelexamples of these standard written communi-cations and then assist learners to personalisethem for their specific needs.

The planning stage is the most important whenwriting. At this stage, the facilitator will helpwriters find the language for their ideas; helpwith putting ideas into logical order; help withsuggestions for overall form, e.g. – introduc-tion, main ideas, summary/conclusion/ recom-mendations – check spelling or encourage useof dictionaries if available.

The facilitator needs to be around to answerqueries during the drafting stage too in orderto produce immediate assistance.

Then finally, the facilitator will check the firstdraft, make suggestions for improvement andensure that the final form is accurate, succinctand ready for the reader.

A good way to deal with writing is to build upa bank of commonly needed written commu-nications to use as models. This task will belongto the facilitator, who should rely on their ownnative speaker skills to produce simple andaccurate pieces of writing. In time, theseexamples of good practice will become a use-ful resource for the learning context concernedand can be added to by subsequent learnersand facilitators.

Informal types of writing do not usually causeproblems. These include letters and postcardsto friends and so on. Here, the rules of formalwriting simply do not apply as they are justwrite-as-you speak communications. The reci-pient or reader will forgive you all transgres-sions, which makes them more manageableand pleasurable for the writer to produce!

We would add a note about e-mail communi-cation. This form of written communicationseems to be liberating us from the conventionsof writing inasmuch as it tolerates inaccura-cies. In its electronic wisdom it allows evenquite formal communications to be deliveredin informal style, without causing offence.

This can only be a good thing and shouldencourage people to write more freely. How-ever, it would be a pity to lose the richness oftraditional written forms, which are able toinfluence, persuade and inspire the reader.

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This section provides the theoretical back-ground to Task-Based Language Learning(TBLL); a framework for TBLL with explana-tions; factors to consider when implementingtask-based language learning; and finally, aconcrete example of a task.

It shows how adapted versions of task-basedapproaches to language learning are wellsuited to the non-formal context of learningin the framework of European languageprogrammes. This method relies heavily onlearners’ involvement and their world know-ledge. It places emphasis on the value of theinformation and experiences which partici-pants bring to the language learning sessions.As participants share their knowledge, expe-rience and opinions, they will also be usingtheir existing language, be exposed to newlanguage and develop a variety of strategiesfor improving their language skills.

TBLL also allows the facilitator to use authentictopic material, which is relevant to the partici-pants’ needs and encourages the developmentof skills necessary for the successful comple-tion of real-life tasks.

Clarification of terms

Linguistic jargon is notorious for its ambiguity.Different terms mean different things to dif-ferent people. So for clarification, some of thekey terms used in this publication are listedbelow, together with an explanation.

• Activity Doing something which can beseen as a step towards achieving the task;one part of the process; work in progress.

• Collaborative learning Working togetherand supporting each other to maximiselearning and task outcomes. It is the oppo-site of competitive learning where eachlearner is trying to be better than his com-panions.

• Language facilitator The person who hasa native speaker competence in the lan-guage being learnt and can provide all thenecessary linguistic input to facilitate theactivities and task achievement.

• Learner–centred Describes an approach toclassroom methodology which puts lear-ners’ needs and interests at the centre of thelearning programme.

• Learning styles/strategies A range of waysof studying and learning, along the spec-trum from experiential to studial. (SeeSection 1.2 Roles of learners and facilita-tors).

• Materials Anything which is used to formthe basis of a language learning activity ortask.

• Task The end product to a planned process;a completed piece of work

• Topic Any subject which provides contex-tualised language learning.

2.2 Task-Based LanguageLearning (TBLL)

2.2.1 Background to Task-BasedLanguage Learning

Language acquisition and learning: How isit done?There is no definitive model for learning alanguage or indeed for the acquisition of lan-guage by children. Research has suggested thathuman beings are born with a device whichenables them to organise the language theyare exposed to (their mother tongue) and formrules which can be used to generate morelanguage and be applied in different situa-tions (LAD: language acquisition device andUniversal Grammar, Chomsky 1965). Yet thereis also research to show that even without thestimuli of exposure to a language, deaf chil-dren develop language which displays simi-lar features of a formal language structure(Goldin-Meadow 1990). This has also beenshown through the study of Pidgin languages– languages that are formed by people whohave no common mother tongue but whoneed to communicate among themselves andso form another language. The first intrepidexplorers and international traders relied onpidgin communication. When pidgins are usedas a native language by the next generation,they develop into a Creole language (Bickerton1984) and a new language is formed by peo-ple who were exposed to a language which

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2.1 Introductionand clarification of terms

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did not display a full range of structures. Thisis known as poverty of stimulus (Gleason andRatner 1998). Some theories also relate thecognitive development of children to theirlanguage acquisition. This is another major dif-ference between mother-tongue acquisitionand learning a second language which is usu-ally undertaken after childhood cognitive deve-lopment is complete. (Bates 1979, Piaget 1926).

This is a very cursory dip into this area todemonstrate that nothing is finite in languagelearning or acquisition theory. Also, it mustbe remembered that we are attempting todevelop ideas for language learning not lan-guage acquisition. It is therefore important tobear in mind the difference between languageacquisition of mother tongue and second lan-guage learning later in life. As mentioned inSection 1.1 Language learning and languageteaching, there have also been many theoriesof language learning, which have been reflect-ed in approaches and methodologies in lan-guage teaching.

Learner-centred approachesLearner-centred approaches draw knowledgefrom the learner, working through their needsand interests and selecting materials, activi-ties and tasks accordingly. At all stages, nego-tiation between facilitators and learners isencouraged. Learning is seen as a collabora-tive enterprise. Any approach must considerthe context in which it is to be used and con-sequently the possible reaction of learners tothe methodology. Are learners going to acceptthe choice of methodology with open arms?If the proposed methodology is unfamiliar orgreeted with foreboding, facilitators will needto negotiate with learners to ensure that theyare motivated and happy to learn in that way.The learners will then be stakeholders in theapproach. Of primary concern therefore is thatfacilitators take into account the learning envi-ronment they are working in and manage newapproaches sensitively. (See Section 1.2 Rolesof learners and facilitators.)

2.2.2 Task-BasedLanguage Learning

In Task-Based Language Learning (TBLL), lear-ning is fostered through performing a series of

activities as steps towards successful task rea-lisation. The focus is away from learning lan-guage items in a non-contextualised vacuumto using language as a vehicle for authentic,real-world needs. By working towards taskrealisation, the language is used immediatelyin the real-world context of the learner, ma-king learning authentic. In a TBLL frameworkthe language needed is not pre-selected andgiven to the learners who then practise it butrather it is drawn from the learners with helpfrom the facilitator, to meet the demands ofthe activities and task.

TBLL relies heavily on learners actively expe-rimenting with their store of knowledge andusing skills of deduction and independentlanguage analysis to exploit the situation fully.(See Section 2.4 Concrete example of task –Preparing a meal.) In this example, the aim ofthe session is to work together to prepare ameal where everyone can contribute. Bydoing this, a great deal of language will beactivated under the theme of food. As can beseen by the example, menus have to be dis-cussed, food has to be bought and jobs allo-cated. The participants are prepared for thetask, so that they will be aware of the languagethey need in order to carry it out successfully.

In this approach, motivation for communica-tion becomes the primary driving force. Itplaces the emphasis on communicative flu-ency rather than the hesitancy borne of thepressure in more didactic approaches to pro-duce unflawed utterances. Exposure to thetarget language should be in a naturallyoccurring context. This means that, if mate-rials are used, they are not prepared especiallyfor the language classroom, but are selec-ted and adapted from authentic sources. (SeeSection 4 Selecting and using materials.)

The Task-Based Learning Framework shownbelow has been adapted from the Willis frame-work (1996). In the adapted framework, thefocus of attention is upon a final task. This taskis defined as an undertaking that is authenticto the needs of the learners.

In the case of European youth work pro-grammes, these tasks will relate to the workof participants and will reflect the tasks andsituations they find themselves involved in.An explanation of this framework follows thediagram.

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Task-Based Methodology Framework

(Adapted from Willis, Jane 1996A Framework for Task-Based Learning,Oxford : Longman)

DEFINITION OF THE TASK

2.2.3 Task-Based Methodology

PRE-TASK

Willis suggests that the teacher (facilitator)‘explores the topic with the group and highlightsuseful words and phrases’. For facilitators wish-ing to exploit materials, it is at this stage that thechosen material will need to relate to the task.In preparing for the task fulfilment the facilita-tor will need to consider how the chosen pieceof material will be exploited. Exploring the topicwith the group could be by exploitation of a pic-ture (see Section 3.2), by watching a video clip,(see Section 4) or by looking at a text (see Sec-tion 3.3). The material to be exploited can beused for topic content as a springboard or tohighlight useful words and phrases. It is up tothe facilitator to decide how much language workhe/she thinks will be needed by the learners butit is necessary to remember that the purpose ofusing a piece of material is as a pre-task lead-in.

e.g.:

• material exploitation : using a picture/text etc.to lead into the topic

• brainstorming: making a list ; comparing ideas ;sharing experiences

• activating language : eliciting and providingvocabulary

PRE-TASK

TASKPREPARATION

TASKREALISATION

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TASK PREPARATION

This has been separated from the Pre-Task phaseused by Willis to highlight the importance ofpreparing learners thoroughly, where necessaryrehearsing the task in order to recycle the lan-guage and familiarise learners with the contextas much as possible. If the previous stage involvedbrainstorming words connected with the topic,this stage could involve learners in a discussion oftheir attitudes to it, and preparing their argumentsfor a debate, or their ideas for a leaflet to drawpeoples’ attention to the issue

Learners prepare own input for tasks

e.g.

• planning a report

• practising role-play

• writing a questionnaire to be administered

• thinking of issues in a debate

• brainstorming necessary language

• activating language: eliciting and providing thenecessary language

PRE-TASK

TASKPREPARATION

TASKREALISATION

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TASK REALISATION

The two previous stages will have been lea-ding up to this stage by fully preparing learnersboth ideologically and linguistically for the task.This part of the task cycle will mirror as closelyas possible an authentic undertaking which par-ticipants in European youth work will have tocarry out. Whether the task is performed, dis-played, recorded, conducted as a group, orcarried out in small groups the focus will beon successful realisation of the task.

Learners produce/perform/present their tasks

e.g :

• Producing a poster

• Performing a role-play

• Having a debate

• Producing a leaflet

• Giving a presentation

PRE-TASK

TASKPREPARATION

TASKREALISATION

POST-TASK


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POST TASK

Post-Task options

Language focusWhile the task is being carried out, the facilitator may wish tomake notes on the language : could any vocabulary be added?Were there any structures that caused misunderstanding orconfusion? Were there any phrases which could have beenexpressed differently? Could any of the language have beenused to better effect e.g. made less abrupt, more persuasive etc.?After the task has been completed, participants may wish tolook at the material again to gain a better understanding of thelanguage: to look at structures, difficult/unusual vocabulary etc.

Feedback and evaluationThe facilitator may wish to conduct a feedback session to discussthe success of the task and consider suggestions for improvingit. Participants may wish to discuss such issues as working toge-ther, performing in a group, reactions to the topic, amount oflanguage input, things they enjoyed doing, things they didn’tenjoy and so on. Evaluation of the task will provide usefulinformation for facilitators when planning further tasks.

Reflection upon task realisation

• Was it useful ?

• Was it enjoyable?

Language reflection, possible further input

• Further exploitation of material for language

• Error correction

• Reflection by learners

Peer suggestions : ‘could you explain…?’ ‘could you repeat…?’

PRE-TASK

TASKPREPARATION

TASKREALISATION

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2.2.4 Language abilityand learning styles

When asked to use ‘all the language they canmuster to express themselves’ (Willis 1996),participants who are unfamiliar with this lear-ning context may not feel comfortable or pro-ductive in this learning environment. This isnot to say that it should be rejected if this is thecase, but that facilitators must be aware thatthey may need to allow time for adjustment,encouragement and confidence building. Someparticipants may feel they are being thrownin at the deep end and may find they are unableto swim, especially if they are working withpeople much more confident than themselves.The psychological dynamics of the group willhave a great influence on the success of wor-king groups in this respect. If a hesitant parti-cipant is working with a supportive grouphe/she will gain considerable experience evenif he/she is not ready to fulfil his/her potentialto the full. As was stated in the introduction,(Section 1.2) these approaches require adven-turous learners, prepared to take risks, so aspirit of adventure must be fostered by facili-tators.

In cases where the participants’ language leveldoes not enable them to carry out the taskpreparation, adaptations will have to be madewhere more language is fed in as the situationdemands. In keeping with the ethos of theseapproaches to language learning, however, itmust be remembered that the language inputshould be related to the task. A functionalapproach to language learning would ensurethat the learners are aware of the contextualuse of the language and that they are going touse it for real-world situations. It is essentialthat materials developed on a task-based frame-work should include variations to meet theneeds of beginner and lower level learners.

The TBLL approach can be adapted to suitbeginner level language learners as long asfacilitators are aware of learners’ needs andable to adapt. The language input during thepre-task and task preparation stages will haveto be suitably adapted. At his level, there maybe more call from the participants for stopand explain sessions with further examplesof the language structures being used. Thefocus, however, remains the same: the overallaim is on the accomplishment of a real-life taskand real-life activities leading to this.

2.3 Factors to consider

When using TBLL approaches many differentfactors have to be taken into considerationand some of these are explored below.

2.3.1 Learners’ profile

If you are preparing materials before yourgroup arrives, it is advisable to draw up a likelyprofile of the group. Even if the profile is notexact it will be a framework to start from. It ishelpful to aim your materials at a definedgroup and fine tune later as necessary. You willrarely be faced with a homogeneous group evenif the participants are of the same nationality.

Although participants will all be involved inEuropean youth work and may have similarconcerns and interests, their learning back-grounds are likely to have been very different.It is important to be aware that there may wellbe as many different learning backgrounds asthere are participants. Each person will comewith their own experiences, feelings and atti-tudes, which are likely to surface during acourse. Some participants may not be willingor used to discussing issues. People may havecome from a learning environment which isvery didactic where they are not asked to pro-vide the information, but to absorb it. They maynot be used to giving a controversial opinionor exercising self-expression in a mixed group.An appropriate course of action will need tobe negotiated if a task specifically requiring acertain method is to succeed. Participants maynot want to practise their language with otherparticipants, having been used to giving answersonly to a teacher. Some learners may expect

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the facilitator to provide all the answers andmay be unused to interacting with other par-ticipants during language lessons.

A key element in any language course is astrong learning to learn component. This couldinclude discussions and even demonstrationsof different learning styles and explanations ofthe methods. This is important in the deve-lopment of participants’ learning strategies and,if employed near the beginning of a course,can ease the way for the introduction of newmethodologies such as task-based learning.

Some factors for facilitators to consider: par-ticipants’ ages and any special requirements;their roles in European youth work; their rea-son for learning the language; various socialrealities; how participants are used to learning;their previous language learning experiences;ways of encouraging participants to be confi-dent and adventurous learners. (See 1.2 Rolesof learners and facilitators).

2.3.2 Negotiatingcourse content

An over-riding influence in choosing your taskswill be the wishes of the participants. There islittle point in pursuing a course of action ifparticipants are unwilling to carry it out. Theymay each have a different agenda: this willneed to be managed and negotiated as a group.If participants are asked about their expecta-tions, requirements and wishes, a course canbe negotiated which can address most plausi-ble requirements of the participants. In thechoice of methodology, it must be rememberedthat an unfamiliar methodology cannot befoisted upon a group without negotiation.Facilitators may need to adapt decisions andmethodologies according to the wishes of thegroup and in response to on-going evaluationduring a course. If however, the facilitator feelsit necessary to introduce the participants to anew methodology, this will have to be discussedwith them. Participants are sometimes surprised,however, at how much they enjoy methodswhich were previously unfamiliar to them.

2.3.3 Location of courseand resources available

The location of the course will inevitably affectthe availability and choice of tasks and mate-rials. The following points need to be consi-dered: will materials to support activities and

tasks be freely available? If not, what can youdo in advance to obtain suitable material? Willyou have to adapt or change planned tasks inthis location? Will participants contribute mate-rials? How can you manage with minimalmaterials? How can you use other resources aswell as language-based materials? (See Section4 Selecting and using materials.)

You may be in a situation where you and theparticipants are the only resources available:this might seem a daunting challenge, but isa stimulating call for your resourcefulness! Incase you find yourself in such a situation, wehave provided an example to inspire you!. Ifthere are few conventional teaching materialsavailable, look within and around you, drawon the experiences/feelings/observations... etcof the participants. Once your task has beendecided upon, the materials can be createdfrom what is available: people, geography,buildings and so on. (See Section 3.1 Tasksfrom No Materials).

2.3.4 The interculturaldimension

When considering suggestions for languagecourse activities and materials, the desire toincrease participants’ cultural awareness isparamount. Rather than provide a platformto expound the glories of high culture, it ishoped that by learning the language, partici-pants will also be encouraged to consideraspects of daily living which may be differentto what they are familiar with. In this way, it ishoped to provoke participants’ self-awarenessand awareness of others, and to examine cer-tain cultural aspects which may have beentaken for granted. Activities and tasks shouldattempt to challenge pre-conceived stereo-types and stimulate enquiry, which it is hopedwill lead to better mutual understanding.

The cultural and linguistic make-up of thegroup will also need to be considered. If it isa mono-cultural group in the target languagecountry, will the intercultural dimension bejust two way between the host country andcountry of origin? Will there be a micro-inter-cultural dimension between one nationalitywhich is seemingly homogenous? This canbe a very rewarding exercise in self-awarenessamong participants, especially in breakingdown stereotypes: even within a mono-natio-nal group, people can be asked to consider dif-ferent experiences, lifestyles or social realities

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and beliefs. Participants will be encouragedto see themselves and those around them asindividuals with their own values and beliefs.Intercultural understanding can be very enri-ching when bonds are formed through beliefsand attitudes rather than only national boun-daries. If it is a multi-cultural group, there maybe one nationality which is conspicuouslylarger than others; will this have any bearingon activities and group dynamics? Might someparticipants feel excluded if they are not partof the dominant language sub-group? (Con-sideration of this may need to be given whenorganising sub-groups.) Will participants them-selves decide who they form sub-groups with,or will the facilitator form the groups with anintercultural balance? Facilitators may alsoneed to consider any tensions which mayalready exist or arise between nationalities andto be aware of possible sensitivities.

The material you find may not seem to havean intercultural perspective to it, yet you maybe able to create intercultural tasks from it.Often, something very specific to a certainenvironment can lead very well into compa-risons and reflections about the differences in

experiences. For example even an article aboutsomething as seemingly banal as dog–walkingmay lead to reflections on animals: the waypeople treat them, people’s attitudes to them,vivisection, animal rights groups, workinganimals and so on. An article was recently usedabout a strand of Bill Clinton’s hair which wasauctioned for almost £500! As you can ima-gine, the reflections upon this can take manypaths. Even shopping receipts picked up off thefloor can lead to tasks on shopping habits/foodconsumption/consumerism. Observing the waydifferent countries organise addresses can alsolead to interesting comparisons of people’sviews of housing and civic matters.

This Section ends with a concrete example of aworked through task. The task is preparing andeating a meal together. The only materials arethe participants, facilitator and course locali-ty. This means it is a task from no materials.(See also 3.1 Task from No Materials.) At eachstage of the framework there are step-by-stepguidelines indicating what to do and how todo it. Successful realisation of this task shouldbe a most enjoyable experience!

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2 Context: with a multicultural group youdecide to prepare a meal andto use this activity to learn thelanguage.

TASK: preparing a meal

2.4 Concrete example of a task

What to do

Discuss :

• Possible menus/dishes• Food likes/dislikes• Available budget• Available ingredients• Available utensils• ……

How to do it

Explain specialities from different countries ;gather promotional material from diffe-rent stores ; study special offers ; examineavailable budget ; check available ingre-dients, utensils, etc ; put together a menu.Important language points : vocabulary ofcooking and food, numbers, etc …

PRE-TASK

What to do

• Select the menu to be prepared• Divide it into stages• Find out what each person is able to do• Decide each person’s

responsibility• Collect money• Go shopping

How to do it

Express likes and dislikes ; decide who is todo what ; decide where to shop ; go shop-ping ; make a list of things to be bought withtheir prices ; check receipts ; … Importantlanguage points : making comparisons,negotiating, decision-making, communi-cation activities (buying things, asking forinformation, prices, etc).

TASK PREPARATION


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2What to do

• Cook the meal• Set and decorate the table• Resolve any disputes• Eat and chat• Wash up

How to do it

Decide where everyone is to sit ; settle anydisputes ; talk about individual preferences,the role of women and men, eating habitsin different countries, etc ; write out menus;Important language points : negotiating,conversation gambits, giving commands,requesting things, prepositions of place etc.

TASK REALISATION

What to do

• Comment on and discuss the meal and itspreparation, human relationships, anydisputes that may have arisen

• Exchange recipes, etc • Write a letter to a friend describing the

evening, etc• Invent a new (intercultural ?) recipe• ......

How to do it

Share views, feelings and sensations; orga-nise a debate on different food habits (vege-tarian/non-vegetarian) ; put together aninternational menu ; write an account inthe past tense ; etc …Important language points : expressing thepast, expressing subtleties, agreeing anddisagreeing, etc.

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This Section contains further concrete examplesof TBLL. Firstly, there is a task from no-mate-rials; secondly, six different tasks generatedfrom one piece of material, a photograph; andthirdly, six different tasks using a newspaperarticle as material input (See also 101 ways ofmaking the most of what you’ve got – Section5.4.) Each task demonstrates the flexibility ofTBLL. Focus is always on the activities at eachstage of the framework (the process) withlanguage being elicited and supplied at theappropriate times to facilitate successful taskrealisation (the end product). In this way, lan-guage used should be authentic to the needsof the learners, in their quest to realise the task.

The choice of task will be dictated by the pro-file of participants. Some indications of levelsand group sizes are given as guidelines for

certain tasks, but facilitators will learn to mo-dify and adapt activities and tasks to suit indi-viduals and groups. TBLL is not prescriptiveand most tasks can be adapted for all levels,mixed levels, mono-lingual groups and multi-lingual groups. The essential point is to focuson the task, the activities needed to realise thetask and provide language as it is needed. A well-chosen piece of material will help this process,but tasks from no-materials are equally valid.(See Section 4 “Selecting and using materials”.)

All the examples given in this Section shouldwork if followed to the letter, but we hopefacilitators will experiment with them, findingdifferent activities, cutting out parts whichseem less authentic to a specific context andso on. Above all, we hope you will enjoy faci-litating TBLL!

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3. Examples of Task-Based Learning

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This task demonstrates that it is possible to create meaningful activities and tasksusing only the context and people as resources.

Context: “I’m a language facilitator working with a monolingual group in Romania.I have no materials! What can I do? You’ve just arrived; you know nothing aboutRomania, so ask the group to produce a leaflet to help you while you’re here!”

Materials: None (apart from Stationery)Group Size: Any (if very large numbers, divide into working groups of 4/6)Level: Lower levels

Task: Producing a poster with useful information for a first-time visitor to Romania

3.1 Task from ‘No Materials’

• What do your senses tell you?What do we have to do? Identifythings which might be strange toa visitor. How do we do it ? Useyour senses and common sense !

• In the group. Close your eyes andlisten. What can you hear? Openyour eyes and compare with others(draw what you heard and thefacilitator will give the words).

• Walk around the locality and useyour nose ! What smells can youidentify? Find the words fromthe facilitator.

• Stand still and look around. Iden-tify five things which mean hometo you (for the visitor five thingswhich are not home).

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• What shall we put on the poster ?

• Selecting, sharing, comparing, negotia-ting, deciding (can be done in mothertongue if appropriate).

• What will we need to make the poster?

This phase should generate languagearound the areas selected for the posterand will probably include modes of trans-port, times and prices, words for shopsand services, designing a poster – layout,spatial language and so on.

TASK PREPARATION

• Gather the materials necessary to producethe poster(s). (This should generate thelanguage of stationery and craft materials)

• Produce the poster anddisplay

• Comment on the poster

TASK REALISATION

The facilitator looks at the poster andtalks about its usefulness. The facili-tator’s role at this stage is to be thevisitor and help participants to expressthemselves as they present their com-pleted task. Some practice of thetarget language can occur with smallconversations around the informationon the poster.

In addition some exchange oflanguage can take place, forexample ‘in my language wesay’…‘and in your language yousay’ … These exchanges mayidentify linguistic similarities ordifferences, for example: agree-ment of adjectives, word order,use of articles, capital letters andso on.

POST-TASK

Comments– A follow-up task could be for the facilitator to produce a poster for visitors to his/her country.

This could be used to re-enforce the language and encourage further intercultural awareness.– The same task used with intermediate and higher levels would be equally valid. It would

generate more advanced language and lead to more in-depth exchanges in the target language.It could also be very useful for mixed level groups.

NB. The task in Section 2.4 Preparing a meal is a further example of a task from nothing.


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3.2 Exploitation of a Photograph


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Material: Copies of the photograph of the elderly personOther Material: Old magazines and newspapers; stationeryGroup: Four +Level: Intermediate and Higher

• Show participants the photo andask them to brainstorm all the wordsthat come into their heads whenthey look at the photo – someonewrites all the words up in one co-lumn.

• The group then thinks of all theopposites they can to the wordsthey have written – someone writesthis up in a second column.

• Make sure the words ‘young’ and‘old’ are clearly displayed.

PRE-TASK

Task 1 : Producing posters for an exhibitionon the theme of ‘Youth and old age’

• Divide the group into two sub-groups (not according to ages !)and label them either ‘old’ or‘young’.

• Give the groups a selection of ma-gazines and newspapers.

• Ask the participants to pick out apicture which they think relatesto their topic, i.e. old or young.

• Encourage them to discuss witheach other why they have chosenthe pictures.

TASK PREPARATION

• Participants put their picturesonto a poster and display theposters.

• Half the participants walk aroundthe exhibition while the other half

stay by their posters and explainwhy they chose the pictures.

• After a while, swap the groupsover so the other half has a chanceto walk around the exhibition.

TASK REALISATION

• The group can reflect upon the wordsthey chose at the beginning anddiscuss what they feel are prejudices

surrounding the young and old : dopeople have any first-hand experi-ences of these prejudices?

POST-TASK

CommentsThis can be adapted to lower levels where the language input would be more in the nature ofsingle items of vocabulary and simple constructions.


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Material: Copies of the photograph of the elderly personOther Material: StationeryGroup: Eight +Level: All levels including mixed

• Either as a whole group, or in smallersub-groups : Describe the person inthe photo ; give him/her a name,social situation, a profession, typicaldaily activities, preferred diet etc.

• Write up the suggestions in noteform for everyone to see, or, afterabout 5 – 10 minutes, ask someonein the group to make notes on thedescription.

PRE-TASK

Task 2 : Presenting a case historyof a person to Social Services

• Tell the groups that this personhas just been referred to SocialServices. He/she needs to be re-housed in an old people’s home.The community he/she is going intois different from the one he/she isleaving.

• In their presentation, they shouldmake Social Services aware of whatwill be different for the personentering the new situation and

give any advice on helping him/herto adapt.

• Each group is going to make a pre-sentation to Social Services descri-bing this person’s situation (way oflife, including any religious con-victions, diet etc.).

• In the sub-groups, participants plantheir presentation, making notesonly.

TASK PREPARATION

• Groups give their presentationsto the rest of the participants

• This could be arranged as if therest of the participants were acommittee from Social Services.

TASK REALISATION

CommentsThis could be done with a lower group if more language was provided during the preparationstage: e.g.: he likes/he doesn’t like etc. She is Jewish/Christian/Muslim etc.


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Material: Copies of the photograph of the elderly personOther Material: Role-cards (see task preparation)Group: AnyLevel: Intermediate - Higher

• Brainstorm possible housingoptions for this person, assu-ming he/she could no longerlive independently.

• Make comparisons betweendifferent countries : what are

the possibilities/common prac-tices for elderly people in thissituation?

• Display the list of alternatives.

PRE-TASK

Task 3 : Role-play : suggesting housing optionsfor the elderly person

• Divide participants into sub-groups – one group for eachrole-card. (See role cards below.)

• Distribute the role-cards so thatthe members of each grouphave the same roles, e.g. doc-tors, social workers etc.

• Tell the participants that theyare going to take part in ameeting with other people todecide the best housing optionfor the elderly person.

• The groups who have to givean opinion brainstorm the

arguments for their case. Eachgroup may want to make notes.

• Groups of chairpersons candecide how they will chair themeeting, and how they willmake a decision. Do they haveany criteria which might affecttheir decision? E.g. how willthe idea be financed ?

• The facilitator provides lan-guage for persuasive arguing.

• After 10 – 15 minutes, stop thegroups and divide the partici-pants into new groups of mixedcharacters.

TASK PREPARATION


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• Each of the groups has theirdiscussion.

• The facilitator monitors, butdoes not interact at this stage.

TASK REALISATION

• Participants come together intoone group. The chairpersonscome to the front of the groupand discuss their decisions. Theothers may wish to comment,but the chair people will be able

to compare their discussions andthe group can discuss the mainarguments.The facilitator gives feedback onlanguage used and its effective-ness.

POST-TASK

ROLE CARDS

A A

AA

B B

BB

C C

CC

D D

DD

E E

EE

F F

FF

You arethe chairman

at a meeting ofpeople decidingthe best housing

option for theelderly person.

You are a relativeof the elderly

person who thinksthat he/she should

come and livewith you.

You are a relativeof the elderly person

who thinks thathe/she should remainin his/her own house

but should beprovided with

a full-time carer bySocial Services.

You are the elderlyperson’s doctor.

You think that he/sheshould be put in anold people’s home,paid for partly bySocial Services and

partly by the family.

You are the elderlyperson’s social

worker. You thinkhe/she wouldprefer to livealone, with a

part-time carervisiting daily.

Other?


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Material: Copies of the photograph of the elderly personOther Material: (elderly people to interview!); stationeryGroup: Six +Level: Intermediate - Higher

• Show the participants the photo,and ask them to describe the per-son : what kind of character do they

think he/she might have? What kindof life do they think he/she mightlead ?

PRE-TASK

Task 4 : Presenting a summary of interviewswith elderly people

• Ask the participants : if you weregoing to interview this person, whatwould you like to ask him/her?

• The participants individually inter-view some elderly people. If the

course is not taking place in thetarget language country, the inter-views can be done in the locallanguage, and the presentationsin the target language.

TASK PREPARATION

• Participants presenta summary of theirinterviews to the restof the group.

TASK REALISATION

• Ask the participants what they learntfrom this : what were their reactionsto the elderly people’s answers?

POST-TASK

Comments

• Lower level participants can be involved by interviewing people together with someone of aslightly higher level: the questions could be decided upon together.

• If there are no elderly people available to be interviewed, some participants can play the partof an elderly person: invent things the person has done; the kind of life he/she has led etc.

• This can be a fun activity regardless of whether the interviews are carried out with real elderlypeople, especially if the group is creative: they can think up adventures the person has had etc.

• The task would then be the conducting of interviews, which could be video taped.


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Material: Copies of the photograph of the elderly personOther Material: A Police From to completeGroup: Four +Level: All

• Elicit physical descriptions of peoplein the group.

With higher levels, make sure thedescriptions are in-depth.

PRE-TASK

Task 5 : Giving a descriptionof a person to the police

• Give participants the photo.

• Tell participants that this personhas gone missing and they aregoing to have to give a detaileddescription of him/her to the

police. They could invent man-nerisms e.g. the way he/she walks.

• Participants work in pairs and makenotes around the photo aboutwhat they will say to the police.

TASK PREPARATION

• Participants work in differentpairs.

• The Police man/woman interviewsthe person giving the descrip-tion and fills in his/her form.

• One person has the photo, theother has the police form.

• Participants swap roles andpartners, and repeat the inter-views.

TASK REALISATION

CommentsThis can be extended to a more literarydescription of someone they know, where thephysical description leads on to a detailed‘story’ of this person’s life in narrative form.This can be very interesting when partici-pants share information about people whoare very special to them.

• Police forms can bedisplayed and com-pared ; any extra lan-guage can be addedwhere necessary.

POST-TASK


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Description of the missing person:

Name of the missing person: .......................................................

....................................................................................................

....................................................................................................

Physical description of the person: ..........................................

....................................................................................................

....................................................................................................

Any distinguishing features:......................................................

....................................................................................................

....................................................................................................

Comments: .....................................................................................

....................................................................................................

....................................................................................................

Name and contact details of the person giving information:

....................................................................................................

....................................................................................................

....................................................................................................

POLICE FORM


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Material: Copies of the photograph of the elderly personOther Material: Stationery; lots of magazines with picturesGroup: Four +Level: Lower Intermediate

• Look at the photo.• From the magazines, find pictures

which could represent these people.

• Brainstorm and think about all thepeople he/she may come acrossduring the course of a typical day.

PRE-TASK

Task 6 : Role-plays : an elderly person interactingwith other members of the community

• Divide the participants into groupsof four or five.

• Participants prepare and rehearsethe sketches.

• Each person in the group must begiven a role to play. The sketch

can take the form of a story ; itcould be one event or a series ofevents/role-plays.

• Tell them they are going to pre-sent a short sketch of ‘A day in thelife of …...…(the elderly person)’.

TASK PREPARATION

• Participants perform their sketchto the rest of the group.

TASK REALISATION

• Participants discuss each of the situ-ations remarking on the differencesand similarities in their various so-cieties: what would be the same/dif-ferent activities carried out by elder-ly people in different countries ?

• Language focus – the different func-tions used in the role-plays : was

their language affected by the per-son they were talking to?

• This could lead to the way elderlypeople are spoken to/treated insocieties : does your language havea respectful form of address (Vousin French and Lei in Italian) whichis used for the elderly?

POST-TASK


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‘I regret having sex but I love my Georgia’ from The Mirror of 2nd September 1999. (Reproducedwith permission from Rosie Dunn and Mirror Syndication International)This text was chosen by participants on an Intercultural Language Learning Course for European YouthLeaders at Edwards Language School in September 1999. The participants were very surprised by the arti-cle and were keen to discuss the issues surrounding it. The picture shows a girl (Kathleen) aged 13 hol-ding the baby she gave birth to when she was 12. The article introduces Kathleen’s situation and containsan open letter written by her. In the letter she gives advice to young girls who may find themselves in asimilar situation. The style of the article is informal and includes many examples of colloquial language.

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3.3 Exploitationof a Newspaper Article

KATHLEEN Moss was just 12 whenshe gave birth to her daughter a yearago.

She celebrated her child's first birth-day in June – just after she’d cele-brated her own 13th. Today she givesher advice to the two Yorkshire girlswho face the same shocking dilemmaas she did.

She also gives an insight into anepidemic of childhood pregnancies inBritain.

‘I WASN’T surprised whenI heard that two more girlsare having babies as youngas I was.

It’s happening everywhere, but theonly thing I can tell them is that theywill just have to get on with it.

That’s what everyone told me, becausethey said there was no point in cryingover spilt milk.

Having a baby at 12 definitely makesyou grow up quicker, because you haveto face the responsibilities of lookingafter a baby of your own.

Lots of people said it would ruin mylife, but I don’t believe it has. I love mybaby and I will look after her the bestI can.

Hopefully, these two girls will havethe support of their families. My fam-ily were behind me all the way and Icouldn’t have coped without themhelping me.

They still help me now and I’ve goneback to school and take Georgia withme every day.

It’s strange at first to believe that it’syour baby – it took a long time for itto sink in that Georgia was my child.

I’m sure these girls will feel a bit weirdabout it at first, but I promise it getseasier.

My family were shocked, and I hid itfrom everyone right up until threeweeks before I gave birth. I was reallyfrightened to be having a baby, but Ididn’t really understand it.

Scared

When you’re a kid you just try andhide it however you can, because youthink you’re going to be in a lot oftrouble.

But of the worst bit of it all was beingscared of what people say about you inthe street. I hated being called namesin the beginning, but it doesn’t last.That’s all stopped now and I just goout as normal.

I think these girls should just stickwith their families and they will be OK.

They shouldn’t take any notice ifpeople call them bad names – there’sworse things you can do than have ababy.

I can guarantee them that in time allthe fuss will die down, just like it didwith me. I don’t even think about itany more.

Giving birth wasn’t as bad as I thoughtit would be, but then by that stageyou don’t have any choice anyway.

I don’t why so many young girls arehaving babies early now. I know I didn’tthink about my future.

When I had sex I didn’t understandit - it was just something to do at thetime.

A lot of kids are bored and they’regrowing up a lot quicker these days.But these girls will have to changetheir lives now.

Having a baby means a lot of respon-sibility, and they will have to learn tochange nappies and fix bottles like Idid. They might not like it at first, butthey’ll just have to get used to it.

They’ll also have to get used to get-ting up in the night when their babycries.

I know some people say I don’t havea normal life for a 13-year-old, but it’snormal to me. It’s the only life I know.

I’m sure these girls feel a bit scaredabout what will happen next, but they’llsoon get settled into a routine withtheir baby, especially if their ownmums are there to give them a hand.Georgia is lovely and she’s all mine. IfI could turn the clock back I wouldn’tdo the same again, but on the otherhand I wouldn’t want to be withoutGeorgia for anything.

I regret having sex, but I don’t regrethaving her. I want nice things for her

when I grow up. That’s why I’ve goneback to school.

These girls will realise how importantthat is as their babies start to grow up.It was only having Georgia that mademe realise I needed to go back to school.Just because the girls are going to havechildren of their own doesn’t meanthey cant get an education for them-selves.

I would say that going back to schoolis one of the most important thingsfor them so they can get a job later onand look after their child.

I know you probably think you can’tcope with all of this right now, but youcan. I used to think the same when Ifirst had Georgia.

If anything, I think my life hasimproved. I used to run away fromschool and played truant before I hadGeorgia.

"Now I am down to study eight GCSEswhen I go back to school this week.I’m very proud of myself and my baby.

I’m lucky to go to a mother – and-baby unit, but even if that’s not avail-able for them they should just tryand get the best education they can.

Laugh

It’s also important to still have timeto have a laugh with your mates. Someof the girls I mix with have babies oftheir own, so we have lots in common.

I’m not with Georgia’s father any more,and despite what everyone says I canlook after her properly with my family.

I never thought about contraceptionbefore because I was too young toknow about that sort of stuff. I’m surethese girls are exactly the same as me.

Maybe kids should be taught aboutit earlier in school, but it would havebeen no use for me anyway because Inever used to go to school before Ihad Georgia.

People still get shocked by the factthat I had a baby at 12, but it doesn’tshock me. It just happens.

I was terrified of my mum finding out,but she has stood by me all the way.

There’s no point in wishing it hadn’thappened – it’s too late for that. Hav-ing a baby may not be what these girlsexpected at their age, but just becauseyou’re a young mum it doesn’t meanyou’re too young to love your own child.

I’d say hang on in there and you willget by. You don’t have to give up or missout on pop music and clothes for your-self.

You just have to change things arounda little to make sure you put your babyfirst.

At the end of the day, if you love yourbabies as much as I love Georgia, itwill all be all right in the end.

Love and care are the bestthings you can give your child,and the rest will work itself out.Good luck!

Kathleen was talking toROSIE DUNN

I regrethavingsex butI love

my Georgia

‘

Photograph

of Kathleen

and her baby


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Material: Copies of the photograph only (of Kathleen and her baby)Other Material: StationeryGroup: Any sizeLevel: All

• Give out the photograph to sub-groups of two or three.

• Ask participants to guess who thepeople are ; what is the relation-ship? (It may be necessary to

draw a family tree for very lowlevels).

• Ask participants to guess the ages.• Bring the groups together to com-

pare ideas.

PRE-TASK

Task 1 : Producing posters for an exhibitionon the theme of ‘Youth and old age’

• Tell participants they are goingto imagine they are Kathleen andare going to write a letter to herfriend saying how she feels.

• Elicit or introduce language toexpress Kathleen’s emotions e.g.happy/frightened/depressed etc.

• Ask participants to comment onhow they think Kathleen may befeeling: you may need to introducesome basic language for givingopinions.

• Note down all the possible feelingsthat are suggested and display them.

TASK PREPARATION

• Participants can work in pairs oralone.

• They write Kathleen’s letter,describing her feelings duringpregnancy and now.

• The letters can then be sent toother members of the group anddisplayed as a ‘Dear Friend’ or‘Agony Aunt’ page of a maga-zine.

TASK REALISATION

• Where the language level is appro-priate, the text can be shown toparticipants who can comparewhat they thought Kathleen wouldfeel with what she actually wrote.

• Where the language level is appro-priate, participants can discuss eachother’s letters and give feedbackon their impressions

POST-TASK


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Material: Copies of the article; separate copies of the photo; separate copies ofthe headline

Other Material: StationeryGroup: Any SizeLevel: Intermediate +

• Give the picture to sub-groups of

two or three participants and ask

them to guess the relationship

between the girl and the baby.

• Ask the groups to give feedback to

each other to compare each group’s

suggestions.

• Give participants the headline only

and ask for their reactions. Does

this statement surprise you? Can

you understand (empathize with)

Kathleen’s feelings?

• Ask the participants to predict whatthe article will say : do they think

Kathleen will be frightened/upset

/worried etc.?

• Participants read the article to seeif their predictions were accurate.

• They compare their reactions with

each other.

PRE-TASK

Task 2 : Producing a leaflet on guidelinesfor ‘Sex education in schools’

• Ask the participants to considerwhat advice could have been givento Kathleen so that this situationcould have been avoided.

• Tell participants they are going toproduce a leaflet giving guidelineson sex education in schools. Theaim of this leaflet is to focus on thevalue of relationships and perso-nal development rather than bio-logical knowledge alone.

• Participants pick out statements inthe text which would help them

e.g. what Kathleen thinks waswrong with her education andthe reasons why she thinks thishappened.

• Then they compare each other’sexperiences of sex education atschool noting down any diffe-rences and how effective it was.

• In groups of two or three, parti-cipants then decide what elementsthey would like to include in theirleaflet and how they want toarrange it.

TASK PREPARATION


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• Participants produce their leafletsin groups of two or three.

• Leaflets can then be displayed forothers to read and comment on.

TASK REALISATION

• Any extra language work canbe carried out on the text. Inthis particular text, there area lot of idioms and colloquiallanguage phrases.The functional language isalso useful, e.g. expressingregret.

• Reflections on comments madein each other's leaflets. Howvalid are the suggestions ?

• How could these comments berelevant in participants’ youthwork? E.g. do any of the par-ticipants work in this area, orrelated areas?

POST-TASK

Comments

– This can be a very sensitive issue which needs to be treated carefully. The sharing of expe-riences should be done as informally as possible with participants offering information onlyif they wish, as this may be an issue that is not usually openly discussed.

– This provides a very good chance for a wide range of experiences to be shared on a topicwhich often turns out to be both culturally and individually very specific. Discussions oneducational issues often provide interesting insights into the values and behaviour of dif-ferent societies, since people can relate their educational experiences to their current valuesand attitudes.


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Material: Copies of the article; role cards; copies of the grid (see below)Other Material: StationeryGroup: Any SizeLevel: Intermediate +

• Ask participants if they remember beinggiven advice when they were younger,and how they felt about it. Did they havea strict upbringing, or was it more liberal?

• Feedback from the group

• Tell participants they are going to readthe article, and to think about what kindof advice they would give to Kathleen.

• When they have read the article, theyshould fill in the grid in pairs ;

PRE-TASK

Task 3 : Role-play : giving Kathleen advice

Person A

– Why did Kathleen becomepregnant?

– What does she regret?

Person B

– What does she think of hersituation now?

– What advice does she giveto others in her situation?

• In sub-groups of three or four, partici-pants discuss what they would say toKathleen.

• After a few minutes, ask participants tosit next to someone from a differentgroup.

• As a group, brainstorm the functionallanguage for giving advice and persua-ding.

• Display the language, and discuss possi-ble modifications for different strengthsof opinion.

• Participants form pairs. Give out the rolecards to each pair and give them a fewminutes to read their role.

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• Participants converse for about 5 mi-nutes.

• Facilitator walks around and monitorsthe language, noting down any sug-gestions for the post-task phase.

TASK REALISATION

• Participants come together as a groupand discuss their advice: did they think itwas useful ?

• Feedback can be given on languageused.

POST-TASK

Comments

Role cards can be swapped so that people can try different roles.

Person A

• You are Kathleen’s aunt/uncle.

• Decide whether you want to persuadeKathleen to have the baby or terminatethe pregnancy. Think about your argu-ments and how you’re going to expressthem, then begin your conversation.

• You are Kathleen Moss’s good friendand you’ve come to cheer her up. Makepositive suggestions for her future.

• You are Kathleen Moss. You want to joina local youth group, so you’ve arrangeda meeting with the youth leader. Thinkof some questions to ask and say whyyou would like to join.

Person B

• You are Kathleen Moss.

• Your aunt/uncle has come to talk to youabout whether you should have yourbaby or terminate the pregnancy. Thinkabout how you might react to differentsuggestions. Then begin your conversa-tion.

• You are Kathleen Moss. Your best friendhas come to visit you to help you makeplans for your future.

• You are the leader of a local youth group.Kathleen has come to you about joiningyour group, Think of some advice you couldgive her, then answer her questions.


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Material: Copies of the articleOther Material: A collection of teenage magazinesGroup: Any SizeLevel: Intermediate and higher

• Ask participants to scan the article to find out what concerns Kathleenhas as a teenager.

• Participants divide into groups and compare their suggestions.

• If the group is not large enough for sub-groups, they can stay as onegroup, and one of the participants can chair the discussion.

• Participants then share and compare information about teenagers in theirdifferent countries.

PRE-TASK

Task 4 : Presenting the resultsof research on teenage issues

• Spread the teenage magazines outwhere everyone can see.

• Looking at the covers only, parti-cipants discuss what they think arethe main interests of teenagers.

• Participants divide into groups ofthree or four, with some magazinesper group.

• Tell the participants they are goingto take one or two magazines per

group (these can be the same ineach group) and prepare a posteron the main interests and concernsof teenagers.

• They look through the magazines,skim reading some of the relevantarticles.

• Participants then prepare anddesign a poster depicting the inte-rests of teenagers.

TASK PREPARATION

• Participants presenttheir posters to therest of the group.

TASKREALISATION • Participants can continue their previ-

ous discussion about issues concern-ing teenagers in different countries.

• Were they surprised by any of theirfindings?

• What do they think of the magazines?

POST-TASK

CommentsThere is a lot of scope to expand on this topic;the search can be extended to the Internet.Participants can prepare questions and inter-view teenagers if they are available, then reportback to the group.


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Material: Copies of the articleOther Material: Stationery; (overhead projector if available)Group: Any SizeLevel: Intermediate - higher

• Participants read the arti-cle to find out why Kath-leen says this happened toher and how she feels ithas changed her.

• Participants share theirreactions.

PRE-TASK

Task 5 : Making a presentation for a bid for fund-ing

• Explain that participants will preparepresentations as bids for funding fora workshop on teenage issues.

• Brainstorm what should be includedin the presentations e.g. the aims,the plan, the money required andallocated etc.

• Participants should divide into sub-groups and discuss ideas for a work-shop.

• They then prepare a presentation asa bid for funding for the workshop.

TASK PREPARATION

• Sub-groups presenttheir workshop bidsto the rest of theparticipants.

TASK REALISATION

• Discussion :which bid was the strongest?

• Further exploitation of languagein the text

• Feedback from facilitator on lan-guage used in presentations

POST-TASK

Comments

This is a good chance for higher-level participants to develop their presentation skills. The pre-sentations can be videoed and played back for further discussion. This could lead to a writtenapplication for funding. (See Section 5 DIY Workshop, and Appendix 3 feedback)


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Material: Copies of the articleOther Material: NewspapersGroup: Any SizeLevel: Intermediate +

Participants collect examples of ‘let-ters to the editor’ from a variety ofnewspapers.

The facilitator can collect suitablenewspapers and give them to theparticipants to find the letters to theeditor.

If these are not available, e-mails froma website chat room can be used.

This material should contain exam-ples of giving and responding toopinions.

• Participants choose one or twoexample letters and share the infor-mation with others in sub-groups.They discuss whether they agreewith the opinions stated in theletters.

• Bring the groups together and askfor examples (from the letters) oflanguage used to state opinions.Display the examples.

PRE-TASK

Task 6 : Writing a letter to the editor of The Mirror

• Give a copy of the article to each partici-pant.

• Participants read the article and thinkof three comprehension questions.

• In pairs, participants ask and answer eachother’s questions.

• The facilitator can monitor the questionsand answers and help with any languageproblems.

• Explain to the group that they are goingto write a letter to the editor of TheMirror.

• In one group, or sub-groups, participantsdiscuss their reactions to the article.

• Ask participants to pick out languagefrom the text which is used for givingopinion.

• Elicit and provide language and conven-tions for letter writing.

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• Participants write their letters either aloneor in pairs.

• When participants have finished, theletters can be swapped.

• Participants can then write a reply to aletter of their choice.

TASK REALISATION

Letters can be sorted according to theopinions expressed.

POST-TASK

Comments

Letters to the Editor can be written in response to any article which is controversial.

In one newspaper in Britain, there is a regular feature based on controversial issues. This formatcould be used as a task-based approach: two people are asked to write letters to each other inreply to a controversial statement referring to an issue which has been in the news. The twopeople are from strictly opposing sides. The correspondence continues for about four or fiveletters which are then published in the newspaper alongside each other. This could work in asimilar way with a group of participants. When the participants have written their letters to theeditor, they could have a debate, as their language for this subject will have been well activated.

A controversial statement can be read out. Participants would form two groups with opposingopinions. A debate could be held and a vote taken at the end on the original statement.


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4.1 General considerations

Reasons for choosing materials to use as toolsfor language learning will usually include thefollowing considerations:• You find something which is interesting,

curious or topical and would like to incor-porate it into a lesson. The material wouldbe relevant and stimulating for learnersand would create a good basis for discus-sion.

• You find materials which you feel wouldprovide a good model for something whichparticipants would like to produce them-selves.

• You have an idea of what you would liketo do with a group and keep an eye out foranything which would serve as materialsfor your ideas.

What to do when you first find a piece ofinteresting material? As with any creativeexercise, you need to spend time just think-ing and throwing ideas around. You will notarrive at the perfect lesson plan immediately.Neither do you have to be a creative whizz-kid. When you use your own materials, youcan pick and choose from various approa-ches and use them for your purposes in yourcontext. It is, however, important to be clearabout the reasons and ideas for having cho-sen the material and the people who will beusing them. For example, what vocabularycan be related to, or elicited from, this mate-rial? If this were a real situation, what would Isay to this person? What language would needto be known in order to do this? What otheruse would this be in the context of youth worktraining, besides language learning? Whatinformation does it provide about culturalnorms or attitudes? Although it may be aninteresting piece of material, what are learnersgoing to do with it? What task(s) will resultfrom using this material?

Tasks must be authentic to the needs of lear-ners: what are they going to do which will imitatesomething they do either in their everydaylife or in their work roles? There is no reasonfor them to do something purely for the sakeof learning some language without it being ameans-to-an-end task. The material will be theprecursor to the task, so how will the piece ofmaterial facilitate the carrying out of the task?At this stage, the facilitator may have an ideawhich could be focussed on: a topic for dis-cussion or a subject to work on. This does notnecessarily have to be explicit: the issue couldbe approached from a different angle. The faci-litator or participants could use the materialto lead into certain issues. A personal story orpiece of information could lead to a broaderissue concerning that learner such as genderissues or their status within society. Forexample, a video clip on Swedish attitudes tohealth has been used to lead on to a wide vari-ety of health issues and lifestyle considerationsrelevant to specific groups of learners.

In this way, by approaching an issue from themicro scale rather than the macro or globalperspective, learners may be able to relatebetter to a topic and piece of material. Insteadof saying ‘Let‘s discuss attitudes to sex’, facili-tators could approach the subject through arole play or simulation where participantsmay express more of their opinions than theywould had they been discussing the topic inabstraction (See Section 3.3 Exploitation of anewspaper article.)

Whichever method you choose, you shouldthink carefully about the purpose of using thepiece of material: What will the learners doduring the learning session? Will the materialserve as a model or example of something? Doyou want the material to be used for vocabularyexpansion – or to focus on language points?Will a picture be used to provoke a reaction?Is it to be used as a spring-board for a role play?Or simply to stimulate interest? Materials canbe used for any or all of these reasons and willundoubtedly also result in purposes which youhave not pre-planned, but should be recordedin the feedback and evaluation phase of thetask cycle.

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This Section offers ideas on how to select materials to use as tools for language learning. All thematerial sources suggested should lend themselves to a wide variety of activities and tasks.


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4.2 Various sourcesof materials

4.2.1 Materialsfrom the learners

The most learner-centred materials will bethose chosen by learners. Something broughtin by a participant will automatically haverelevance, bring new energy and show thatthe facilitator doesn’t have to control the si-tuation. (See Section 1.2 Roles of learners andfacilitators.) Learners should be encouraged toread newspapers and choose articles whichinterest them. This could lead to discussionsof questions posed in response to the article.Participants can be asked to choose short newsitems which are strange or unusual to them.If learners are not able to read newspaperarticles, they can bring a piece of material intheir own language, or pictures. They can findleaflets that interest or surprise them. Theycould also bring in an object they wish to talkabout: unusual food/plants; their favouritethings. Photographs from participants can pro-vide a very interesting way for them to sharetheir experiences with other members of thegroup. Most participants in European youthwork contexts enjoy sharing informationbrought with them about their organisationsor roles. Materials brought in could be dis-played as an exhibition in the form of aninformation market.The range of tasks which can be generated bylearners’ materials is infinite.

4.2.2 Materials from television

There are many programmes on televisionwhich lend themselves to being used as mate-rial to stimulate task-based learning. Earlylanguage learners in particular are providedwith plenty of visual material which helpsthem to understand.

Programmes which provide an insight intoordinary life, which is difficult to capture fullyin other ways, are particularly popular withlearners. One category of television programmewhich is generally found in all countries, issoap opera. Although the characters and si-tuations are often exaggerated and based onstereotypes, they do portray everyday life andcan provoke much intercultural discussion.

After watching such programmes participantscould perform a short scene from their ownsoap operas reflecting issues they believe areof common concern. In Britain, pressure groupswork alongside soap opera producers to pro-vide realistic input when a story-line deals witha topical and, possibly sensitive or controver-sial issue. Soaps can also be used for their fun,action-packed elements: what’s going to hap-pen next? What would you have done in thatsituation? What is your impression of him/her?What would have happened if…?

Advertisements can be used with or withoutdialogue with a variety of levels. They can befun and although the images may be stereo-typical, they can also be very revealing of acountry’s cultural norms. Producing an adver-tisement can be an excellent task involvingeveryone. Even a beginner is able to mime theecstasy which comes from using a certainshampoo or deodorant or driving a certainmake of car! More advanced language lear-ners can play about with the language of hyper-bole (hype), which is so common in the worldof advertising.

Short news items provide excellent formalmodels. These are often self-contained andtopic-based. There may be short reports oflocal interest or something topical. News reportscan be watched without the sound for parti-cipants to guess the information, or put wordsinto mouths by guessing the script. Facilitatorsor learners can write short summaries of items,which can then be given to other participantsto match to the item when they view the pro-gramme. Focussing on key vocabulary thathelps learners to understand the gist of thenews is a good way of facilitating learners’general understanding of the language. Newsalso expands the area of experience to a glo-bal platform, which is especially interesting ifan international event is in the news at thetime. If a video camera is available, tasks caninclude encouraging participants to create theirown television news programmes to includecommon elements such as weather forecasts,political items, sports items and so on.

Extracts from films are an interesting way todiscuss issues from the standpoint of otherpeople: for example, participants’ reactions toevents in films, their opinions of characters’behaviour and judgements, whether partici-pants have had similar experiences and so on.

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Detective films can also create excitement anda whodunnit search for the culprit. Care shouldbe taken, however, to choose the extract care-fully, to avoid learners becoming overwhelmedwith having to concentrate for a long time orif they are unable to follow the thread. Filmextracts can also be watched without the sound;dialogues can be written for the scenes. Par-ticipants can guess what was happening andmake up their own version of events.

4.2.3 Pictures

There is such a huge variety of pictures thatcan be used for materials that it is difficult tosuggest usages without categorising pictures.For example, pictures of people could be usedto imagine different life-styles; what the peo-ple may be thinking/feeling; what they arewearing/what effect this has on the personlooking at the picture; what they might besaying and so on. The person’s life story can bemade up – this is especially fun with severalpeople who can weave a web of relationshipsand events! (See 3.2 Exploitation of a photo-graph.)

Pictures can be used to describe places, makesuggestions or comments about places: pre-tend to be a tourist promoter and promotethe place. It could be someone’s ideal place tolive. A photograph of a scene could be usedto describe a place to someone else, or to pre-tend to write a postcard from this place. Thepicture could represent a problem; land useor abuse; a danger of some sort; the subjectof a planning application and so on. A role-play could take place based on the picture asif it was being used as a piece of evidence. Forlower language levels, pictures can be dis-played and one can be described for someoneelse to identify.

A picture can be described for another personto draw and then compare with the original.Learners can just point to their favourite pic-ture, say why they like it, or say how it affectsthem? Do they know any similar scenes?

Pictures from catalogues can be used to makelists of items for sale to classify essential orluxury items. Guessing games about items andtheir prices can be played in a group. Shoppingcatalogues can be used to select an appropri-ate gift for an imaginary person or relative,colleague, lover, friend and so on with justifi-cation of why it was selected. Pictures can be

partially hidden and people can try to figureout what the picture is. Pictures can be usedto build up a lifestyle for an imaginary person.(See Section 3.2 Exploitation of a photograph.)

Magazine advertisements are produced to beeye catching, appealing and often amusing;they can provide a light-hearted ‘look at pic-tures’. Discussions about advertisements, theireffect on the reader, the use of puns and col-loquialisms can be very useful. This will leadto questions about the message, and how effec-tively it is conveyed. A popular task is for par-ticipants to create their own advertisements.With lower language levels, advertisementsprovide an interesting ‘point and name’ ses-sion: What is this? How do they feel? What arethey saying? Enact a dialogue between cha-racters in the pictures. Adverts can be a usefulstepping stone to intercultural considera-tions: how relevant are the adverts to diffe-rent people? What do they reveal about thepeople they are aimed at? What do they revealabout consumerism? What are the reactionsof different people to the adverts? Are thesame adverts published in various countries?Advertisements for supermarkets and otherstores can be used successfully with lowerlevel learners as they provide good examplesof everyday items and number practice.

It will be clear from the above ideas that accessto pictures is an essential resource for facili-tators and learners. It should be the aim of allfacilitators and learners to build up a picturelibrary for on-going use in TBLL.

4.2.4 Objects as materials

A collection of items can be put in a basket orin the middle of the table and used to spurmany fruitful activities. Participants choosean item and supply the information aboutwhere it comes from, what it’s made of, itsvalue, what it’s used for, why it’s precious tothat person, how they would feel if they lostit etc. Make an argument for this object to bethe ‘best invention of the 20th Century’. Explainhow this object was made. Is it unusual toyou? Do you have these in your country? Isthe name unusual? Could you live withoutit? Do you enjoy using it? Do you think it isuseful? Useless? What do you carry around withyou? What would you never be without? Andmuch, much more!

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4.2.5 Leaflets

There is a plethora of possible tasks that canbe generated by using materials in the formof leaflets. However, leaflets may need select-ing carefully to avoid overkill. ‘How to …’leaflets always seems to be available to helppeople to do things. Learners can consider theeffectiveness of these information providers:they can try and carry out the task described.They can produce their own leaflets on any-thing from: ‘How to survive in a new country’(see 3.1 Tasks from No Materials) to ‘How tomake a cup of tea’. Authentic leaflets foundlocally provide models for participants to usewhen creating their own leaflets. They can alsobe considered from a design point of view:how effective is the leaflet? What effect doesit have on you? What would you like tochange? At a lower level, participants can col-lect leaflets and group them into categories:food/clothing/information etc. A task for themcould be to establish information centres whereparticipants wander around information stallsasking for and giving information in leafletform, which they have produced. Tourist leafletsusually contain information about attractionswith directions, opening times, costs and soon. Participants could plan a visit and telephoneto find out specific information such as groupor student discounts etc. This could be a si-mulated or real task.

4.2.6 Games

Games provide excellent material for TBLL.Tasks could include inventing a game withrules; explain it to others and play it! This couldbe a card game, a board game or an outdoorgame. Creating a new game could be collabo-rative, with one group starting it off then pas-sing it on to another group, until a final productis produced by consensus (this could involvesome heated negotiations!). Another task couldbe to attend a local sporting event and writea report of the occasion, or to carry out a sur-vey of attitudes to sport and games and theirrole in various societies. There is endless poten-tial for fun with games!

4.2.7 Songs and sounds

Songs have always been used as a tool forlanguage learning but here we offer some ideasfor using songs in TBLL. Songs in any languagecan be brought in by participants and used as

the basis of tasks for the group. If in the targetlanguage, the lyrics can be used as an activityleading to a task evaluating the power of wordsin society, in advertising, propaganda and soon. Participants can reflect on the emotionsstirred by melodies as part of a task, makingcomparisons between different social or natio-nal groups. Pop songs can be used to lead into atask comparing incomes and the relative ear-nings of different people in society – pop-starsare paid handsomely – are they worth it? etc.With the consensus of participants, music ofany kind can be used to provide backgroundin the learning space while activities are inprogress.

Facilitators can make audio tapes of differentsounds and noises. Learners can identify thesounds and guess their provenance. Soundeffects can be provided by learners to accom-pany any task which is in the form of a storyor sketch. Participants could produce theirown tapes of unusual or enjoyable/unplea-sant sounds, which could be shared with therest of the group. These could be used toreflect upon individual feelings and connec-tions between people’s home life and those ofother countries as part of a task to generateintercultural awareness. The simple compari-son of animal noises in a multi-cultural groupis a fun way in to intercultural activities.

4.2.8 The locality of the course

The locality itself will provide plenty of mate-rial to be exploited to generate tasks. If theenvironment is foreign to learners, interculturalobservations can be made by comparisons withthe locality and learners’ home contexts. (See3.1 Tasks from No Materials.)

Local people can be used as a source of authen-tic language input: they can be interviewedor just observed! Local people may be willingto come to talk to a group and provide someinput about the locality. Participants can go outto visit their counterparts in the host country.They can visit local institutions of their choicesuch as the Police, the Town Hall, local placesof worship and so on.

4.2.9 Information technology

Both the Internet and published CD Roms canprovide a wealth of on-going and authenticinformation for learners. The Internet in par-ticular is ideal for courses taking place away

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from the target language in that it can provideimmediate access to authentic materials. It isalso a tool that participants will be able to useafter the course, to continue their learning.

As the Internet works for a global audience,this also raises interesting questions on glo-balisation and the blurring of cultural identi-ties. Participants can use it to focus on diffe-rent interest groups across the world. Learnerscan be encouraged to complete tasks using

information from the Internet as their sourcematerial. They can use it to provide their owninformation to share with other participants.They could take part in on-line discussionsvia chat rooms. They can use e-mails as prac-tice for correspondence and to widen theircommunication skills. When it is possible toestablish a working website, participants findit useful to continue their links with the groupand continue to share ideas, or to work on con-tinuing projects.

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The growth of DIY or Do It Yourself came aboutin Britain for two reasons. Firstly, from the1950s onwards, people began to have moreleisure time and chose to spend it improvingtheir homes and gardens. This growth in DIYhome maintenance served to give credence tothe well-known adage that ‘an Englishman’shome is his castle’.

The second reason for the growth of DIY wasthat it became increasingly more difficult andincreasingly more expensive to find and hireskilled or even unskilled workers to carry outthe painting, decorating and general renova-ting tasks necessary for home maintenanceand improvement.

So there was a boom in DIY with every home-owner becoming an expert and DIY centresstocked with all the necessary tools and mate-rials for any job, large or small. In addition,these centres provide expertise in the form ofknowledgeable sales people and leaflets explain-ing how to tackle the job with handy hints andeasy to follow diagrams. Furniture is sold inkit form and all you have to do is assemble andpaint it.

The concept of a DIY section in this publica-tion was born out of these practices. We havegiven you the tools and materials, we haveshown you some examples with step-by-stepinstructions and now you can be a ’creativeexpert’ yourself!

We offer you a workshop in DIY languageteaching. We are providing authentic mate-rials and suggest some tasks you can developusing these materials. You should follow the

same standard format which is used through-out this publication. You will find a blankplanning sheet overleaf to help you. Thinkabout your learners and plan accordingly.

The first piece of material we have selected forthis DIY section is taken from a European YouthFoundation Application Form for funding. Thematerial is authentic and we feel it could ge-nerate some very authentic tasks.

When you have worked through the format,using activities to lead up to a successful rea-lisation of the chosen task, you can turn toAppendix 3 Feedback. Here you will find how weapproached the material. You will see the taskswe chose and the activities leading to the task.

The second piece of material is a general inte-rest newspaper article, with photograph, whichwe think is fun and lends itself to extensiveexploitation. In the Feedback Section we offer‘101 ways to make the most of what you’ve got!’We hope you will be able to use the suggestionsand adapt them from any materials (text, pho-tograph, objects etc.) which you choose to use.

In both cases you may find you have donesomething similar or something entirely dif-ferent. Don’t worry! Whatever you have done,if you feel it is suitable, it will be OK. There isno right or wrong – you are the expert now!Our approaches will give you something tomeasure your own work against. If you wouldlike more personal feedback, you can contactus on the website address and we will be gladto have a chat.

Enjoy your DIY facilitating!

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5.2 Material

TABLE OF CONTENTS

page

I. THE EUROPEAN YOUTH FOUNDATION:ITS AIMS AND HOW IT WORKS .....................................................................................3

II. OPERATIONS WHICH COULD BE FINANCED BY THE EYF ..............................3A. International youth meetings............................................................................................4B. Youth activities other than meetings .............................................................................4C. Administration of international non-governmentalyouth organisations and networks..................................................................................4D. Pilot projects.............................................................................................................................5

III. SUBMITTING AN APPLICATION....................................................................................6A. Grant application for an international meeting of youngpeople or youth leaders (category A) .............................................................................6B. Grant application for an activity other than a meeting (category B) ..............10C. Grant applications in respect of the general administrative costs of international non-governmental youth organisations and networks(category C) ............................................................................................................................10D. Grant applications for pilot projects (category D)...................................................11

IV. EXAMINING AND DECIDING ON THE APPLICATIONS...................................11

V. PAYMENT OF THE GRANT.............................................................................................121. Advanced payment .............................................................................................................122. Payment of the balance.....................................................................................................123. Reimbursement of the grant ...........................................................................................13

VI. USEFUL INFORMATION ABOUT THE EUROPEAN YOUTH FOUNDATION.......................................................................................................................13

DJS/FEJ (99) 1

HOW TO APPLY FOR A GRANT

HOW TO APPLY FOR A GRANT

FROM THE EYFFROM THE EYF

EUROPEAN YOUTH FOUNDATION

EUROPEAN YOUTH FOUNDATION

DIRECTORATE OF YOUTH AND SPORT

DIRECTORATE OF YOUTH AND SPORT

Strasbourg 1999

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European Youth Foundation

Financial assistance for a meeting

Organisation (first-time applicants should also attach details of the aims, structure

and membership of their organisation):

Subject of the meeting:

Where and when will the meeting be held:Number of working days:Working languages:Aims of the meeting:

Main programme elements, their contents / working methods:Please briefly describe the purpose of the meeting in your organisation’s short and

long-term programme:

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I. THE EUROPEAN YOUTH FOUNDATION: ITS AIMS AND HOW IT WORKS

Set up in 1972, the European Youth Foundation (EYF) is an institution of the Council of Europe.

Its purpose is to encourage co-operation among young people in Europe by providing financial

support to such European youth activities which serve the promotion of peace, understanding

and co-operation in a spirit of respect for the Council of Europe’s fundamental values such as

human rights, democracy, tolerance and solidarity.

The EYF thus provides financial support to the following types of activity undertaken by non-

governmental youth organisations or networks or by other non-governmental structures

involved in areas of youth work relevant to the Council of Europe’s youth policies and work:

a. educational, social, cultural and humanitarian activities of a European character;

b. activities aiming at strengthening peace and co-operation in Europe;

c. activities designed to promote closer co-operation and better understanding among young

people in Europe, particularly by developing the exchange of information;

d. activities intended to stimulate mutual aid in Europe and in the developing countries for cultural,

educational and social purposes;e. studies, research and documentation on youth matters.

II. OPERATIONS WHICH COULD BE FINANCED BY THE EYF

The European Youth Foundation may contribute to the financing of the following operations:

A. International youth meetings The EYF may provide financial support for organising international youth meetings for youth

leaders, including seminars, conferences, workshops, camps, festivals, etc.

Any meeting for which EYF support is sought must be proposed and organised by:

a. an international non-governmental youth organisation or network, acting alone or together

with one or more international or national youth organisations or networks;

b. or a national or local non-governmental youth organisation or network; in this case, the

meeting must be organised in co-operation with at least three other organisations or networks

from different countries or with an international organisation or network;

c. another non-governmental structure involved in areas of youth work relevant to the Council

of Europe’s youth policies and work; in this case, the meeting must be organised by and

involve at least four countries.In order to qualify for EYF support, a meeting must:

– meet the Council of Europe’s work priorities, particularly those of its youth sector;

– be likely to make a useful contribution to the objectives and work of the Council of Europe’s

youth sector;

– be attended, in appropriate proportions, by nationals of at least four member states of the

Foundation. It may also include participants fro

m states which are not members of the

Foundation;

– be likely to have a multiplying effect;

– be run in accordance with the educational principles of the Council of Europe’s youth sector

and, in particular, promote education for youth participation as well as intercultural learning;

– be, at least for one-third of its total cost, financed from sources other than the Foundation: for

example, participation fees, the applicant organisation’s own funds, or other grants;

– be attended by participants of whom at least 75% are under the age of 30;

– (as a general rule) be held in one of the Foundation’s member states: applicant organisations

are required to justify a choice of venue in a non-member state.

B. Youth activities other than meetings

Apart from meetings, the types of youth activities eligible for EYF financial support are studies,

research projects and the production of information and documentation on youth issues. In this

category the Foundation may support, for example:

– specialised publications (such as training manuals);

– newsletters or magazines produced by international youth organisations or networks;

– information campaigns;

– exhibitions and the production of audio-visual materials etc;

– the development of websites or the production of CD-ROMs;

– the production of posters, badges and stickers;

– research projects on youth-related issues.

In the same category, the EYF can also grant study visits enabling youth organisations and networks

to make new contacts in Europe and thus extend partnerships and develop co-operation.

To be eligible for support under category B, projects must be proposed and organised by youth

organisations, networks or bodies that meet the conditions set out in paragraphs a, b and c of A

above, and must have an international dimension.

The EYF contribution may not exceed 75% of the total cost of projects financed in category B.


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5.3 Blank Planning Sheet

Material:Other Material:Group:Level:

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TASK REALISATION

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5.4 Materials exploitation

101 ways to make the mostof what you’ve got !

Materials can and should be exploited end-lessly. Below are some of the ways we’veused, or seen used, or heard about or dreamtabout. The list is not definitive or finite!Although these suggestions were produced

to go with the ‘Leaping Lettuce’(from “TheDaily Mail”, Thursday, October 1, 1998), mostof them can be applied to other materialssuch as photographs, video and so on. Beimaginative and have fun!


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a. General use

• Pictures first to elicit content/headlines forprediction/setting scene activities

• Selected vocabulary for understanding• Text chopped up for jig-saw activities:

detailed study of small sections individually,in pairs or groups, with help as necessaryfrom the facilitator – then ’expert’ studentsexplain their bit to the rest of the group(including pronunciation features and cul-tural references)

• underline words containing the sound / /(choose one!)

• mark sentence stress as preparation for read-ing aloud

• Awareness of text style (which words orexpressions show formality/informality?)

• Topic used for discussion/reaction

b. Language awareness

• Question forms – students make questionsabout part or all of the text, to be used asstudent-generated comprehension check

• Identify tense usage. Consider form andfunction

• Underline all irregular verbs• Identify passive forms – can they be made

active? Which is better and why?• Identify direct speech and change into indi-

rect speech – focus on good reporting words,summary reported speech etc.

• Identify indirect speech and put into directspeech (could be basis for role-play)

• Reflect on use of articles• Reflect on use of prepositions/ expressions

with dependent prepositions• Find phrasal verbs and idiomatic language

c. Lexical development

• Identify words and chunks of language spe-cific to topic

• Word sets according to suitable criteria(depending on level/type of learners etc.)Beyond elementary level, learners can chooseown classifications e.g. words related to emo-tions/food/relationships etc.

• Find rhyming words! (also under pronun-ciation)

• Find x number of words you don’t know (seta limit per student) and find out meaning

• Lists (see writing)

d. Skills development

Reading• Skimming and scanning exercises. (Tell me

in 10 seconds what this text is about) (How

many times can you find the word ’lettuce’in the text? – 30 seconds!)

• Find the word ……….• Prepared reading aloud of small section of

text (unprepared is always painful!)

Writing• Letters, memos, postcards, reports generated

by the situation – endless possibilities and fun!• Dialogue or small sketch based on text sit-

uation, which can then be enacted• Summary of text in one/two sentences• Change style – from formal /informal, tabloid

/broadsheet, newspaper/radio bulletin, etc• Advanced learners re-write for elementary

learners (good challenge)• Make lists inspired by text (related to lexical

exploitation)• Dictation (facilitator or learner can do the

dictating!)• Write a report of the incident for the Health

and Safety Officer

e. Listening/Speaking

• Role-play/Situational sketches• Telephone calls• Discussions/reactions/issues arising• Intercultural comparisons• Focus on pronunciation: individual sounds,

word stress, sentence stress etc• Imagined extension situations – what hap-

pens next?

f. Cultural and intercultural aware-ness

• Find culturally specific references e.g‘Sainsbury’s’; flowers as a peace-offering etc.

• Eating habits, fresh/pre-packed food; homeproduced/imported products; who shops/plans/prepares meals etc.

• Cultural connotations e.g. frog/toad!• Extent of shock/horror/repulsion to various

creatures• Phobias• Other intercultural issues e.g. fairy-tale/folk/

magic connotations (the frog prince!)

g. Other activities

• Surveys e.g. supermarket shelves, leading toworld-map display of where food is importedfrom – good if learners collect labels/otherpackaging for display

• Wall-displays of all sorts• Project on morality/desirability of internation-

al trade/globalisation etc• Etc, etc, etc ………………..


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We hope you have found this first version of the Methodology in language learning T-Kit helpfuland useful. This is the first time that such a publication has been produced within the PartnershipProgramme and we would welcome your feedback and suggestions for future editions. Youranswers will also be used to analyse the impact of this publication. Thank you for completing thisquestionnaire, your comments will be read with great attention.

You are…(You may tick more than one option)

n A Teacher

l With multicultural groups, l With monocultural groups

l In international youth programmes l In a language school

n A Trainer / language facilitator

l With multicultural groups, l With monocultural groups

l With individuals

n None of the above – Please specify .................................................................................................................................................

1 - How far did this T-Kit help you to find theoretical foundations and practical applicationsof language learning methodologies?

From 0% ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... to 100%

2 - Did you use the T-kit for any of your language courses activities? Yes n No n

If yes…

In what context or situation? .........................................................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

In which setting? (multicultural groups, monocultural groups, language school …) .........................................

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Which ideas did you use or adapt? ...........................................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Which ideas did you find least useful? .................................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

What did you miss? .................................................................................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Appendix 1

Methodology in language learning T-Kit –Evaluation form


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3 - What was the main difficulty to adapt the methodology to your own context and language?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

In what situation? ......................................................................................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

In which setting? (multicultural groups, monocultural groups, language school …) .........................................

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

4 - How do you evaluate this T-Kit?

What do you think of the overall structure?.....................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

What do you think about the layout? ....................................................................................................................................................

Where did you obtain your copy of this Methodology in language learning T-kit? ..........................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

What recommendations or suggestions do you have for future editions? .........................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Name: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Title: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Organisation/establishment (if applicable)..........................................................................................................................................

Your address: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Phone number: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................

E-mail: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Please return this questionnaire by surface mail or e-mail from: www.training-youth.net

Methodology in language learning T-kitDirectorate of Youth & SportsCouncil of Europe – F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex E-mail: [email protected]


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Theory of languageteaching and learning

Asher, James J. (1977)Learning Another Language ThroughActions : The Complete Teachers’ Guidebook.Los Gatos, California: Sky Oaks Productions.

Wilkins D.A. (1976)Notional Syllabuses : A Taxonomy and ItsRelevance to Foreign Language CurriculumDevelopment. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress

Gattegno, C. (1972)Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: TheSilent Way. 2nd ed. New York: Education-al Solutions.

Gattegno, C. (1976)The Common Sense of Teaching ForeignLanguages. New York: Educational Solutions.

Bates, E. (1979)The Emergence of Symbolism : Cognitionand Communication in infancy. New York:Academic Press.

Bickerton, D. (1984)The Language Bioprogram. Behavioural andBrain Sciences, 7, 173 – 221.

Chomsky, Noam (1965)Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, Cambridge,MA: MIT Press.

Gleason, J.B. and Ratner, N.B. (eds.) (1998)Psycholinguistics, New York: Harcourt Brace.

Goldin – Meadow, S. and Mylander (1990) Beyond the Input Given : The Child’s Role inthe Acquisition of Language, The Journal ofLanguage, 66:323 – 355.

Harmer, J. (1996)’Is PPP Dead ?’ Modern English Teacher.Vol.5 No.2 7 – 14.

Hedge, T. & Whitney, N. (eds.) (1996) Power, Pedagogy & Practice. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press

Freire, Paulo (1972)Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Harmonsdworth,England: Penguin Books

Piaget, J. (1926)The Language and Thought of the Child.New York: Harcourt Brace.

Wright, Tony (1987)Roles of Teachers & Learners. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press

Wenden, A. & Rubin, J. (1987)Learner Strategies in Language Learning.Cambridge: Prentice-Hall InternationalEnglish Language Teaching.

Willis, J. (1996) A Framework for Task-Based Learning. Harlow:Addison Wesley Longman.

Practical examplesand support for facilitators

The sector of teaching English as a ForeignLanguage is well established and there is a wealthof published materials in the form of course-books, supplementary materials and grammarbooks – all at various levels. However, the bestmaterials are those created and tailored for theneeds and interests of specific groups and thisis what we hope users of this T-Kit will be ableto do. But we all need inspiration to start us off!The books below should provide this as they givemany practical ideas which are in line with theapproaches in this T-Kit. Most facilitators willprobably also feel the need for a good referencegrammar just for their own security, together witha good learners’ dictionary which contains awealth of information. All major publishers pro-duce grammar books and dictionaries and it isup to the individual to choose one that suits theirown purposes and cognitive style.

Bartram, M. & Walton, R. (1991) Correction – A Positive Approach to LanguageMistakes, Hove: Language Teaching Publi-cations.

Davis, P. & Rinvolucri, M. (1990) The Confidence Book – Building Trust in theLanguage classroom, Harlow: LongmanGroup UK Limited.

Deller, S. (1990)Lessons from the Learner – Student-gene-rated Activities for the Language Classroom,Harlow: Longman Group UK Limited.

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Appendix 2

References and further reading

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Lewis, M. and Hill, J. (1992)Practical Techniques For Language Teaching,Hove: Language Teaching Publications.

Lindstromberg, S. (ed.) (1990)The Recipe Book – Practical Ideas for theLanguage Classroom, Harlow: LongmanGroup UK Limited.

Marsland, B. (1998)Lessons from Nothing, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Other publications fromthe Directorate of Youth and Sport

Heather Miletto and Philip Curran (1996)Learning to learn, (Language course toolbox, no. 1). Strasbourg: Council of Europe,Youth Directorate. CEJ/Langue(96)3

John O’Regan and Rose Clark (1996)Texts as a cultural resource in languagelearning, (Language course tool box, no. 2).Strasbourg: Council of Europe, YouthDirectorate. CEJ/Langue(96)4

Nick Andon and Rose Clark (1996)Using the community as a resource in lan-guage learning, (Language course tool box,no. 3). Strasbourg: Council of Europe, YouthDirectorate. CEJ/Langue(96)5

Geneviève Koechlin, Paolo Stratta, Marie Tikova(1996)

The use of Drama in language courses,(Language course tool box, no. 4). Stras-bourg: Council of Europe, Youth Direc-torate. CEJ/Langue(96)6Eng

Michael Berman (1996)Guided visualisations for English languageteaching, (Language course tool box, no. 5).Strasbourg: Council of Europe, YouthDirectorate. CEJ/Langue(96)7

Günter Waldeck, Philip Curran, Dara Hogan(1996)

Using songs in language learning, (Lan-guage course tool box, no. 6). Strasbourg:Council of Europe, Youth Directorate.CEJ/Langue(96)8

Muriel Moliné (1996) Atelier d’écriture, (Stages de langue boîte àoutils, no. 7). Strasbourg: Conseil de l’Europe,Direction de la jeunesse. CEJ/Langue(96)9

Paola Stratta (1998) Glossary (youth work) French, Italian, German,English, Spanish, Portuguese, (Languagecourse tool box, no. 9). Strasbourg: Councilof Europe, Youth Directorate. DJ/Langue(98)2

John Waterman and John O’Regan (1999) Information and communication technolo-gy in language learning, (Language coursetool box, no. 10). Strasbourg: Council ofEurope, Youth Directorate. DJ/Langue(99)1

John Waterman and John O’Regan (1999) Task based learning in language learning,(Language course tool box, no. 11). Stras-bourg: Council of Europe, Youth Directorate.DJ/Langue(99)2

Esther Hookway (1999) Language course preparation and pro-gramme design, (Language course tool box,no. 12). Strasbourg: Council of Europe,Youth Directorate. DJ/Langue(99)3

Sandrine Deguent (1999) L’apprentissage des langues en petitsgroupes, (Stages de langue boîte à outils ,no. 13). Strasbourg: Conseil de l’Europe,Direction de la jeunesse. DJ/Langue(99)4

Philip Curran, Rainer Eberhardt, Yvonne LeGoïc, Esther Hookway, Heather Miletto, JohnO’Regan, Odile Raffner, Paolo Stratta, CarlaVan der Straeten, (1997)

Learning a language differently: 30 yearsof EYC experience. Strasbourg: Council ofEurope, Youth Directorate.

Philip Curran, Rainer Eberhardt,Yvonne LeGoïc, Esther Hookway, Heather Miletto, JohnO’Regan, Odile Raffner, Paolo Stratta, CarlaVan der Straeten, (1997)

Apprendre une langue différemment : 30années d’expérience du CEJ. Strasbourg :Conseil de l’Europe, Direction de la jeunesse.

CEJ/ TC ICLL (1998)Report of the training on intercultural languagelearning 1998. Strasbourg: Council of Europe*


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Feedback to DIY section

Appendix 3

Material:Copies of ‘How to Apply for a Grant from the EYF’ Sections I-and II-A and Application Form.

Other Material:Stationery; dictionaries of definitions; dictionaries ofsynonyms

Group:Any SizeLevel:Advanced

•Ask participants to form sub-

groups and tell each other about

the activities in their youth

work.

•Participants read section I of

‘How to apply for a grant’ and

compare the aims of the activi-

tiesreferred to there with those

raised during their preliminary

brainstorming.

•Return to the main group, wherea spokesperson from each sub-group presents a summary of themain elements of the discussion.

•Afterwards, ask them what ele-ments of these activities reflecta European dimension.

As language facilitator, your roleis to help the learners expressthemselvesand understand thekey vocabularyin the text.

PRE-TASK

Task 1: Simplifying the document for lower levels

•Ask each participant to workalone and to read section II of‘How to apply for a grant’ andtake notes (key words, mainideas, etc) which can be used towrite a summary.

•The sub-groups combine andcompare their respective lists,bringing them into line wherenecessary.

•The facilitator’s role is to helpwith the learners’ comprehension(not to take part in the discus-sion of the list of main ideas).

•In sub-groups, learners comparenotes and map out the mainideas in section II. They shouldrefer to the text to resolve anydisagreement.

TASK PREPARATION


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•The sub-groups use the final listof main ideas to re-word the firsttwo sections of ‘How to apply fora grant’, bearing in mind that theirtext is to be read by learners atlower levels. Vocabulary and syn-tax must be simple, concrete andeasy to understand.

•They role-play presenting the twosections to the target (lower-level)groups and replying to any ques-tions.

•The sub-groups may confer witheach other if anything is unclear.

•Additionally, they could write outthe new text.

TASK REALISATION

•Each advanced-level sub-groupexplains the first two sections of‘How to apply for a grant’ to alower-level sub-group. Each mem-bermust speak and be preparedto answer requests for clarifica-tion.

•If time is short, the written text canbe given to lower-level learnerswith the comment that members

of the advanced group can beapproached for explanations.

•Alternatively, each member of theadvanced group helps a memberof a lower group (or sub-group) tofill out an ‘Application Form forFinancial Assistance’ for a Europeanproject. This assumes that the lowergroups will have put together aproject during a previous session.

POST-TASK

Comments

Important language points: differences between language levels (vocabulary, complexity of syntax).Communication activities: discussion, negotiation, agreement/non-agreement, making a list, etc.


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Material:Copies of ’How to apply for a grant from the EYF’ Sections I- and II-Aand application form.

Other Material:StationeryGroup:Any SizeLevel:Intermediate +

•Divide the participants into sub-groups ofthree or four and give eachgroup a largepiece of paper andthick coloured pens.

•As a group, brainstorm participants’knowledgeof how to apply for fun-ding; shareexperiences and tips.

•Facilitator can write and display use-ful information, alongside the otherposters.

•Each group brainstorms the aims andpurposeof the EYF and writeskeywords andphrases in bullet pointson the paper.

•Participants read the text Part I tosee if their aims match the ones inthe text.

•Elicit and provide the vocabularynecessary for making an application.

•Each group then presents theirposter to the rest of the participants.

PRE-TASK

Task 2: Making a written application for fundingfor an international youth meeting

•Tell the participants they are going toprepare an application for funding usingthe aims above and the application formprovided.

•Participants could divide into sub-groupsaccording to the similarities of theirorganisations or randomly. If there is noconnection between their real organi-sations, the participants will have toinvent organisations and meetings. Thiscould be based on their actual work,but adapted.

•Before giving out the form, ask partici-pants to divide into sub-groups andplan their applications to include thefollowing areas of information:

Decide on profile of organisation, Identifypartners, What are the objectives?, Whatarea of youth work does it deal with?,How will you meet the total cost?, Decideon profile of participants. What are the

working languages?, Dates of meeting,Programme elements, Location of meeting•Leave plenty of time for this stage, as a

lot of information is required.•When participants feel they have suffi-

cient information, ask them to readPart II A: operations which could befinanced by the eyf.

•At this stage, the role of the facilitatorwill be vital in helping the participantsmeet the requirements of the EYF andmaking sure they are familiar with thelanguage and jargon phrases whichwill be useful in the application form.

•If any of their plans do not fit the crite-ria i.e. they have not identified inter-national partners to work with, theyshould be encouraged to modify theirplans.

•While reading the section, they shouldcheck that their plans fit the criteria.

TASK PREPARATION


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•Participants can stay in theirgroupsand fill in an enlarged ver-sion of theapplication form orwork individually using the same

notes from the task preparation.(See comments, below.)

•Participants fill in a draft appli-cation form.

TASK REALISATION

•Sub-groups exchange drafts.

•Participants read through some ofthe other groups’ applications andcomment.

•The groups can come together andshare good ideas.

•At this point any common lan-guageconcerns and good exam-ples can be highlighted by thefacilitator. These can be displayed.Participants could be invited tosuggest changes where neces-sary.

POST-TASK

Comments

•A task which could follow the completion of the application form would be making a presen-tation of a bid for funding. Once the participants have filled in their application forms and dis-played/read each other’s forms, each group can give a presentation of their plans – possiblyusing an OHP. The other groups can then listen and the whole group can vote for the best bid.

•The presentations could also be video taped.


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Material:Copies of ‘How to apply for a grant from the EYF’ Sections I-and II-A and application form

Other Material:StationeryGroup:AnyLevel:Intermediate +

•Distribute copies of the applicationform for financial assistance foran EYF meeting and ask partici-pants to explain what it is aboutand what information is requiredin order to be able to complete it.

•Brainstorming: what other typesof form are there – in general andmore specifically in the context ofyouth work? Logically, someoneshould mention application formsfor participation in a project. Focuson this and tell them that this iswhat they are going to produce.

PRE-TASK

Task 3: Producing an application formfor participation in a youth meeting

•Participants are split into groupsof 4 or 5. Each group creates a fic-titiousorganisation: Name? Mem-bers?Aims? Activities? Generaloperating methods? Etc. Theyshould also decide together onthe responsibilities of each mem-ber: chair? secretary? treasurer?

•Once the organisation has beenclearly identified, participantsshould devise a concrete project(meeting, training course, visit, etc)to be carried out by this organisa-tion.What? When? Where? Whofor? Why? What is the programme

(in general terms)? Contributiontowards expenses? Etc.

•They decide on the participationselection criteria for this project (inline with the organisation’s aims).

•On the basis of these criteria, theythink up the questions which wouldhave to be asked to provide themwith the information needed toselect participants.

•They decide on the presentationof the form and how it shouldbe disseminated (paper copies?Internet?).

TASK PREPARATION


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•Participants draft, produce and illus-trate the form. As this is a written task,the facilitator should offer advice to theparticipants and suggest corrections sothat they can produce a document whichis as close as possible to the genuinearticle.

TASK REALISATION

•Each participant sees the different formsproduced and comments on them.

•The forum: each group presents itsproject orally (trying to sell it, possibly

by promoting it via leaflets, posters,radio adverts, Internet site, etc). Parti-cipantschoose the project which appealsto them most, ask for a form (they canalso find out more about the selectioncriteria from the ‘organisers’) and com-plete it. The participants who are the‘project organisers’ decide together whowill be accepted. This stage could pos-sibly be carried out with lower-levelparticipants acting as ‘candidates’.

POST-TASK

Comments

Important linguistic points: when the advanced group is preparing the task the facilitator caninsist on the text being grammatically correct; questions should be formulated precisely; eachperson’s responsibilities should be described. Communication activities: persuasion, marketing,advertising, etc.


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The authors of the Methodologyin Language Learning T-Kit :

Philip Curran (editing, proof-reading, writ-ing) is Principal and co-founder of EdwardsLanguage School, London. He is an expe-rienced teacher and is also a freelance com-poser. [email protected]

Sandrine Deguent (writing) teaches Frenchas a foreign language, is a freelance trainer innon-formal educational contexts, is a specia-list in suggestopedia and intercultural lear-ning approaches applied to language [email protected]

Sian Williams Lund (writing) has an M.A. inApplied Linguistics and is Assistant Director,Edwards Language School, London. She hasseveral years teaching experience in the UK,Denmark and China. Professional interestsinclude: intercultural learning, language acqui-sition and psycholinguistics, learner autonomyand material design.

Heather Miletto (writing) is an experiencedteacher and trainer as well as being a freelancelecturer and writer. She was co-founder ofEdwards Language School and Centre forIntercultural Learning in [email protected]

Carla Van der Straeten (writing) is an expe-rienced French and Flemish teacher at the“Chambre des Représentants du ParlementFédéral” in Belgium. She is also responsiblefor educational and language training at the“Centre d’Animation en Langues”, [email protected]

… and the following persons have also con-tributed to the elaboration of this T-Kit:

John O’Regan is a Senior Lecturer in theInternational Centre for English LanguageStudies at Oxford Brookes University, UK;specialising in English for Academic Purpos-es and Critical Discourse Analysis. For manyyears he worked as a trainer and consultantin intercultural learning and international edu-cation.

John Waterman is now a Commissioning Editorof English Language Teaching materials for apublishing company. Interests in using tech-nologies to promote learning and teaching,intercultural learning, and reading. He was formany moons a teacher, teacher trainer andconsultant in language teaching and inter-cultural learning through language.

Esther Hookway is a communications personwith her own company called ReadyWriterswhich does editorial, writing and design andlayout. She was the co-ordinator of LinguaFranca, a language and leadership trainingproject in Central and Eastern Europe set upin 1991 by the European branch of theWorld Student Christian Federation and theEcumenical Youth Council in Europe. She isnow working as Administrator at a newlyestablished Institute for Orthodox ChristianStudies in Cambridge.

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For further information, or if you have any comments,feel free to contact the authors of the T-Kit.


T-Kit

79

The T-kit series – year 2000 (available in English and French)

T-kit 1:Organisational Management

T-kit 2:Methodology in Language Learning

T-kit 3:Intercultural Learning

T-kit 4:Project Management

Planned for the year 2001 :(provisional titles)

T-kit 5:How to organise a Training Course

T-kit 6:Voluntary Service

T-kit 7:Citizenship Education

Internet versions can be found onwww.training-youth.net

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www.training-youth.net

No.2In 1998, The Council of Europe and the European Commission decided totake common action in the field of European Youth Worker Training, andtherefore initiated a Partnership Agreement. The aim of the Agreement,which is laid down in several covenants, is “to promote active Europeancitizenship and civil society by giving impetus to the training of youthleaders and youth workers working within a European dimension”.The co-operation between the two institutions covers a wide spectrumof activities and publications, as well as developing tools for furthernetworking.Three main components govern the partnership: a training offer (long termtraining for trainers and training on European Citizenship), publications(both paper and electronic versions of training materials and magazine)and networking tools (trainers pool and exchange possibilities). Theultimate goal is to raise standards in youth worker training at aEuropean level and define quality criteria for such training.

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