t he p hysics of f oam boulder school for condensed matter and materials physics july 1-26, 2002:...
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THE PHYSICS OF FOAM• Boulder School for Condensed Matter and Materials Physics
July 1-26, 2002: Physics of Soft Condensed Matter
1. IntroductionFormation
Microscopics
2. StructureExperiment
Simulation
3. StabilityCoarsening
Drainage
4. RheologyLinear response
Rearrangement & flow
Douglas J. DURIANUCLA Physics & AstronomyLos Angeles, CA 90095-1547
Princen-Prud’homme model
• shear a 2D honeycomb, always respecting Plateau’s rules• deformation is not affine: vertices must rotate to maintain 120-120-120
stress,
strain,
slop
e, G
o
y
shear modulus: Go = film/Sqrt[3]ayield strain: y = 1.2
a
film
etc.
Yes, but…
• Princen-Prud’homme is for 2D periodic static dry foam– dimensionality?
• generally expect G ~ Laplace pressure (surface tension/bubble size)
– wetness?• shear modulus must vanish for wet foams
– dissipation?• nonzero strainrate or oscillation frequency?
– disorder?• smaller rearrangement size (not system)?
• smaller yield strain?
small-strain non-affine motion
• bubble motion is up & down as well as more & less• compare bonds and displacements (normalized to affine expectation)
• trends vs polydisersity and wetness
(DJD)
=1
=0.
84
width=0.75 width=0.1
Frequency dependence, G*()
• Simplest possibility: Kelvin solidG*() = G0 + i {i.e. G’() = G0 and G”() = }
• But typical data looks much different:– G’() isn’t flat, and increases at high …
– G”() doesn’t vanish at low …
(A. Saint-Jalmes & DJD)
High- rheology• Due to non-affine motion, another term dominates:
G*() = G0(1 + Sqrt[ic])**
shown by dotted curve for =0.08 foam:
[**seen and explained by Liu, Ramaswamy, Mason, Gang, Weitz for compressed emulsion using DWS microrheology]
(A.D. Gopal & DJD)
NB: This gives a robust wayto extract the shear modulusfrom G*() vs data.Here Go = 2300 dyne/cm2
Short- DWS• long-: rearrangements give exponential decay• short-: thermal interface fluctuations (Y=<r2()>)
– amplitude of fluctuations:
– microrheology:
angstroms 313
22
dyne/cm 3001000R
TkG B
o
Unjamming vs gas fraction• Data for shear modulus:
– symbols: polydisperse foam
– solid curve: monodisperse emulsion (Mason & Weitz)
– dashed curve: polydisperse emulsion (Princen & Kiss)
0
400
800
1200
1600Couette cell
cone-plate
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
G (
dyn
/cm
2 ) G / (
/R)
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0.63
unjammed jammed
polydispersitymakes little or no
difference!
(A. Saint-Jalmes & DJD)
Behavior near the transition• simulation of 2D bubble model
3
4
5
6
Z
1
10
102
0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00
r
shearmodulus
coordinationnumber
stress-relaxationtime
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.750.10
G width
20x20 polydisperse bubbles
r appears todiverge at rcp ~0.84
better “point J” statistics byO’Hern, Langer, Liu, Nagel
(DJD)
Unjamming vs time• elasticity vanishes at long times…
– stress relaxes as the bubbles coarsen– time scale is set by foam age
• ie how long for size distribution to change• not set by the time between coarsening-induced rearrangements (20s)
• Even though this is not a thermally activated mechanism like diffusion or reptation, the rheology is linear– G*() and G(t) date are indeed related by Fourier transform
(A.D. Gopal & DJD)
Unjamming vs shear• make bubbles rearrange & explore packing configurations
– slow shear:• sudden avalanche-like rearrangements of a few bubbles at a time
– fast shear:• rearrangements merge together into continuous smooth flow
slow & jerky fast & smooth
Rearrangement sizes• even the largest are only a few bubbles across
– picture of a very large event
– distribution of energy drops (before-after) has a cutoff{but it moves out on approach to c “point J”}
NB: shear deformation is uniform
– UCLA:• direct observation of free surface in Couette cell• viscosity and G*() are indep. of sample thickness & cell geometry• DWS gives expected decay time in transmission and backscattering• viscous fingering morphology
– Hohler / Cohen-Addad lab (Marne-la-Vallee):• multiple light scattering and rheology
– Dennin lab (UC Irvine):• 2D bubble rafts and lipid monolayers
– Weitz lab (Exxon/Penn/Harvard):• Rheology of emulsions
– Computer simulations:• bubble model (DJD-Langer-Liu-Nagel)• Surface evolver (Kraynik)• 2D (Weaire)• vertex model (Kawasaki)
uniform shear-band exponential
important scalesnotation:
values for Foamy:
like-avalancheor smooth are entsrearrangemwhether :
dominate entsrearrangem induced-shearor -coarseningwhether :
strain yield:
eventsent rearrangem ofduration :
ntsrearrangme induced -coarseningbetween time:
d
oq
d
oq
ym
yc
y
s
s
s
s
m
c
y
/5.0
/003.0
05.0
1.0
20
d
oq
bubble motion via DWSlow shear high shear
0.01
0.1
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015
|g1(
)|2
(sec)
0.0005 s-1
= 0.02 s-1.
0.007 s-1
(a)
o = time betweenrearrangements ateach scattering site
0.01
0.1
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015
|g1(
)|2
(sec)
0.0005 s-1
= 0.02 s-1.
0.007 s-1
(a)
0 10-10
2 (sec2)
5.5 s-1
20 s-1
10 s-1
(b)
s 30
kl * Ý
time for adjacentscattering sites to convect apart by
(A.D. Gopal & DJD)
ol
Lg
2
1 *6exp)(
22
1 *6exp)(
sl
Lg
DWS times vs strainrate• behavior changes at expected strainrate scales
discrete rearrangementsjammed/solid-like
laminar bubble motionunjammed/liquid-like
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
102
103
104
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
1/0
1/s
rate
con
stan
t (s
ec-1
)
strain rate (1/s)
m =
y/
d
.c =
y/
0q
.
(A.D. Gopal & DJD)
Rheological signature?• simplest expectation is Bingham plastic:
– but 1/isn’t seen in either data or bubble-model:
– no real signature of m in data
myydy 11 hence and 1
..
(A.D. Gopal & DJD)
Superimpose step-strain!• Stress jump and relaxation time both measure elasticity
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
6
strain rate = 0.01/s=0.09
Str
ain
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Str
ess
(dy
ne/
cm
2 )
t (s)
G(0)
R
Str
ess
(dy
ne/c
m2 )
Str
ain transient relaxation shear modulus
bubble motion vs rheology• All measures of elasticity vanish at same point where
rearrangements merge together into continuous flow• “unjamming” shear rate = yield strain / event duration
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
G(0
, )
[dy
ne/c
m2 ]
m
=y/
d
.
10-3
10-2
10-1
110
102103
10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102
(c)
R [
sec]
shear rate [1/sec]
0
S -1/2
This completes the connectionbetween bubble-scale and
macroscopic foam behavior
Jamming• We’ve now seen three ways to unjam a foam
• ie for bubbles to rearrange and explore configuration space
– vs liquid fraction (gas bubble packing)
– vs time (as foam coarsens)
– vs shear
• Trajectories in the phase diagram?– does shear play role of temperature?
(A.J. Liu & S.R. Nagel)
Three effective temperatures
• Compressibility & pressure fluctuations
• Viscosity & shear stress fluctuations
• Heat capacity & energy fluctuations
– T’s all reduce to (dS/dU)-1 for equilibrated thermal systems
– What is their value & shear rate dependence; are they equal?• Difficult to measure, so resort to simulation…
S 1
AT
p p 2
A
Tdt xy(t) xy (0)
0
c
UT
1
T 2 U U 2
(I.K. Ono, C.S O’Hern, DJD, S.A. Langer, A.J. Liu, S.R. Nagel)
The three Teff’s agree!• N=400 bubbles in 2D box at =0.90 area fraction
– Teff approaches constant at zero strain rate
– Teff increases very slowly with strain rate
.
Tp
Txy
TUT
T
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0.008
0.004
0
bidisperse
polydisperse
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
…also agree with T=(dS/dU)-1 • Monte-Carlo results for (U), the probability for a
randomly constructed configuration to have energy U
• For this system, the effective temperature has all the attributes of a true statistical mechanical temperature.
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
N=163664100144
log 1
0(
)
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
0.001 0.01 0.1 1U/N
TS T
UTU =U/0.65N =U/(f/2)N
S=
TU from shearing runs
Mini-conclusions• Statistical Mechanics works for certain driven athermal
systems, unmodified but for an effective temperature– When does stat-mech succeed & what sets the value of Teff?
• Elemental fluidized bed (R.P. Ojha, DJD)
– upflow of gas: many fast degrees of freedom, constant-temperature reservoir
• Uniformly sheared foam (I.K. Ono, C.S O’Hern, DJD, S.A. Langer, A.J. Liu, S.R. Nagel)
– neighboring bubbles: many configurations with the same topology
• In general– Perhaps want fluctuations to dominate the dissipation of injected energy?
– When does stat-mech fail & what to do then?• eg anisotropic velocity fluctuations in sheared sand
• eg P(v)~Exp[-v3/2] in shaken sand
• eg flocking in self-propelled particles