1

SYSTEMATIC EVALUATION OF:

DR. JOHANN ISSARTEL & DR. JAMIE MCGANN

SCHOOL OF HEALTH AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE

DUBLIN CITY UNIVERSITY

2

CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION: SMALL WALL EXPLAINED

1.1 Why SmallWall 3

1.2 Physical Literacy 4

1.3 Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) 5

1.4 Perceived Competence 6

1.5 Enjoyment 7

1.6 Deliberate Practice 8

2.0 DESIGN

2.1 SmallWall Components 9

3.0 METHODS

3.1 Quantitative Data 16

3.2 Qualitative Data 17

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Quantitative results

4.1 Enjoyment 18

4.2 Perceived Competence 19

4.3 Fundamental Movement Skills 20

Qualitative Results

4.4 Focus Group 22

5.0 FEEDBACK

5.1 Summary 26

APPENDIX

Appendix 1 28

3

WHY SMALL WALL?

Background to SmallWall

SmallWall was initially designed as a back garden aid to improve kick, touch,

control etc., and has since developed into a full size arena which aims to support

improved fundamental movement skills and overarching physical literacy in children and

adolescents. The SmallWall arena is described as a ‘go to’ place where both individual and

group practice can occur in a safe and secure environment and, an ideal solution for areas

of high anti-social behaviour. SmallWall is also described as a place where young people

can socialize with their friends through physically active experiences. SmallWall arenas

are filled with adaptable and mobile components that can be personalised to suit specific

activities/sports, focus on specific movement skills and/or cater for a range of individual

movement capabilities and needs.

For more information, see:

https://www.smallwall.ie/

4

PHYSICAL LITERACY

The Ultimate Aim

A ‘physically literate’ young person has the motivation, confidence and

competence to sustain physical activity (PA) throughout their lives (Whitehead, 2010).

Physical literacy in childhood essentially predicts better health outcomes (physical and

mental) in later life. In an applied sense, children need to be sufficiently motivated to

engage in physical activity and experience success during these ‘active’ tasks.

Theoretically, ‘success’ fosters increased enjoyment and confidence leading to continued

engagement and, ultimately, higher levels of movement competence.

The SmallWall arena aims to support physical literacy by offering children choice

and autonomy over an array of physically active experiences. SmallWall components are

specifically designed to elicit a range of fundamental movement skills (jumping, kicking,

catching, throwing). The adaptable nature of the SmallWall components potentially

support differentiation and enable children and adolescents with low levels of movement

skill to experience success and build in movement competency and overall physical

literacy over time.

5

FUNDAMENTAL MOVEMENT SKILLS

The Problem

Irish children and adolescents demonstrate poor fundamental movement skills

which means they cannot hop, skip, throw or even run properly (O'Brien et al., 2013).

Developmentally, children are capable of performing proficient fundamental movement

skill by the age of eight. ‘Proficiency’ requires a child to combine ‘parts’ of a movement

skill leading to unique movement sequence. For example, a ‘jump’ does not merely entail

lifting two feet off the ground. Instead, it comprises of specific components on take-off, in

the air and on landing. FMS skills and their components are outlined in the TGMD-2

(Ulrich, 2000).

Worryingly, Irish children are years behind their expected age equivalence in

terms of basic movement skill proficiency. A focus on Fundamental Movement Skill

(FMS) provides children with the ‘building blocks’ they require to achieve success in

more complex play. On a macro level, proficient FMS in childhood prove beneficial for

future health as they predict continued participation in physical activity and sport over

a lifetime.

6

PERCEIVED COMPETENCE

Two types of competence are associated with FMS in children. The first relates to

‘actual competence’, i.e. a child’s baseline or ‘actual’ skill level. The second, relates to

‘perceived competence’ i.e. the level of skill a child believes themselves to possess.

Lindquist, Reynolds and Goran (1999) state that psychological factors such as perceived

competence and enjoyment have a significant impact on children’s engagement in PA. Put

simply, if children perceive themselves to be competent in FMS they are more likely to

engage and, continue to engage, in tasks involving movement skills. Thus, perceptions of

competentency, not just actual competency, matter. High levels of perceived competence

are maintained in various ways, including provision of differentiated tasks, in line with

individual capabilities, from which different learners with different capabilities can

experience success.

In an applied sense, this means that in order to foster perceived competence in

children and ensure children continue to engage in PA, activities and equipment should

be adaptable and capable of allowing individuals with varying levels of capabilities to

each experience success.

7

ENJOYMENT

Another psychological factor that has a particularly significant impact on

continued engagement with PA tasks is, enjoyment. Put simply, children are significantly

less motivated to participate in tasks or activities that they do not deem to be enjoyable.

According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985), ingredients that

foster intrinsic motivation simultaneously offer a principled ‘recipe’ for enjoyment. These

include conditions relating to autonomy (i.e. provision of choice and variation over task

selection), as well competence, which if based on White’s (1959) definition, means that a

person must feel capable and confident of doing all of the things expected of them. Thus,

in order to support enjoyment during PA, it is important to offer children choice and

variation within and across tasks and, as is the case in supporting perceived competence,

provide children with varying levels of capabilities, opportunities to experience success.

8

DELIBERATE PRACTICE

Whilst the provision of choice and variation across tasks is crucial to maintain high

levels of perceived competence and enjoyment, too much choice can be detrimental to

skill acquisition. That is, self-generated free play has the capacity to facilitate inaccurate

performance of movement skills that become engrained through repetition. This is

particularly prevalent where children do not understand that there is something to be

learned (e.g. that there is a ‘right way’ to jump, kick, hop etc.). Conversely, free play with

additional direct instruction (typically teacher lead with clear, explicit descriptions of a

skill, a task and how the learner can achieve success) can potentially transform regular

practice, where learning is incidental, into ‘deliberate practice’ (Ericsson, 1993) where

learning is purposeful. Thus, an ideal PA environment is capable of facilitating regular

practice (or free play) in such a way that equipment, tasks and activities naturally elicit

relatively accurate skill outputs from learners, independently, and also support provision

of additional direct instruction/deliberate practice to facilitate a more long-lasting

change in FMS performance.

9

SMALLWALL COMPONENTS

Equipment

Kick Catch Throw Jump Bat Hop Skip

SmallWall (junior, medium, senior)

Different walls of different sizes Elicits low ‘on the ground’ kick Slope angle is adaptable Supports differentiated skill levels Supports different FMS (kick & catch) and skill

outcomes with additional direct instruction

✔

✔

Target Board

Two different sized targets Utilised in conjunction with ‘ladder’ ground markings

to facilitate differentiation (skill, speed, strength etc.) Supports development of different FMS (throw, kick,

strike) and skill outcomes with additional direct instruction

✔

✔

✔

10

Kick Catch Throw Jump Strike Hop Skip

The High Jump

Height of ball is adaptable Full height elicits full jump ‘criteria’ Can be used to practice several skills including jump,

catch, throw, hop etc., with additional direct instruction

✔

✔

✔

✔

Centre Circle [high throw]

Height of circle is adaptable Ladder ground markings used in conjunction to

support differentiation (of skill, speed, strength etc.) Support development of a number of FMS (throw,

catch, kick, strike etc.) with additional direct instruction

✔

✔

✔

✔

11

Kick Catch Throw Jump Strike Hop Skip Ladders

‘Ladder’ ground markings used in conjunction with other components (target board etc.) or separately

Effectively utilised to divide arena Effectively used for drills Support development of several FMS with additional

direct instruction

✔

✔

✔

Striking Frame

Height of ball is adaptable Size of ball is adaptable Supports differentiation

✔

12

Kick Catch Throw Jump Strike Hop Skip

Dice Target

Holes represent number of points Activities to go with dice target are far reaching and can

include several FMS Ladder markings effectively used in conjunction to

differentiate outcomes

✔

✔

Agility Hurdle

Hurdles are adaptable and can be moved to sit at different angles

Support development of different FMS (jump, hop, strike, kick etc.) with additional direct instruction

✔

✔

✔

✔

13

Kick Catch Throw Jump Strike Hop Skip

Agility Frame

Frame is adaptable, bars can be moved at different angles

Adaptable nature supports differentiation for skill level

Frame supports development of a number of skills (agility, kicking, skipping etc.) with additional direct instruction

✔

✔

✔

Ball Wall

✔

✔

✔

✔

14

Kick Catch Throw Jump Strike Hop Skip

Balance Board

Can be used as part of circuit or standalone Supports balance and several locomotor skills e.g.

hopping with additional direct instruction

✔

✔

15

METHODS

This study employed a mixed methods research approach to capture effectiveness

of the SmallWall Arena in terms of: 1) Facilitating enjoyment (thus, predicting continued

engagement) and, 2) Eliciting effective FMS criteria (thus, predicting improved FMS over

time). Results are utilised to speak to the potential effectiveness of the SmallWall Arena

as a platform for improving children’s FMS performance and physical literacy over a

period of continued engagement. Thirty children aged between 9 and 12 years

participated in this study. Children were evaluated on enjoyment as well as actual and

perceived motor competence during semi-structured ‘normal’ PE and later, during a

period of semi-structured PE inside the SmallWall Arena. A focus group was deployed

with 8 participants (4 boys and 4 girls) to capture more nuanced details relating to

participant experiences in both settings.

QUANTITATIVE DATA

Test of Gross Motor Development – 2: Actual Motor Competence

The Test of Gross Motor Development -2 (Ulrich, 2000) was used to assess

fundamental movement skill capabilities of the cohort. TGMD-2 is a standardised tool that

measures FMS in children aged 3-10 years, with a high level of reliability (Aye, Oo, Khin,

Kuramoto-Ahuja & Maruyama, 2017). Each skill is assign ‘criteria’ which are used to

analyse movement quality. Children are given 1 point for criteria accurately performed

and 0 for criteria that are inaccurate or absent. Performance criteria are added to achieve

a total score for each skill and overall FMS capability. This study captured 4 FMS (jump,

catch, kick, throw). Participants were video recorded during assessment trials and scores

were later calculated on review of video footage.

The TGMD-2 was deployed in two settings. The first is described as ‘normal’ PE,

consisting of 6 semi structured station areas with appropriate equipment to promote a

range of FMS, including kicking, throwing, catching and jumping. Children were given 40

minutes of exploratory free play and assessed, intermittently, in line with TGMD-2

guidelines. The second setting relates to PE in the ‘SmallWall Arena’ where children

16

were exposed to 6 semi structured station areas with adaptable SmallWall equipment to

promote a range of FMS (particularly kick, throw, catch, jump).

Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence

The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence (PMSC) assesses

young children's perceptions of movement skill competence across 12 Fundamental

Movement skills (FMS) based on the Test of Gross Motor Development -2. The test is

modelled on a picture and response format originally devised by Harter & Pike (1983).

Children identify as being good at a skill or, not so good at a skill in line with an

accompanying picture. They then decide if they are really good or good (4 points or 3

points respectively), versus really not good or okay (1 point or 2 points respectively).

Thus, 4 points correlate with high perceived competence, whereas 1 point marks low

levels. The PMSC was originally validated for Australian children (Barnett et al., 2015)

but has since been validated with children in countries worldwide. This study measured

perceived competence of 4 skills (jump, kick, throw and catch) following (i) semi-

structured ‘’normal’ PE and (ii) semi-structured PE in the SMallWall Arena.

Enjoyment Scale

Enjoyment was measured by adapting the most commonly used measure of enjoyment,

the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) (Kendzierski et al., 1991). Children were

asked to rate how they felt about the physical activity they were doing using a 7-point

rating scale. Higher scores reflect higher levels of enjoyment. This study captured children’s

enjoyment levels during (i) semi-structured ‘’normal’ PE and (ii) semi-structured PE in the

SMallWall Arena. All quantitative data were analysed using SPSS (version 25).

QUALITATIVE DATA

Focus Group

A focus group was held after participants had experienced FMS practice as part of

‘normal’ PE and PE in the SmallWall Arena. This focus group was deployed to capture

finer details in relation to participant experiences in SmallWall arena, relative to ’normal’

PE. Questions that guided focus group discussion are outlined in table 1 below. The focus

group was audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. The transcription was analysed

using Thematic Analysis (TA) (Braun & Clarke, 2006), which included five phases:

17

familiarization with the data, data coding, searching for and reviewing themes, defining

and naming themes, and production of a final report. The researchers reviewed the data

and agreed upon final themes and sub-themes.

Table 1. Focus group questions to guide discussion

Q1. What is your favourite subject in school? Q2. How do you feel about PE? Q3. Thinking about the SmallWall Arena, how was the experience for you? Q4. Is there anything you would do to make the SmallWall arena better?

18

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Quantitative results

Enjoyment: Normal PE settings vs PE Settings in the Arena

Crucial ingredient to facilitate continued engagement in a practice task

Figure 1. Enjoyment results

The Figure above indicates that the children enjoyment level when engaging in the Arena is 5

times higher than the “Normal” PE setting. The magnitude of this difference between the 2 set-

ups illustrates the ability of the Arena to stimulate children enjoyment. There is a direct

relationship between the level of enjoyment and the perception one

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Normal PE Setting PE setting in the Arena

Enjoyment level

19

Perceived Competence: Normal PE settings vs PE Settings in the Arena

High levels associative factor of enjoyment and predicts continued engagement, necessary to

support improvements in actual competence

Figure 2. Perceived FMS competence results

Several things need to be pointed out here. The Jump perceived FMS competence didn’t change.

This is mainly due to a ceiling effect, children considered themselves as proficient in Jumping.

They perceived themselves as competent Jumpers in general. This explain why the Arena doesn’t

demonstrate any improvement for this skills. For the other 3 FMS, when this ceiling effect is not

present, we can see that perceived FMS competence is improving when they engage in the Arena.

The Catch percieved FMS competence improved by 39%, the Kick perceived competence

improved by 7% and the Throw perceived FMS competence imroved by 18%.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Jump Catch Kick Throw

Perceived Fundamental Movement Skill Competence

Normal PE Setting PE setting in the Arena

20

Actual FMS Competence: Normal PE settings vs PE Settings in the Arena

Figure 3. Actual FMS competence results

In a similar fashion to the increased of the children enjoymnet levels, the actual fundamental

movement skills competence has increased by 120%. The contraint in place in the Arena enabled

children competence. The Arena display the optimal level of difficulty to each child. This come

down to the design of the space and the tools in place. Each element can be used in different ways,

eliciting for each user the emergence of the correct movement patterns. Those movement

patterns are dormant when the environmental conitions aren’t appropriate for the children

competence, co,nfidenan and ejoyment levels. This dramatic increase in performance is clear an

indaiton that the Arena is enabling chilren to the display higher levels of motor skill proficiency.

This will in turn encourage them to practice more, to continue growing their motor skills

repertoire, to gain confidence and to close the loop, display even higher and better motor skill

proficiency levels. In summary, We propose that the positive findings in relation to enjoyment,

perceived competence and actual FMS competence demonstrated by children in the SmallWall

Arena are a result of a number of effective ingredients. These are:

Adaptable SmallWall equipment means children of all capabilities can experience success

which has a positive effect on perceived competence in FMS

SmallWall equipment elicits a wide range of skill criteria even without direct, teacher-led,

instruction which potentially supports actual competence in FMS

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Normal PE Setting PE setting in the Arena

Actual FMS Competence

21

QUALITATIVE RESULTS

Children’s Experiences in the SmallWall Arena

A focus group with 8 participants was deployed to capture nuanced details of

children’s experiences in the Small Wall Arena. Key quotes from this Focus group can be

found in Appendix 1. Two key themes (as well as sub-themes) were identified from this

data set. These were: 1) Small Wall supports high levels of enjoyment (facilitated by

feelings of autonomy and suitable levels of challenge) and, 2) SmallWall fosters

knowledge that there is something to be learned (facilitates effective FMS practice and,

improvements in perceived/actual competence) (Figure 4)

Fig 4. Qualitative results of children’s experiences in SmallWall Arena

The first key theme, ‘SmallWall supports high levels of enjoyment’ was referenced

in some fashion by all participants.

“[Small Way] was really enjoyable…like…way more fun than learning [the skills] the

normal way”. (5th class, boy)

References to enjoyment were typically accompanied by factors relating to autonomy and

challenge.

“I really enjoyed [small wall] because I got to come up with my own games and I

wasn’t told what to do or how to do it”. (5th class, girl)

“You can come up with lots of different games and ideas ….time went really fast....I

hope we go again”. (3rd class, boys)

22

“Sometimes you might be embarrassed in PE if you’re not great at, like, kicking…..but

I liked SmallWall because no one can really tell if I’m not great because it’s not too

hard”. (5th class, boy)

Multiple references to high levels of autonomy and appropriate challenge throughout the

focus group were particularly interesting given that the literature states autonomy and

challenge are significant predictors of enjoyment and, associative predictors of continued

engagement with a practice task (reference). Furthermore, continued engagement in FMS

practice is also cited as an effective means of improving motor competency but, only

when practice conditions are effective (Wulf et al., 2010). Put simply, in order to make

improvements through a practice task, a child needs to be aware that there is something

to be learned (Ericsson, 1991). In affording too much autonomy, there is a danger that

children will not engage in practice of skills (or parts of skills) that they need to learn.

Additionally, left to their own devices, children may not be aware of their own

shortcomings, i.e. that the way they perform a skill is inaccurate. Consequently, continued

practice of inaccurate FMS could see errors become engrained and actual FMS become

worse over time (Ericsson, 1991).

With that, the second theme to emerge from our focus group, ‘SmallWall fosters

knowledge that there is something to be learned’ is particularly prevalent as it speaks to

the potential effectiveness of the arena in having a positive affect on children’s FMS skills

over time, even without provision of additional direct instruction. That is, we know direct

instruction (typically teacher lead with clear, explicit descriptions of a skill, a task and

how the learner can achieve success) can potentially transform regular practice, where

learning is incidental, into ‘deliberate practice’ (Ericsson, 1993) where learning is

purposeful. What’s interesting is that results from our focus group suggest that, even

when SmallWall is utilised in semi-structured fashion (i.e. without additional, teacher-led

direct instruction), children were aware that the Arena is a place to practice FMS and

present as intrinsically motivated to perform movement skills in a variety of ways: whole-

skill, in parts and in combination with one another.

“I liked that you could change the height of the ball to make it easier at the start and

then you can push yourself to jump higher and higher……you had to really use your

arms to get up high”. (5th class, girl)

“I was throwing through the hoop and catching on the other side”. (3rd class girl)

23

SmallWall equipment has been designed to support children in practicing a number of

FMS. Our qualitative results found that not only did these components (SmallWall, target

board, centre circle etc.) foster knowledge that there is something to be learned (kicking,

throwing, jumping etc.) and elicit a range of these outputs (whole-skill, part or in

combination) but, SmallWall equipment also fostered perceived and actual competency.

“It’s cool the way you can do a few skills together, like, I was kicking [up the

SmallWall] and then catching it myself……I had to really stretch to catch it…..I felt

good when I was able to do it”. (5th class, boy)

“You can’t really do it wrong, like whatever way you kick or throw – you’re still

learning [in SmallWall Arena]”. (5th class, boy)

A learning environment that facilitates high levels of perceived competence (the

level of skill a child believes themselves to possess) is more likely to facilitate continued

engagement in a practice task (Lindquist et al., 1999). Our qualitative results suggest that

the purposeful design of SmallWall equipment makes it clear to children that there is

something to be learned, put simply, when children enter the SmallWall Arena they know

almost instinctively know that they are expected to kick, jump, throw, catch etc., as part

of the SmallWall ‘experience’. Furthermore, the adaptable nature of each SmallWall

equipment allows children of all levels to experience success, which has a positive impact

on perceived competence. That is, children start to see themselves as effective movers,

predicting continued engagement over time. Crucially, children in this study also

discussed a need to employ effective ‘part-skill’ performance (“I had to stretch to catch

[the ball]” &, “you had to really use your arms to get up high”). This suggests that

interactions in the SmallWall Arena not only elicit whole-skill FMS performance but also

prompt development of FMS skills ‘in parts’ (e.g. a focus on fully stretched arms when

catching etc.). This detail is particularly crucial as it precits the potential of the SmallWall

Arena to bring about a lasting change in actual FMS competence.

24

Whilst participants talked about execution of FMS in the SmallWall Arena as being

‘easy’ and ‘not hard’, it is interesting to note that kicking was perceived to be more

challenging, particularly for younger participants and, female participants,

“I kicked a few times but [the ball] didn’t go up the ramp like other people”. (3rd class,

boy).

“The kicking looked a bit hard to get it up the ramp…..I didn’t really do any kicking”.

(5th class, girl).

Feedback in relation to the SmallWall ramp suggests that design constraints require

children to possess a baseline ability in kicking in order to feel competent and/or

experience success. For example, a ball will only interact with the SmallWall ramp

effectively when kicked along the ground. In contrast, a ball kicked into the middle of the

ramp will fall flat leaving a child feeling as if they have not ‘kicked’ correctly. This could

essentially provide the child with negative task-intrinsic feedback that has a negative

effect on perceived competence. Thus, the SmallWall ramp presents as having a higher

point of entry where children with low levels of capability are less likely to experience

success, and/or improve in actual or perceived ‘kicking’ competence. This SmallWall

ramp differs to other adaptable SmallWall components that present as being suitable for

a wider range of individual levels and capabilities.

Whilst the SmallWall ramp presents as having a potentially negative effect on

actual and perceived kicking competence for children with particularly low baseline

capabilities, we propose that it could readily facilitate improved kicking in children of all

levels when paired with additional direct instruction. Indeed, our research explored the

effectiveness of the SmallWall Arena on enjoyment, actual and perceived motor

competence when children were given limited support or guidance from a teacher, coach

or expert. We propose that, with additional direct instruction (typically teacher lead with

clear, explicit description of a skill and, how the learner can achieve success) (Ericsson,

1993) children could potentially experience even greater success in the SmallWall Arena.

This is in line with recent literature that found interventions with direct instruction

support improved fundamental movement skill performance in young children and, also

move children with high baseline capabilities towards ‘mastery’ (Bedard et al., 2017)

25

Direct Instruction also presents as a useful way of promoting more effective

practice variability which relates to the variation in a practice task and variation in FMS

performance. Put simply, in order to improve across a range of FMS, children need to

experience parity of practice across skills and skill subsets. Our qualitative findings

indicate that female participants engaged more with SmallWall equipment that called for

locomotor outputs (jump, hop, run etc.) which was in contrast to boys who present as

having engaged more with SmallWall equipment that call for object control outputs (kick,

throw, catch etc.). These findings were in line with several studies linking stronger

inclination towards locomotor skills in girls compared to boys and stronger inclinations

towards object control skills in boys compared to girls (.

“I think I spent most of my time with the [High Jump]….I really liked that you could

jump higher and higher and then help your friend to be able to jump high too”. (5th

class, girl)

“I probably spent most time on the little ramp, it was cool to get the ball to come

back at you….I also liked the [target] and moving back on the lines to see could I

throw further”. (3rd class, boy)

Whilst qualitative and quantitative results demonstrate high levels of enjoyment

experienced by children in the SmallWall Arena, there were several suggestions made by

children in the focus group that could potentially enhance enjoyment further.

“It’s already a bit like a playground for learning skills so it would be really good if it

had other playground things like monkey bars to make you stronger and for fun”.

(5th class, boy)

Ultimately, reference to the SmallWall Arena as ‘a playground for skills’ is a fitting one

and, additional equipment such as ‘monkey bars’ could not only promote this

‘playground’ component further but also foster improvements in muscular endurance

and upper body strength necessary for success in more complex play.

26

Overall Feedback

The SmallWall Arena presents as novel and effective platform to target improved

fundamental movement skills and overall physical literacy in children. The Arena a range of

equipment that is particularly effective at prompting children to perform (or practice) a range of

FMS. The adaptable nature of SmallWall equipment means that children, who differ in age, gender

and capabilities, can experience success which has a positive impact on ‘perceived competence’.

The high level of autonomy and choice of activities offered in the SmallWall Arena also fosters

high levels of enjoyment, particularly when compared to ‘regular’ PE. Our findings also indicate

that, when left to their own devices with relatively little support from teachers/coaches or

experts, children are prompted to perform more effective movement patterns in order to achieve

success. That is, SmallWall components such as the High Jump call upon the children to use their

arms effectively on take-off to generate adequate height. Thus, design of SmallWall equipment

not only elicits a range of FMS, but also promotes high quality FMS outputs. Effectively, the

SmallWall Arena facilitates enjoyment and perceived competence, crucial ingredients for the

development of actual FMS competence and overall physical literacy in youth (fig. 5, below).

Figure 5. SmallWall ingredients

27

REFERENCES

Barnett LM, Ridgers ND, Zask A et al. Face validity and reliability of a pictorial

instrument for assessing fundamental movement skill perceived competence in young

children. J Sci Med Sport 2015; 18(1):98–102.

Bedard, C., Bremer, E., Campbell, W., & Cairney, J. (2018). Evaluation of a Direct-

Instruction Intervention to Improve Movement and Preliteracy Skills among Young

Children: A Within-Subject Repeated-Measures Design. Frontiers in pediatrics, 5, 298.

doi:10.3389/fped.2017.00298

Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative

Research in Psychology, 3, 77-101.

Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human

Behavior (Vol. 3). Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2005). Applied social

psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE

Publications

Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (n.d.). The Role of Deliberate Practice in

the Acquisition of Expert Performance, 44.

Kendzierski, D., & DeCarlo, K. J. (1991). Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale: Two

validation studies. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 13(1), 50-64.

Lindquist, C. H., Reynolds, K. D., & Goran, M. I. (1999). Sociocultural determinants of

physical activity among children. Preventive Medicine, 29, 305–312

Lubans, D. R., Morgan, P. J., Cliff, D. P., Barnett, L. M., & Okely, A. D. (2010). Fundamental

movement skills in children and adolescents. Sports Medicine, 40(12), 1019–1035.

O’ Brien, W., Belton, S., & Issartel, J. (2016). Fundamental movement skill proficiency

amongst adolescent youth. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 21(6), 557–571

Ulrich, D. A. (2000). Test of Gross Motor Development (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Wulf, G., Shea, C., & Lewthwaite, R. (2010). Motor skill learning and performance: a

review of influential factors: Motor skill learning and performance. Medical Education,

44(1), 75–84.

28

APPENDIX 1

“You need the skills to be good at sports…. I’m not in a sports club……I’m not very good

at kicking” (3rd class, girl)

“I liked [small wall] because I got to come up with my own games and I wasn’t told what

to do or how to do it” (5th class, girl)

“[Small Wall] made doing the skills easy – like- you can’t really make mistakes” (5th class,

boy)

“I liked that you could change the height of the ball to make it easier at the start and then

you can push yourself to jump higher and higher……you had to really use your arms to

get up high” (5th class, girl)

“There were lots of things you could do, like it’s not just kicking, but….we did an obstacle

course with hopping and skipping……and I really like the balance beam” (3rd class, girl)

“It’s a good place to learn [kicking, jumping, throwing] without getting bored and being

[embarrassed] if you do it wrong” (5th class, boy)

“You can’t really do it wrong, like whatever way you kick or throw – you’re still learning

[with Small Wall]” (5th class, boy)

“It’s great for your imagination and working in teams to learn your skills…….in like a more

fun way” (5th class, girl)

“you can come up with lots of different games and ideas ….time went really fast....I hope

we go again” (3rd class, boy)

“Sometimes you might be embarrassed in PE if you’re not great at like kicking…..but no

one is going to really tell if you’re not great [in the Small Wall] because it’s not hard”. (5th

class, boy)

“It’s already a bit like a playground for learning skills so it would be really good if it had

other playground things like monkey bars to make you stronger and for fun”. (5th class,

boy)

“It’s cool the way you can practice a few skills together, like I was kicking [up the small

wall] and then catching it myself……I had to really stretch to catch…..I felt good when I

was able to do it” (5th class, boy)

“I was throwing through the hoop and catching on the other side” (3rd class girl)

“[Small Way] was a lot more fun…like…way more fun than learning [the skills] the normal

way” (5th class, boy)

“the boys and the girls [in the class] really liked it…..because there was something for all

of us to do and we could do whatever [skills] we wanted” (5th class, girl)