syntax iii jack & ivy 2012.9.25. 5.1 english verbs 5.1.1 verb forms 5.1.2 the syntactic...
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Syntax III
Jack & Ivy
2012.9.25
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5.1 English Verbs
• 5.1.1 Verb forms• 5.1.2 The syntactic environment• 5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence: the
perfect construction• 5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases• 5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs• 5.1.6 Structure of tensed clauses• 5.1.7The position of main verbs and auxiliaries
in the clausal structure• 5.1.8 Summary of verbs distribution
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Verbs function as the head of Verb Phrases(P.258)
VP
V
laugh kiss
V DP
Juliet
Juliet
VP
V DP PP
P DPgiveflowers
to
VP
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5.1 English Verbs5.1.1 Verb Forms
Non-finite verb forms
Infinitive to use to show
Participles: past participle used shown
passive participle used shown
present participle using showing
Finite verb forms
Past tense used showed
Present tense uses shows
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• Verbs inflected for past or present tense and agreement are often referred to as finite verbs.
• The other verb forms as non-finite verbs.
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5.1.2 The syntactic environment
The perfect auxiliary have co-occurs with a past participle.
a. Many students have liked Romeo and Juliet.
The passive auxiliary be co-occurs with a passive participle.
a. Juliet was loved by Romeo.
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5.1.2 The syntactic environment
• Progressive be co-occurs with a present participle.
a. Many students are reading Romeo and Juliet.
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Infinitives
As the complement of a modal
a. Many students could read Romeo and Juliet.
As the complement of a causative verb or a verb of perception.
a. They let Romeo and Juliet die.b. They saw Juliet kiss Romeo.
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InfinitivesIn different types of infinitival complements
to-infinitivals
a. Many student try to read Romeo and Juliet.
for-to infinitivals
a. Many professors want very much for their students to read Romeo and Juliet.
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Tensed clauses require tensed verbs inflected for past or present tense.
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main clause
a. Romeo loved Juliet.
b.*Romeo loving/to love Juliet.
embedded clause
a. I believe that Romeo loved Juliet.
b. I don’t know if Romeo loved Juliet.
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• Particular verbal forms co-occur with particular auxiliaries.
• Particular verbal forms co-occur with particular types of clauses.
Generalizations
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5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction
R1 (first version)
A sentence containing the perfect auxiliary have must contain a past participle.
Is this
hypothesis
correct ?
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5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction
Check
a. *Many students seen have Juliet.
b. *Seen many students have Juliet.
c. *Many students have see +V Juliet died+pp.
The past participles must
stay close to auxiliaries’ right
side.
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5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction
read
have VP2
V [+past participle] DP
Hamlet
VP1
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5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction
R2 (second version)
Have requires or demands a complement which contains a past participle.
Is it the precise
characterization to say a
complement which
contains a past
participle?
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5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction
Bad case
have VP
= complement of have
V VP
V
+past part
Good case
have VP
= complement of have
V +past part
Too Far
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5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction
VP
VP
This part of the structure must
contain the past participle
In other words, it needs a
immediate complement
.
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5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction
R3 (third version)
Have requires or demands a past participle in its “immediate” complement.
Then, Why must have
contain the past
participle and the
label of constituent ?
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5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases
Heads determine the category of their projection in syntax.
VP
V
PP
P
AP
A
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5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases
• Heads in morphology– Suffixes c-select the morpheme that they
attach to.
-ize c-selcets N change N to V symbol-ize
-ment c-selcets V change V to N establish-ment
The category of the newly formed word is determined by the right most suffix
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5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases
• Compound have heads• In English, compounds are head-final.
V
N V
baby sit
N
A N
green house
A
AN
nation wide
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5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases
have VP [+past part]
V[v see +past part]
Since the past participle is the head of the VP complement, the VP projection is
marked +past participle.
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5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases
R4 (final)
Have requires or demands (=selects) a past participle complement.
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Building Larger Structures
a. (Passive) be requires a [+passive participle] complement.
b. (Progressive) be requires a [+present participle] complement.
Example:
This play should have been being read by the students.
(perfect have, progressive be, passive be, main V)
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DP
V
have
VP + past part
V [+en] VP + present part
been V [+ing]
being
VP + passive part
V [+ed]
VP
read [e] this play
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5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs
For Kate to defy Petruccio takes courage.
The for DP to VP stringacts as a single constituent.
This constituent is
called infinitive CP
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5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs
to VP
To always combines with an infinitival VP
to its right.
To is a realization of the category
T (tense)
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5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs
• Conclude that TP contains two layers of structure:
a. one layer in which the head combines with a complement to its right, forming a constituent T’.
b. a higher layer where T’ combines with a specifier forming TP
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5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs
CP
For TP
DP T’
to VP
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5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs
Accusative subject pronouns can only appear if for is present.
a. For her (*she) to be loved.
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5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs
• heads demand certain types of complements.
• the complement is the sister of the head.
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Tensed clauses
A tensed clause demands a finite verb.
- main clause
a. Katherina defied (*defy/*to defy) Petruccio.
-embedded clause
a. Many students concluded that katherina defied
(*defy/*to defy) Petruccio.
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Tensed clauses
CP
that VP [+T]
Katherina defied Petruccio
What does this reveal about the
mental grammar?
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Main clauses require tensed verbs
CP
C + decl, +main VP [+T]
DP
V+T DPKatherina
defied Petruccio
The C node happens to be silent
in main tensed clause
A silent head exists in English
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C [+decl, +main], c-selects +Tense, C is not pronounced.
C[+decl, +embedded], c-selects +Tense, C is pronounced as that.
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Languages with an overt complementizer in all declarative clauses
Korean (nom= nominative, dec= declarative)
romio-ka culiet-kwa kicaŋ-e ka-ss-taRomeo-nom Juliet-with theater-to go-past-decl (matrix)
‘Romeo went with Juliet to the theater.’
The building blocks of syntax are heads which can be either silent or overt.
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Comparing infinitives and tensed clauses
CP
TP[cfor]
DP
Katherina[+to] VP
V DPdefy P
CP
[cthat] VP[+T]
DP V’
V+T DPKatherina
defies P
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Comparing infinitives and tensed clauses
a. Infinitive to is a free standing morpheme in T.
b. Finite tense is expressed as a suffix on the verb.
c. The subject in the infinitival is located in a different structural position than the subject of a tensed clause.
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Enriching the structure of tensed complements
CP
TP[+T]for
DP
Katherina[Tto] VP[+inf]
V DPdefy P
CP
that TP[+T]
DP T’
R+Tense VP[+T]Katherina
V+T DP
T’
defies P
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5.1.6 on the structure of tensed clauses
Auxiliaries:a. Juliet has gone to the nunnery.b. Juliet is sad.
Modalsa. Juliet will go to the garden.
Main verbsa. Juliet wrote to Romeo.
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5.1.6 on the structure of tensed clauses
Auxiliaries and modals can precede the subject in yes-no questions.
a. Is she going to the garden?
b. Should she go the garden?
c. Has she gone to the garden?
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VP ellipsis
Although Regan has not been a good daughter to Lear, Cordelia has. (been a good daughter to Lear)
This process that allows the VP to be silent
is referred as VP ellipsis
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VP ellipsis
Although Regan has not been a good daughter to Lear, Cordelia has. (been a good daughter to Lear)
The pronounce part is referred as the remnant
of VP ellipsis
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VP ellipsis
TP [+tense]
DP T’
VP [+T-ed]
DPV
defy P
VP ellipsis
This is incorrect
It needs support
!!
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Do-support
TP [+tense]
DP T’
VP [ do+ [t-ed] ]
DPV
defy P
VP ellipsis
Insert do to support (=save) a stranded suffix
in T.
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Affix-hoping
Input
T VP
-ed
V
defy
Affix-hoping Output
T VP
V
defy +ed
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Head movement
T VP
V
defy
-ed
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VP ellipsis for VP2
• [TPEmilia [[T-s] [VP1 be [VP2 listening to Iago]] too]]
VP ellipsis of VP2
It is impossible to
ellipsis of VP1
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a. Finite forms of HAVE and BE are in tensed T.
b. Finite forms of MAIN VERBS are in VP.
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5.1.7 The position of main verbs and auxiliaries in the clausal structure
• Not – not/n’t – finite forms of the auxiliaries have, be, and do
must precede not (and n’t)– non-finite forms of the auxiliaries follow not
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5.1.7 The position of main verbs and auxiliaries in the clausal structure
He won’t have climbed the mountain yet
The Finite auxiliary (will) precedes not
Non-finite form auxiliary (have)
follow not
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Distribution of adverbials
• certain adverbials intervene between T and the main V in English:
a. Olivia will probably leave tomorrow.
T Adv V(inf)
b. You must recently have read Macbeth.
T Adv V (pp)
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Distribution of adverbials
• When the main verb is inflected, these adverbs precede the main verb:
a. Olivia probably left yesterday.
Adv V+T
b. You recently read Macbeth.
Adv V+T
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Yes-no questions: Subject-Aux Inversion
matrix yes-no questions start with either a modal, or a finite auxiliary (have, be or do)
a. Has Othello died?
b. Is Othello dying?
c. Did Othello die?
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Yes-no questions: Subject-Aux Inversion
embedded yes-no questions start with a particular C (complementizer), either if or whether:
(89)
a. I wonder if Othello died quickly.
b. I wonder whether Othello died quickly.
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Yes-no questions: Subject-Aux Inversion
• Subject-Aux-Inversion:– Subject-Aux-Inversion must apply in matrix yes-
no questions.
– Subject-Aux-Inversion cannot apply when there is an overt complementizer present in the C node.
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Yes-no questions: Subject-Aux Inversion
a. *I wonder if did Othello die quickly.
Incorrect !!C selects values
of T
No Need !!!
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Yes-no questions: Subject-Aux Inversion
• The lexical complementizer if/whether and the inverted T are in complementary distribution
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The C level: properties of individual complementizers
a. Othello thought THAT Desdemona lied.
b. Othello wondered IF Desdemona lied.
C+QIt is overt
C –QIt can be
silent
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Why main Vs fail to move to +Q
a. Main verbs cannot appear in T[+T].b. Main verbs cannot appear in C[+Q].
•main V to T is a prerequisite for further movement to C
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5.1.8 Summary of distribution of English verbs
• the distribution of verbs• C is a zero morpheme in main clause
declaratives and questions.• C is that in embedded declaratives.• C is whether or if in embedded yes-no
questions.
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5.2 Cross-Linguistic Variation: Beyond English
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• 5.2.1 The nature of linguistic variation• 5.2.2 Language variation and parameters• 5.2.3 C, T, and V across languages• 5.2.4 Other languages• 5.2.5 Languages with no visible change in
word order: VP ellipsis• 5.2.6 Further extensions: The noun
system: DP
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5.2.1 The nature of linguistic variation
• Heads ( = morphemes)– the building blocks of syntactic structures– pronounced (overt material)
silent
– lexical categories (N, V, A, P)
functional categories (T, C, Q, …)
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• Structure– local head-complement relations– Spec-head relations
• Movement– co-courrence restrictions between positions
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(102)
- the VP level
- the T level
- the CP level
iDPtvTTTi e][ said e][ e][Juliet has What
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• head-initial languages– ordering the head before the complement– VSO / SVO
• head-final languages– ordering the head after the complement– SOV
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• parameters – options available to the language learners
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• Movement
• Japanese: wh-in-situ• English: wh to Spec, CP
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• wh-in-situwh-phrases occur in the same positions where DPs appear
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• Chinese have in situ wh-elements• "John bought what?"
"John bought bread"• with what in the same position in the
sentence as the grammatical object would be in its affirmative counterpart
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5.2.3 C, T, and V across languages
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English (E) and French (F)
• the ordering of pre-VP adverbials and finite verbs(109)a. Romeo carefully words his lettersb. *Roméo soigneusement formule ses lettres
(110)a.*Romeo words carefully his lettersb.Roméo formule soigneusement ses lettres
• E: Adv-finite main V• F: Finite main V- Adv
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English (E) and French (F)
(111)• English: Finite main V in VP
• French: Finite main V in tensed T
] T][V [ Adv e]DP[[ VPTTP
] e][[ Adv T]V NP[[ vVPTTP
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English (E) and French (F)
When the sentence contains a finite auxiliary, they show the same order:(112)
a. Romeo has carefully worded his letters.b. Roméo a soigneusement formulé ses lettres.
English: Finite-AUX-Adv-ParticipleFrench: Finite-AUX-Adv-Participle
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English (E) and French (F)
(113)• a. Romeo is often sick.• b. Jean est souvent malade.
(114)• a. In French, finite auxiliaries and main vs are in [+T]• b. (i) In English, finite auxiliaries are in [+T] (ii) In English, finite main verbs are in [+T]
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English (E) and French (F)
• verb in different positions: • ( indicates the original position of V)
(115)• a. Roméo • b. Romeo
e][v
voisins]ses e][ vsisite][ v T
neighbors] his [visits e][T
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English (E) and French (F)
negative sentences
• (116)• c. Roméo ne visite pas
• the V raises to T over negation pas
voisins]ses e][ [ v
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English (E) and French (F)
• the differences in word-order patterns result from the position finite verbs occupy; they are in +T in French, but in T in English.
• (117) The position a particular head occupies is one source of language variation.
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English and Germanic languages
(118)
matrix: [ [ CVf] [DP …
embedded: [ [ CC [DP Vf
• In matrix clauses, all finite verbs would raise to the C position.
• Embedded clauses always have an overt C, with the finite verb remaining in T.
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Dutch
– verb-second:
the finite verb always follows a constituent in first position (the finite verb therefore is in second position in this clause type)
– (119)a. Morgen goat Juliet met Romeo naar de film
Tomorrow goes Juliet with Romeo to the movies
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Dutch
– XP first in matrix clauses:
the initial position of certain types of root clauses in Dutch (say, Spec, CP) must always be filled with some constituent (otherwise the verb would be first!)
– XP first in matrix clauses:
Spec, CP (Matrix) must contain an overt constituent
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5.2.4 Other languages
• language variation is due to variation in movement
– Vata
in Vata, V movement is quite transparent, because it results in word-order differences.
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5.2.5 Languages with no visible change in word order: VP ellipsis
• the strict head-final nature of the projections in strictly head-final languages, like Japanese or Korean for example, no material can intervene between C, T, and V positions
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Irish
• Irish shows VSO order in both matrix and embedded tensed sentences
Dúirt sé go dtiocfadh sé
say(past) he C come(condit) he
‘He said that he would come’
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Irish• VSO order is a characteristic property of finite clauses: non-
finite clauses show either SVO order(125) or even SOV order(126)
• (125) SVO order
Bhreathnaigh mé uirthi agus í ag imeacht uaimlooked I on-her and her leave(prog) from-me‘I watched her as she was leaving me.
• (126) SOV order
Níor mhaith liom iad a chéile a phósadhI-would-not-like them each-other marry(inf)‘I would not like them to marry each other.’
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Irish
• This suggests that the word order in tenses clauses is derived, with the verb in finite clauses moving out of the VP, to some position higher than the subject. As a result of this movement, the subject intervenes between the finite verb and its object.
• The finite verb cannot be in C, since it co-occurs with the finite complementizer: VSO order is a property of all tensed clauses, main or embedded. Therefore it is in T.
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Irish
• (127) The finite verb in Irish is in T.
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Irish• Support for V being outside VP comes from the
process of VP ellipsis in Irish. Irish has no words for yes, or no.
• (128)Question:Ar chuir tú isteach air?InterC put[PAST] you in on-it‘Did you apply for it?’
Answer:Chuir Níor chuirput[PAST] NEG put[PAST]‘Yes’ ’No’
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Irish
• The part that disappeared is understood in the answer. Elliptical sentences occur in roughly the same range of contexts as English VP ellipsis:
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• (129)Dúirt mé go gceannóinn é agus cheannaighsaid I C buy [Condit:S1] it and bought‘I said that I would buy it and I did.’
• (130)A: Chennaigh siad teach buy[PAST] they house ‘They bought a house.’
B: Níor cheannaigh NEG[PAST] bought ‘They did not.’
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• Tag questions• (131)
Chennaigh siad teach, nár cheannaigh
bought they house NEG INTERR C buy[PAST]
‘They bought a house, didn’t they?’
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• Thus, this looks like VP ellipsis, except for the fact that the remnant contains the finite main V! This situation can arise if the V is outside of the constituent on which silence is imposed.
• Since the V is not within the VP, but in T, it must be pronounced.
• The subjects in Irish must be silent as well.
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English VS. Irish
English: they did!
CP
C TP
DP
T VP
V DP
They
(do) -ed
buy the house
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Irish : bought
English VS. Irish
CP
C TP
DP
T VP
DP
V DP
buyi -ed
they
[e]i the house
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• VP ellipsis thus provides an excellent argument for V to T movement in Irish!
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DP occurs in different position
TP
DP
T VP
DP
English subjects
Irish subjects
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5.2.6 Further extensions: The noun system: DP
• Just like clauses, DPs come in different kinds as well:– as definite (or specific) DPs (the men, these
women)– quantified DPs (two men, every man)– generic DPs (people)
• We can consider D as being the head of an NP
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• (140)
a. the frequent visits to his parents (E)
b. les visites fréquentes á ses parents (F)
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The N moves to Num in French, but not in English
DP
D NumP
Num
visites
NP
APfrequent
NPNPvisits
French Nouns
English Nouns
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The Hebrew nouns move to D
DP
D NumP
Num
visites
NP
APfrequent
NPNPvisits
French Nouns
English Nouns
beyt
Hebrew Nouns
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5.3 Summary
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• the syntactic input consists of words, silent morphemes, and some inflectional morphemes
• the head-complement relation regulates the distribution of verbal forms, and forms the basic backbone of a clause.
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• the property that distinguishes declarative clauses, questions, etc, is located at the C level
• TPs fall into different types depending on properties of the T head (-T=to, +T=tense)
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• in English, tensed main verbs occur in VP, tensed auxiliaries and modals in +T, or, in certain contexts, in C
• languages have quite similar structures, with differences arising from ordering parameters, and lexical parameters