sy2550 textbook notes

7/26/2019 Sy2550 Textbook Notes

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Benefts and Disadvantages o Labor Unions to Workers-Labor unions important or air wages and benefts, healthy and sae workenvironments, and other orms o worker advocacy Unioni!ed workers tend to havehigher earnings, better insurance, pension benefts, and more paid time o"-Labor unions also achieve better worker conditions United #ood and $ommercialWorkers %U#$W&, the country's largest union representing poultry-processing ormed

an ()*+ rule that established a ederal workplace potty policy governing whenemployees can use the bathroom on the ob-(ne disadvantage o unions members must pay dues and other ees and thesedues rising Union leaders make high salaries +nother disadvantage is loss oindividuality---maority rules and this may con.ict with specifc employee's needsDeclining Union Density-)trength/membership declined in U) Union Density 0 the percentage o workerswho belong to unions, grew in 1234s peaked 1254s/1264s---367 unioni!ed But8414 only 187 unioni!ed-9eason or decline is loss o manuacturing obs, which tend to have higher rates ounioni!ation :ob growth in high tech/fnance obs where unions have little presence;lobali!ation led to layo"s/plant closings at unioni!ed work sites since companies

moved to other countries to fnd cheaper labor $orporations take active measuresto keep workers rom unioni!ing, and weak U) labor laws ail to support andprotect unioni!ation$orporate +ntiunion +ctivities-12


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the board to hold the election %company uses election time to ocus against unionormation&-En U), CL9B and courts play important roles in upholding workers' rights tounioni!ed and sanctioning employers who violate these rights C9LB can issue obreinstatement and =back-pay> orders or other remedial orders to workers wrongullyfred or demoted or participating in union-related activities Et is illegal to fre

workers or engaging in union activities, but there are a ew conseAuences oremployers that do so Fenalties or violating U) labor law are so weak that manyemployers consider them as a cost o doing business and a small price to pay ordeeating workers' attempts to organi!e-E you get fred or unioni!ing, you can apply to C9LB E C9LB fnds you wereillegally fred, the employer gives back pay minus any money at another ob yougot Gost people get another ob so sometimes no compensation at all ?henemployer ust has to say he won't do it again on bulletin board )o there are no realsanctions and it is the employer's interest to fre people %not many conseAuencesand powerul message to employees that you will lose ob or organi!ing&-?here is a backlog o many cases o unair labor practices by employees andworkers wait years rom the fling o charge until CL9B resolves a case %discouraging

workers rom fling in frst place&Labor Union )truggles +round the World-1252 Enternational Labour (Hce made the $onvention on the 9ight to (rgani!eand $ollective Bargaining %hal o world's workorce lives where this convention notratifed, including $hina, Endia, Geico, $anada, U)&-Enternational $onederation o #ree ?rade Unions %E$#?U& publishes +nnual )urveyo Iiolations o ?rade Union 9ights, which describes severe abuses o workers' rightsin countries around the world ?his documents lack o workers' rights and abuses ogovernments and employers in the suppression o workers' rights Gany tradeunionists killed, sentenced to prison terms, beaten in demonstrations, tortured,many workers lose their obs or organi!ing-$olombia is most dangerous place in the world to be a trade unionist )ome cases

amilies o unionist murder victims killed, most cases o trade union assassinationsare not properly investigated and murderers not caught/punishedJ)trategies or +ction 9esponses to Froblems o Work and Unemployment-;overnment, private business, human rights organi!ations, labor organi!ations,college student activists, and consumers play important roles in responding toproblems o work and unemployment9educing Unemployment-@"orts to reduce unemployment %1& workorce development programs %8& programsand policies that create and save obsWorkorce Development-122K Workorce Envestment +ct %WE+& provides a wide array o programs andservices designed to assist individuals to prepare or and fnd employment, likeassessment o skills and abilities, access to ob vacancy listings, ob search andplacement assistance, individual career planning and counseling, resumepreparation, @nglish as second language instruction, computer literacy, wagesubsidies or on the ob training, support services like transportation and child careto enable individuals to participate in WE+ programs-)ome programs ocus on improving employability o hard-to-employ individualsthrough interventions like substance abuse treatment, domestic violence services,

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prison release reintegration assistance, mental health services, and homelessnessservices, in combination with employment services-@"orts to prepare high school students or work establishment o technical andvocational high schools and high school programs and school-to-work programs---partnerships between business, labor, government, education, and communityorgani!ations that allow high school students to eplore di"erent careers, provide

ob skill training, and work-based learning eperiences-@ducational attainment---path to employment/economic security But more than 8/3o obs in U) reAuire little education important that obs pay a living wage---sohaving a ob does not necessarily mean economic sel-suHciency

:ob $reation and Freservation-1 in 5 +mericans said best way to create more U) obs is to keep manuacturing

obs in the U) and stop sending work overseas %both democrats/republicansagree& 9epublicans also avored reducing taes and limiting governmentinvolvement in regulating business while Democrats avored using government tocreate obs through inrastructure proects-(bama made +merican 9ecovery and 9einvestment +ct o 8442 0 which providedan economic stimulus package o MK billion to create and save obs and to

reinvigorate the U) economy +lso included measures to increase or etendbenefts under Gedicaid, unemployment insurance 0 a ederal state program thattemporarily provides laid-o" workers with a portion o their paychecks, and nutritionassistance programs to help most a"ected by economic downturn/unemploymentrates-(bama signed )mall Business :obs +ct , which provides ta breaks and betteraccess to credit or small businesses so that small businesses can create new obs-*iring Encentives to 9estore @mployment %*E9@& act provided ta incentives tocompanies that hired employees who had been looking or work or


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household Fromoting @ducation or +ll---a global movement advocating that everychild has access to ree, basic education %crucial to reduce child labor&9esponses to )weatshop Labor-#air Labor +ssociation---coalition o companies, universities, and nongovernmentalorgani!ations that works to promote adherence to international labor standards andimprove working conditions worldwide Encludes inspecting overseas actories or

labor standards, not reAuiring workers to work more than


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-?hese and other initiatives to strengthen workplace health and saety are opposedby industry groups and 9epublicans in $ongress who are against governmentregulations argue that ecessive regulation is burdensome to business, hampersinvestment, and hurts ob creation-(ne victory in legislation was :ames Oadroga 2/11 *ealth and $ompensation +ct---establishes a health monitoring, treatment, and compensation program or the

many 2/11 responders and others who became ill as a result o eposures at theWorld ?rade $enter-En developing countries, governments ear that strict enorcement o workplaceregulations will discourage oreign investment Envestment in workplace saety indeveloping countries ar lower than that in rich countries Low unioni!ation ratesand workers' ears o losing their lives i they demand health and saety protections,--- leave most workers powerless to improve working conditionsBehavior-Based )aety Frograms-direct attention to worker's behavior rather than to work processes and conditionsas health and saety problem Gost ob inuries and illnesses are caused by workers'own carelessness and unsae acts ?each employees and managers to identiydiscipline and change unsae worker behaviors that cause accidents and encourage

a work culture that rewards sae behaviors-$ritics say these divert attention away rom employers' ailures to provide saeworking conditions +lso say that the real goal o these programs is to discourageworkers rom reporting illness and inuries %ear o being labeled =unsae worker>&Work Lie Folicies and Frograms-help women and men balance work and amily responsibilities work-amily, work-lie, amily-riendly policies#ederal and )tate #amily and Gedical Leave Enitiatives-$linton 1223 frst national policy to help work-lie ?he #amily and Gedical Leave+ct %#GL+& 0 reAuires all public agencies and private-sector employees %with 64 ormore employees who worked at least 1,864 hours in the preceding year& to provideup to 18 weeks o ob-protected, unpaid leave so that they can care or a seriously

ill child, spouse, or parent stay home to care or their newborn, newly adopted, ornewly placed oster child or take time o" when seriously ill + 844K amendment o#GL+ reAuires employers to provide up to 8< weeks o unpaid leave to employees tocare or a seriously ill or inured amily member who is in the armed orces includingCational ;uard or 9eserves-But nearly 547 o employees not eligible or the #GL+ beneft because they workor companies with ewer than 64 employees or they work part-time )omeemployees don't comply with #GL+ because they are unaware o theirresponsibilities under #GL+ or because they are deliberately violating the law, lacko awareness many eligible workers do not use #GL+ beneft because they cannota"ord to take leave without pay, and/or they ear they will lose their ob i they taketime o"-(nly some states provide paid leave programs that provide eligible workers aamily leave beneft with a portion o their salary or up to si weeks #amily LeaveEnsurance +ct would provide K to 18 weeks o partially paid leave or #GL+purposes, paid by employer and worker contributions-U) employers are not reAuired to provide workers with any paid sick leave, andnearly hal o private-sector workorce has no paid sick leave *ealth #amilies +ctwould reAuire employers with at least 16 employees to provide days o paid sickleave annually or ull-time employees who work at least 34 hours per week

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@mployees could take beneft i they or a amily member is sick )upporters say thatwhen sick employees go to work because they cannot a"ord to take unpaid sickdays, or ear losing their ob by taking a sick day, they risk spreading inectiousdiseases at the workplace +nd sending children to school because their parentscannot a"ord to take unpaid sick days to stay home with them risks spreadinginectious diseases at school *#+ act proposes to establish a ederally mandated

paid sick day policy@mployer-Based Work-Lie Folicies-)ome corporations have =amily-riendly> work policies and programs, includingunpaid or paid amily and medical leave, child care assistance, assistance withelderly parent care, and .eible work options like .etime- a work arrangement thatallows employees to begin and end the workday at di"erent times so long as 54hours per week are maintained, compressed workweek 0 a work arrangement thatallows employees to condense their work into ewer days, and telecommuting 0 awork arrangement that involves use o inormation technology that allow employeesto work part-time or ull-time at home or at a satellite oHce-#leible work arrangements reduce work-lie con.ict and increase ob satisaction-Best Buy made 9esults-(nly Work @nvironment %9(W@&, which allows employees

and managers to control when and where they work as long as they get the obdone-#leible work arrangements also beneft employers in reducing absenteeism,lowering turnover, improving the health o workers, and increasing productivity Netless than 1/3 o ull-time workers report having .eible work hours and only 16percent report working rom home at least once a week Between 122K and 844K,some employer-provided work-lie benefts increased, whereas others decreased-Gore than hal o employers that o"er maternity leave provide at least partial payto employees on maternity leave, whereas only 1< percent provide any pay orpaternity leave@"orts to )trengthen Labor-+bout hal o U) adults say they have a avorable opinion o labor unions 32

percent have unavorable Iiewed as problematic to corporations, employers, somegovernments such e"orts can remedy many o the problems acing workers-)ome labor unions have merged with one another this increases membershipnumbers, increases the unions' fnancial resources to recruit new members andwithstand long strikes Unions must cross national boundaries to build internationalcooperation and solidarity because o globali!ed economy-)trengthening labor unions reAuires combating the threats and violence againstworkers who attempt to organi!e or who oins unions (ne way is to pressuregovernments to apprehend and punish perpetrators o such violence +nother wayis to stop doing business with countries where government-sponsored violations oree trade union rights occur-@mployee #ree $hoice +ct would allow workers to sign a card stating that they wantto be represented by a union E maority signed card, company would have torecogni!e the union and bargain over terms and conditions o employment E thecompany does not negotiate a frst contract in timely manner, @#$ act reAuiresbinding arbitration Et would also strengthen U) labor law enorcement byincreasing penalties or violations

?he ;lobal :obs Fact-improving workers' lives and the economy as a whole reAuires a coordinated andcomprehensive e"ort


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that combines goals and strategies 8442 Enternational Labour (rgani!ation adopteda ;lobal :obs Factguide national and international policies aimed at stimulating the economy, creating

obs, and providing protection to workers and their amilies-$alls or a wide range o measures to retain workers, sustain businesses, create

obs, and provide social protections to workers and the unemployed, stringent

supervision and regulation o fnancial industry so that it better serves the economyand protects individuals' savings and pensions-urges or %1& a shit to a low-carbon, environmentally riendly economy that willcreate new obs %8& investments in public inrastructure %3& increases in socialprotection and minimum wages %to reduce poverty, increase demand or goods, andstimulate the economy& ?he ;lobal :obs Fact provides a vision or a healthiereconomy that meets the needs o workers and consumers ?he hard work otranslating the ;lobal :obs Fact into reality alls to employers, trade unions, andespecially governmentsUnderstanding Work and Unemployment-125K ;eneral +ssembly o UC adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration o*uman 9ights

+rticle 83 @veryone has the right to work, to ree choice o employment, to ust andavourable conditions o work and to protection against unemployment @veryone,without any discrimination, has the right to eAual pay or eAual work @veryone whoworks has the right to ust and avourable remuneration ensuring or himsel and hisamily an eistence worthy o human dignity, and supplemented, i necessary, byother means o social protection @veryone has the right to orm and to oin tradeunions or the protection o his interests+rticle 85 @veryone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitationo working hours and periodic holidays with pay-Workers still fghting or rights laid out by UC-=(ccupy Wall )treet> began with a ew demonstrations in ront o CN)@, and hasspread to cities across the country Farticipants include students, the unemployed,

union members, proessionals, and others who are ed up with corporate greed andthe widening gap between the rich and the poor ?hey are rustrated by highunemployment and the erosion o worker's salaries, benefts, and rights-Under ederal law, willul violation that results in a worker's death is amisdemeanor with a maimum prison sentence o < months

$* K F9(BL@G) EC @DU$+?E(C-)chool violence, high school graduates unable to solve math or write propersentences, college grads ill prepared or corporations that demand literate,articulate, inormed employees teachers leave ob because o uncontrollable


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discipline problems, inadeAuate pay, overcrowded classrooms students andteachers =dumbing down>, lowering their standards, epectations, and roleperormances to ft increasingly undemanding and unresponsive systems olearning-@ducation panaceaP Enstitution is riddled with problems so how can it be solution toother social problems

J?he ;lobal $ontet $ross-$ultural Iariations in @ducation-En reality, many societies have no ormal mechanism or educating the masses 1 in6 adults cannot read or write---8/3s are women-@ducation at a ;lance---a publication o the (rgani!ation or @conomic $ooperation%($@D& reports education statistics on over 36 countries En general, educationlevels are rising but large numbers %367& do not graduate rom tertiary institutions%less than 147 in Luembourg to over


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-Gulticultural @ducation 0 education that includes all racial and ethnic groups in theschool curriculum promotes awareness and appreciation or cultural diversity)orting Endividuals into )tatuses-provide credentials or individuals who achieve various levels o education atvarious schools within the system )chools sort individuals into proessional statusesby awarding degrees in various felds ?he higher one's education, the higher one's

income %prestige&$ustodial $are-providing supervision and care or children and adolescents until they are 1K yearsold-)ome school districts are increasing the number o school hours and days beyond=traditional schedule> 844< @panded Learning ?ime Enitiative adds an additional344 hours o learning over the course o a school year by having longer and moreschool days %Farents sue over mandatory year round schedules& 8442 Corth$arolina )upreme $ourt held that a school system does not need parentalpermission to assign students to year-round schools$on.ict Ferspective-the educational institution solidifes the class positions o groups and allows the

elite to control masses-+lthough the oHcial goal o education in society is to provide a universalmechanism or achievement, in reality, educational opportunities and the Auality oeducation are not eAually distributed-?he sociali!ation unction o education is really indoctrination into a capitalistideology )tudents are sociali!ed to value the interests o the state and to unctionto sustain it %begins in kindergarten&-Qanter coined term organi!ation child---reers to the child in nursery school who ismost comortable with supervision, guidance, and adult control ?eachers cultivatethe organi!ation child by providing daily routines and rewarding those who conormEn essence, teachers train uture bureaucrats to be obedient to authority-@ducation serves as a mechanism or cultural imperialism 0 or the indoctrination

into the dominant culture o society When cultural imperialism eists, the norms,values, traditions, and languages o minorities are systematically ignored-Learning is increasingly a commercial enterprise as corporations anious tobombard students with advertising and other procapitalist messages und necessaryfnancial support or eAuipment, laboratories, and technological upgrades%Golnar&?he economic recession o the last several years appears to have resultedin intensifed corporate marketing e"orts in schools, as parents, teachers, andadministrators welcome =partnerships> that they think may help avoid programcuts-%Qo!ol& called =saveage ineAualities> in education that perpetuate racial disparitiesQo!ol documented gross ineAuities in the Auality o education in poorer districts,largely composed o minorities, compared with districts that serve predominantlywhite middle-class and upper middle class amilies )chools in poor districts tend toreceive less unding and to have inadeAuate acilities, books, materials, eAuipment,and personnel)ymbolic Enteractionist-micro-level eamination o education individual and small-group issues, such asteacher-student interactions and sel-ulflling prophecy

?eacher-)tudent Enteractions

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-Ways that students and teachers view and relate to each other $hildren romeconomically advantaged homes may be more likely to bring to the classroom socialand verbal skills that elicit approval rom teachers ?eachers like to teach middle-class children, un and easy, they grasp material Auickly and do their homework andvalue the educational process $hildren rom disadvantaged homes bring ewersocial and verbal skills and teacher disapproval may lower sel-esteem o

disadvantaged)el-#ulflling Frophecy-occurs when people act in a manner consistent with the epectations o others

?eacher may act to make student perorm at lower level-9osenthal and :acobsen---provided empirical evidence o the sel-ulflling prophecyin the public school system Because the teachers epected the =spurters> to dowell, they treated the students in a way that encouraged better school perormanceJWho )ucceedsP ?he EneAuality o @ducational +ttachment-@ducational ineAuality is based on social class and amily background, race andethnicity, and gender @ach o these actors in.uences who succeeds in school Gostpeople have high school completion)ocial $lass and #amily Background

-(ne o the best predictors o educational success is socioeconomic status $hildreno middle and upper socioeconomic brackets are more likely to perorm better inschool and to complete more years o education than children rom lowersocioeconomic statuses Using ather's education as a proy or socioeconomicstatus, global statistics indicate that students are more likely to attend college itheir athers graduated rom college---more than twice as likely in +ustria, ;ermany,#rance, @ngland-)ocioeconomic status predicts academic achievement (n standardi!ed tests,children rom low income amilies have the lowest average test scores, with anincremental rise in amily income associated with a rise in test scores-Guller and )chiller reported that students rom higher socioeconomic backgroundsare more likely to enroll in advanced courses or math credit and to graduate rom

high school-)tudents rom high income amilies %compared to low and middle& are more likelyto attend college and complete it-Foor children who attend high-Auality preschools are less likely to drop out, repeatgrades, or need special education and as adults are less likely to commit crimes,more likely to be employed, and likely to have higher earnings %But wealthier aremore likely to access preschool&-Low income amilies have ewer resources to commit to educational purposes---lessmoney or books or computers or tutors Disadvantaged parents are less involved inlearning activities +s parental education and income increases, likelihood o parenttaking child to library, play, concert, show, art museum, etc increases #urther,parents who have less education and lower income are less likely to be involved inschool activities*ead )tart and @arly *ead )tart-*ead )tart began to help preschool children rom most disadvantaged homesprovides an integrated program o health care, parental involvement, education,and social services ;raduates score better on intelligence and achievement tests,health status is better, and have socio-emotional traits to help them adust toschool

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-@arly *ead )tart---program or inants and toddlers rom low-income amilieschildren perorm better in cognitive, language, and social-emotional developmentimpacts on aspects o parenting and home environment supported parents'progress toward economic sel-suHciency-#ederal stimulus dollars increased unding or education %but can't entirelycompensate& Gost state revenues remain lower than in pre-recession years ?he

result is cuts in state education budgets-Local dollars %57 school unding& varies by socioeconomic status o the district@ Local ependitures on schools come rom taes %property& and as housing pricesdecline, property taes decline-$onseAuences o U) system o decentrali!ed unding or schools %1& )chooldistricts with low socioeconomic status are more likely to be in urban areas and ininner cities where the value o older and dilapidated houses have depreciated lessdesirable neighborhoods hurt by white .ight, with the result that the ta base orlocal schools is lower in deprived areas %8& )chool districts with low socioeconomicstatus are less likely to have businesses or retail outlets where revenues aregenerated such businesses have closed or moved away %3& Because o theirproimity to the downtown area, school districts with low socioeconomic status are

more likely to include hospitals, museums, and art galleries, all o which are ta-ree ?hese properties do not generate revenues %5& Ceighborhoods with lowsocioeconomic status are oten in need o the greatest share o city services freand police protection, sanitation, and public housing consume the bulk o theavailable revenues Frecious little is let over or education in these districts %6& Enschool districts with low socioeconomic status, a disproportionate amount o themoney has to be spent on maintaining the school acilities, which are old and inneed o repair, and on ree or reduced-priced lunches, so less is available or thechildren themselves-+lthough states provide additional unding to supplement local taes, this is notalways enough to lit schools that are poor to wealthy standards Leandro v )tate---held that the state constitution reAuired that all schools must provide adeAuate

resources to ully educate disadvantaged students, those who are poor, in specialeducation, and have limited @nglish skills Net schools do poor ob educating9ace and @thnicity-12K2-8442 percent o minorities increased in public schools *ispanic students arethe astest growing minority in U) schools-$ompared to whites, *ispanics and blacks less likely to succeed in school at almostevery level +lthough educational attainment has increased over time, racial andethnic disparities remain ?he high school graduation gap between ethnic groups isnarrowing the college gap is getting wider with whites and +sians on one side and*ispanics and Blacks on the other-)ocioeconomic status interacts with race and ethnicity Because race and ethnicityare so closely tied to socioeconomic status % ie a disproportionate number o racialand ethnic minorities are poor&, it appears that race or ethnicity determines schoolsuccess +lthough race and ethnicity may have an independent e"ect oneducational achievement, their relationship is largely a result o the associationbetween race and ethnicity and socioeconomic status-En addition, there are reasons why minorities have academic diHculty #irst, theymight be @nglish language learners %over 67 )panish& @LL students core belownon-@LL students on standardi!ed tests -Bilingual education 0 teaches children inboth @nglish and their non-@nglish native language results in better academic

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perormance o minorities by eposing them to di"erent languages and cultures,and enhances the sel-esteem o minority students $ritics argue that it limitsminority students and places them at disadvantage when they compete outside theclassroom, reduces @nglish skills o minorities, costs money, and leads to hostilitywith other minorities who are also competing or scarce resources )econd, manytests used to assess academic achievement and ability are biased against

minorities %usually white middle-class maority culture Auestions appear& ?hird,overt racism and discrimination takes orm o uneAual unding, racial profling, andschool segregation, which all hinder perormance-Ginority students %blacks& may be victims o =learning while black> Ganysuspended in school and more so than whites/*ispanics Di"erences in disciplinepatterns are not necessarily a conseAuence o racism they may re.ect di"erencesin behavior)chool Desegregation-Brown v Board o @ducation ruled that segregated education was unconstitutionalbecause it was inherently uneAual @Auality o @ducational (pportunity---revealedthat almost K47 o all U) schools attended by whites contained 147 or ewerblacks and that with eception o +sian +mericans, whites outperormed minorities

on standardi!ed tests $oleman emphasi!ed that the only way to achieve Aualityeducation or all racial groups was to desegregate schools %integration hypothesisRadvocated busing to achieve racial balance&-)till, public schools remain segregated Gost black and *ispanic U) studentsattend schools that are predominantly minority in enrollment Desegregated schoolshave no negative achievement e"ect on whites, tends to have positive e"ects onblack and *ispanic students in terms o learning and graduation rates-844 )upreme $ourt said that public school systems cannot seek to achieve ormaintain integration through measures that take eplicit account o a student's race%socioeconomic/income based integration rather than race-based& Qahlenberg likedthis approach %1& socioeconomic integration more directly and e"ectively achievesthe frst aim o racial integration raising the achievement o students %8&

)ocioeconomic integration, because o the relationship between race and income,achieves racial integration and racial integration in turn osters racial tolerance andsocial cohesion %3& Unlike race-based integration that is subect to scrutiny by thegovernment, school assignments based on socioeconomic status are perectly legalBut many schools remain under ederal oversight as reAuired by old racialdesegregation cases-Despite desegregation, some school districts are reverting to traditional methods ostudent assignment %neighborhood schools& %C++$F has acted to prevent this&;ender-Women comprise 8/3 o world's illiterate girls comprise more than 47 who don'tattend school Frogress in gender gap being made but gender parity in primary andsecondary schools has not been achieved ;lobally only 8/3 countries achievedgender parity in primary schools and less than 547 have achieved gender parity insecondary schools-*istorically, U) schools have discriminated against women Beore 1K34s U)colleges accepted only male students 1K33 (berlin $ollege frst to admit women-12


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?his also sought to end se discrimination in granting admission to college andawarding fnancial aid ?he title also called or an increase in opportunities oremale athletes by making more unds available to their programs-+lthough gender ineAuality continues to be problem worldwide, the U) has hadconsiderable e"ect En 124, nearly twice as many men as women had our years ocollege or more both increased later to about 347 men and women having our

years o college or more )cores on the Cational +ssessment o @ducationalFrogress %C+@F& eam indicate that the gender gap in both math and reading scoreshas decreased over the last ew decades Where di"erences eist, boys outscoregirls in math, girls outscore boys in reading (n )+?, males outperorm emales,with the largest achievement gap on the math portion-?raditionally, gender gap in achievement has been eplained by di"erences ingender role sociali!ation But recently, popular portrayals o male and emaledi"erences in achievement have been attributed to =hardwiring> as though thereare =pink and blue brains> @liot---the gaps vary by age, ethnicity, and nationality EnFE)+, reading gap is more than twice as large in some countries as in others ormath, the gap ranges rom a large male advantage in certain countries toessentially no gap in other countries or even reversed in girl's avor FE)+ showed

that higher emale perormance in math correlates with higher levels o gendereAuity in individual nations-Gost research on gender ineAuality in schools ocuses how emale students aredisadvantaged But what about malesP +lthough they oten achieve higher scoreson standardi!ed tests, boys are more likely to lag behind girls in the classroom, bediagnosed with +D*D, have learning disabilities, eel alienated rom the learningprocess, and drop out or be epelled rom school +lso, black males compared towhite males score lower on C+@F, are less likely to take +F classes, and more likelyto be in special education classes, and are less likely to graduate rom high schoolor college-?he problems boys have in school may reAuire schools to devote more resourcesand attention to them but not always possible due to economic crisis

JFroblems in the +merican @ducational )ystem-What grade to give nations public schoolsP $T :ust average@ducational 9esearch$enter %@9$& annual assessment o U) education---


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countries ?he international achievement gap widens the longer children are inschool and is not merely an issue or poor children attending schools in poorneighborhoods instead, it a"ects most children in most schools ?he internationalachievement gap a"ects individuals and communities and costs the economymillions o dollars in lost human potential)chool Dropouts

-?he status dropout rate---percentage o 1< to 85 year olds that are not in schooland have not earned a high school degree or its eAuivalent En last several decadesthe status dropout rate has declined )tatus dropout rates were higher or *ispanicsthan or blacks and whites Dropout rates vary by race and ethnicity and nativityand gender Gales have higher dropout rates than emales-)tudents rom lower socioeconomic backgrounds who have only one parent in thehome and who have changed schools reAuently are more likely to drop out Bill;ates ound that maor reasons or dropping out included %1& classes were notinteresting %8& missed too many days and can't catch up %3& spent time with peoplewho were not interested in school %5& had too much reedom and not enough rules%6& was ailing in school-#ormer students asked what could be done to improve a student's chances o

remaining in school K17 responded =opportunities or real world learning to makeclassrooms more relevant> and =better teachers who keep classes interesting>(ther responses were smaller classes and more individual attention, bettercommunication between parents and schools, and increased supervision at homeand at school to ensure students attend classes-?he economic and social conseAuences o dropping out o school are signifcantGany children drop out o high school every year, reducing ta revenues andincreasing societal costs or public assistance, crime, and health care )omeprograms are successul in reducing dropout rate )uccessul dropout preventionprograms share these in common %1& management o students %8& mentoring %3&amily involvement %5& curricular reorm %6& contending with out o school problems-)econd-chance initiatives such as ;eneral @ducational Development %;@D&

certifcation allow students to complete their high school reAuirements (r early ormiddle-school college programs allow dropouts to enroll in community colleges or 5year degree programs there they receive a secondary school education, earn a *)diploma and get college credits-)tereotype threat 0 tendency or minorities and women to perorm poorly on high-stakes tests because o the aniety created by ear that a poor perormance willvalidate negative societal stereotypes-@it eams caused lower achieving students to have higher dropout rates and thenegative e"ect o eit eam was stronger or minority and emale students than ornonminority and male students, even when levels o academic achievement wereheld constant$rime, Iiolence, )chool Discipline-?he chance o a student dying at school is Auite rare %1 homicide/suicide per 86 milstudents& )tudents eel 237 sae at school-K67 o schools in 844/4K report at least one violent crime En the nation, thenumber o school-related nonviolent o"enses eceeded the number o school-related violent o"enses Cearly hal o all schools reported a thet %1 mil thets inall& )chools that eperienced higher-than-average rates o school related violentcrime were disproportionately public versus private schools, in poor urbanneighborhoods, and were more likely to have gang-related activity

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-Discipline problems such as verbal abuse o teachers, disorder in classrooms,disrespect or teachers, fghting, insubordination, and use o drugs/alcohol are oconcern )uspension lasting more than fve days, epulsion, and transer to analternative school are the most serious disciplinary actions available En 844-844K5


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-+merican #ederation o ?eachers %+#?& has documented many troubling conditionsin U) schools-(lder schools need more help than newer ones and oten they are located indisadvantaged neighborhoods $ourts said that the Auality o building acilities ispart o eAual educational opportunities resulting in government monitoring o statespending on inrastructure needs to ensure eAuitable distributions o unds

-?here is evidence that documents the relationship between school environmentand academic achievement Gilkie and Warner---conclude that students' stresslevels are negatively impacted by deteriorated school acilities ?anner---controlledor socioeconomic status and ound that school environment a"ects a child's abilityto learn, a teacher's ability to teach, and a sta" member's ability to be e"ective-;reen )chools 0 education buildings that operate in harmony with naturalenvironment they reduce energy use by using natural and solar light theyconserve water and use recycled materials reduce air pollution and ecessivenoise enhance indoor climate control )uch innovations reduce absenteeism,increase student perormance and teacher retention, and save money-)pecial education programs pose another problem or school systems Beore 122when Endividuals with Disabilities @ducation %ED@+& was adopted, more than 1 mil

students ecluded rom public schools With implementation o ED@+ in 8445, morethan through the public schools-+lthough number o special education students in private settings is estimated tobe ust over 17, fnancially strapped school districts may fnd it diHcult to a"ordhigh costs o private school placement or these students +lso, Black +merican

students %males& are disproportionately placed in special education programs thatcontribute to their comparatively low high school graduation rates Gany teachersare opting to leave special education classrooms or traditional classrooms or topursue di"erent felds entirely With lack o certifed teachers in this area, ashortage has occurred in nation and this a"ects the Auality o special education-+ll students, whether in regular or special education classes, are reAuired by law tohave a ree and appropriate education ?his means special education classesreceive a higher Auality/more individuali!ed education than mainstream students inovercrowded classrooms9ecruitment and 9etention o uality ?eachers-)chool districts with inadeAuate unding and acilities, low salaries, lack ocommunity support, and minimal proessional development have diHcultyattracting and retaining Aualifed school personnel U) Dep't o @ducation says thenumber o schoo lteachers leaving the proession has increased over last 84 years

?eachers leaving tend to be at either end o the eperience curriculum %less than 3to 84V years&-*igh teacher turnover is problematic because %1& newer teachers are lesseperienced and oten less e"ective %8& teacher turnover contributes to a lack ocontinuity in programs and educational reorms %3& recruiting and training epensesin addition to the time and e"ort devoted to replacing teachers is considerable

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-Bill ;ates concludes that the key to a good education hinges on the Auality oteachers in the classroom But in the U), Aualifed/eperienced teachers are noteAually distributed across all school districts )ince teacher salaries are the largestcomponent o a school district's costs, poor school districts have less money tocompete or Aualifed teachers ?hus, they are more likely to employ beginningteachers with less than three years o eperience and are more likely to assign

these teachers to areas outside their specialty Qnowledge o subect taught is oneo the key characteristics o an e"ective teacher #urther, students in poorer schooldistricts are twice as likely to be taught by substitute teachers, and have lesse"ective teachers than students in more wealthy districts-9ecruiting/retaining teachers in poverty-level school districts is crucial to thesuccess o its students *anushek says i a child rom a poor amily has a goodteacher or fve consecutive years, the achievement gap between that child and achild rom a higher income amily would be closed Because minority studentsdisproportionately populate poor school districts, it is also important to recruit andretain teachers who meet the needs o children rom diverse backgrounds and ovarying abilities ?he number o minority teachers who can serve as role models,have similar lie eperiences, and have similar language and cultural backgrounds is

ar too ew or the number o minority students-9ecruiting and retaining Auality teachers may be more diHcult with recentemphasis on accountability and value-added measurement %I+G& 0 the use ostudent achievement data to assess teacher e"ectiveness )tates are reAuired touse I+G to receive 9ace to the ?op unds rom the ederal government )ome sayAuantitative measures o accountability are an evil in time o budget shortalls$ritics o I+G also say that assessing teachers based on student perormanceassumes all else constant and ignores the reality o student di"erences in nonschoolactors, like amily, lie, poverty, emotional and physical obstacles, etc #urther,there are concerns that teachers, earing or their obs and concerned about merit-based pay, may begin =teaching to the test>-


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-?o meet demands o placing teachers in classrooms while acing teacher shortagesdue to baby boomer retirements, states now allow skilled proessional who have aninterest in teaching but did not receive a teaching degree to enter the teachingproession %lateral entry&---allows the person to obtain a lateral entry teachinglicense while actually teaching in the classroom Gore than hal o states haveadopted alternative certifcation programs ---college graduates with degrees in

felds other than education can become certifed i they have =lie eperience> inindustry, the military, or other relevant obs-?each or +merica %?#+& is an alternative teacher education program with the aim orecruiting liberal arts graduates into teaching positions in economically deprivedand socially disadvantaged schools $ritics o ?#+ argue that it may placeunprepared personnel in schools But an analysis o ?#+ teachers vs traditionalteachers concludes that ?#+ teachers are more e"ective in the classroom thantraditional teachers as measured by student achievement

?he $hallenges o *igher @ducation in +merica-higher education X 8,5, year, public/private degree granting institutions Between1225 and 844K, enrollment in degree-granting institutions increased by 357Because o unemployment rates and the increase in college-age population,

enrollments epected to grow another 17 by 8412 #ull time students %women,younger students, minorities, and students enrolled in 5 year schools& havedisproportionately contributed to the dramatic enrollment growth-(ver the last decade, there has been a signifcant decrease in ull-time tenured ortenure track aculty, once the =core> o academia, and signifcant increases innoninstructional sta" and nontenure rack, part or ull time instructors + survey ocollege and university presidents reveals that only 857 would preer that most otheir aculty be tenured, the maority wishing to rely rather on annual or long-termcontracts-+s number o students attending college has increased, so have the costsassociated with getting a college degree +bout


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economic considerations should not drive economic policy proponents argue thatan economic crisis must be met with innovation-?he present administration has made a commitment to several higher-educationprograms Fell ;rants, #irst in the World Frogram---helps ensure that U) hashighest proportion o college graduates o any country in the world by 8484,strengthen *B$U, and money to enhance academic Auality, institutional

management, fscal stability, and sel-suHciency o colleges and universities thatenroll large percentages o *ispanic studentsJ)trategies or +ction ?rends and Ennovations in +merican @ducation-improving education as a top priority 9ecent attempts to improve raisinggraduation reAuirements, barring students rom participating in etracurricularactivities i they are ailing academic subects, lengthening the school day,prohibiting dropouts rom obtaining driver's licenses, implementing year-roundschooling, and etending the number o years permitted to complete a high schooldegree @ducational reormers on both sides o the political aisle continue to call orchanges that go beyond these get-tough policies that some say simply maintain thestatus AuoCational @ducational Folicy

-(bama, a Auarter o +merican students aren't fnishing high school, math andscience in U) lags compared to other nations, +merica has allen to 2thin theproportion o young people with a college degree ?here is evidence o bothsignifcant changes and =things as they were> politicsCo $hild Let Behind-C$LB act ederally unded plan was organi!ed around 5 principles %1&accountability or learning outcomes %8& .eibility in unding %3& epanding schooloptions or parents %5& use o sound teaching methods, highly Aualifed teachers-Emplementation o C$LB was problematic +ccountability e"orts reAuired that tomake adeAuate yearly progress %+NF&, the actor by which a school is measured, allstudent groups must attain a set level o achievement in reading and math E onestudent group does not reach the set levels, the entire school receives a ailing

grade and is in danger o being severely sanctioned Because o disparities betweenstudent groups, the C$LB regulations were changed to allow or alternative testingo students who were disabled or had limited @nglish profciency deadlines ormaking +NF in reading and math were etended to 8415 or all states $ritics alsoargue that it unairly burdens the states, which must absorb the fnancial cost o itsprovisions ?he Cational @ducation +ssociation, the largest organi!ation o teachersin the nation, oined schools in several districts to bring the frst ederal lawsuitagainst the U) Dep't o @ducation or ailing to provide unding or C$LB initiatives

?he U) $ourt o +ppeals held in avor o the government, fnding that =whetherone is a school district, teacher, principal, or state education agency, one cannotlawully reuse to comply with C$LBby arguing there are insuHcient ederal undsto meet the reAuirements o the law-@mpirical tests o C$LB are mied *all and Qennedy indicate that overallachievement gains were ound in elementary schools But picture in middle andhigh schools less clear although minority and low-income students showedachievement gains, whites and higher-income students showed more dramaticgains, thus increasing the achievement gap between the two Braun, $hapman, andIe!!u conclude that the black-white achievement gap remains considerably largeand has only modestly been reduced by the mandated high-stakes testing o C$LBDemarest observes that over the decade that C$LB was law, that test scores in the

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U) have not signifcantly improved in recent years, the achievement gap has notclosed, and other developed nations have continued to build their educationalcapacity and surpass U) perormance on international assessments-8414 (bama issued his blueprint or educational reorm, which includesreauthori!ation o the @lementary and )econdary @ducation +ct %@)@+& $omparingC$LB to the @)@+ indicates ;reater .eibility or state and local education leaders

to institute needed changes less o a punitive ocus on testing and accountabilityand a greater emphasis on student growth and school progress greateracknowledgement, support, and investment in teachers more attention to undingeAuity and investment in low-perorming schools greater use o data-driven,evidence-based interventions and instructional models increased standards toensure a =complete education> or all childrenCational )tandards-?he Cational ;overnor's +ssociation and the $ouncil o $hie )tate )chool (Hcershave led the move to adopt a common set o academic standards %$ommon $ore)tandards& ?he initiative was motivated by concerns that students in di"erentstates were not eAually being prepared or postsecondary education and/or obs inthe global workorce

-)tates that have adopted the common core standards are eligible to receive undsrom the 9ace to the ?op initiative, part o a unding scheme under the ederalstimulus package Gember states o the Cational $ommon $ore )tate )tandardsEnitiative are drating @nglish and math standards#iscal )tabili!ation-+lthough the +merican 9ecovery and 9evitali!ation +ct o 8442 provided neededunds or =fscal stabili!ation>, they were not without strings ?o receive the undsstates had to show improvements in 5 specifc areas low-perorming schools, datasystems, teacher e"ectiveness, and standards and assessments> %these our areasare called the our assurances- a state's commitment to improving teacher Auality,raising academic standards, intervening in ailing schools, and developingassessment databases in return or ederal dollars&

-?he frst annual report o fscal stabili!ation unds reveals several results %1& )chooldistricts spend most o their stabili!ation unds on salaries and employee benefts%, including everything rom paying utility bills to buying tetbooksand computers %847& ?he remaining two categories included carrying over unds tothe ollowing school year and construction, moderni!ation, and inrastructurerepairs %17& Despite stabili!ation e"orts, budget shortalls in many states andschool districts have lead to teacher layo"s, increased class si!es, canceled capitalimprovement proects, and the elimination o needed programs$haracter @ducation and )ervice Learning-$heating is a airly common event among students in the U)-$haracter @ducation 0 emphasi!es the moral and ethical aspects o an individualability to develop ust and caring relationships, contribute to the community, andassume the responsibilities o democratic citi!enship Despite academicachievement, knowledge without character is potentially devastating-(bama's educational reorm policy includes dollars or epanding and redefningcharacter education ;overnment analyses o research on established charactereducation programs indicate that classroom activities designed to teach =corevalues> are relatively ine"ective in producing the desired student outcomes #ederalunds have been redirected to a more broadly conceived notion o character

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education administered through the )ae and Drug-#ree )chools and $ommunitiesCational Frograms-)ervice learning programs, one type o character education, are increasinglypopular at universities and colleges nationwide ?hey are community-basedinitiatives in which students volunteer in the community and receive academiccredit or doing so ?hey increase academic perormance, promote =hands-on>

learning, enhance civic engagement and moral reasoning, reduce the likelihood orisky behaviors, and increase sel-esteem-@dward G Qennedy )erve +merica +ct 8442---creates several programs to increasestudent participation in service activities, and is hoped to increase the participationo volunteers in +meri$orps and similar programs )ummer o )ervice pays middleand high school students M644 toward college tuition or 144 hours o communityservice, and Nouth @ngagement Oones, which partners schools and communityorgani!ations to acilitate community service by secondary school studentsUse o $omputer ?echnology and @-Learning-$omputers in class allow students to access large amounts o inormationFrolieration o computers may mean that teachers will become acilitators andcoaches rather than sole providers o inormation $omputers allow students to

progress at their own pace $omputers are not eAually accessible to all studentsand access varies by parents' education, income, and race/ethnicity )ome researchindicates that having a computer in the home decreases student math and readingscores-(bama =?ransorming +merican @ducation Learning Fowered by ?echnology>---outlines his administration's national education technology plan ?he goals o =ed-tech> are to increase student achievement using technology and to createtechnologically literate students by the end o Kthgrade Et also integratestechnology into the classroom through both teacher training and curriculumdevelopment to establish innovative, research-based instructional methods that canbe widely implemented-@-learning 0separates the student and the teacher by time and/or place ?hey are

connected by some communication technology though )ome classes have blendedlearning---a mi o online and traditional ace-to-ace learning En 844K, over amillion Q-18 students took online courses 67 o the school districts o"ered onlineor blended courses school districts depended on multiple online service providersonline learning meets specifc needs o students online learning provides coursesthat simply would not be available to students otherwise %most important last twostatements&-+lthough low in rank, fnancial considerations were identifed as a beneft o onlineeducation and may increasingly be so in the ace o unding cuts-(nline education oten serves a segment o the population that would nototherwise be able to attend school---older, married, ull-time employees, and peoplerom remote areas ?hus, the number o public school online course o"erings ishigher in rural areas than in towns, cities, or urban areas )ome research suggeststhat online learning benefts those who have been historically disadvantaged in theclassroom Denuei and Dodge indicate that emales in a blended course were morelikely to use a learning management system than males, and to signifcantlyoutperorm them as measured by fnal grades in an introductory psychology class

?he Debate over )chool $hoice-?raditionally, children have gone to school in the district where they live )choolvouchers, charter schools, private schools, and home schooling provide parents with

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alternative school choices or their children )chool vouchers 0 are ta credits thatare transerred to the public or private school that parents select or their childIouchers in general are opposed by (bama administration-Froponents o voucher system argue that it increases the Auality o schools bycreating competition or students ?hose who oppose the voucher system argue thatit will drain needed unds and the best students away rom public schools #orster

concluded that vouchers improve pubic schools no empirical studies fnd thatvouchers harm public schools-(pponents argue that vouchers increase segregation because white parents usethe vouchers to send their children to private schools with ew minorities, and thatthe use o vouchers or religious schools violates the constitutional guarantee oseparation o church and state ?he U) )upreme $ourt, in reviewing the voucherprogram in $leveland, (hio, held that the use o ta dollars or enrollment inreligious schools is not unconstitutional-Iouchers can be used or charter schools 0 originate in contracts, or charters, whicharticulate a plan o instruction that local or state authorities must approve +lthoughoundations, universities, private beneactors, and entrepreneurs can und charterschools, many are supported by ta dollars 8444-8442 the number o students

attending charter schools increased (ver the same time period, number o charterschools whose student bodies were at least 67 poor increased rom 13 to 34percent En contrast to traditional schools, over hal o charter schools are in largecities-$harter schools, like school vouchers, were designed to epand schooling optionsand to increase the Auality o education through competition Like vouchers, charterschools have come under heavy criticism or increasing school segregation,reducing public school resources, and stealing away top students Froponents%(bama and Duncan& argue that charter schools encourage innovation and reorm,and increase student learning outcomes- + recent analysis o CN$ charter schools indicates that when compared totraditional public schools, charter schools disproportionately underserved *ispanic

and immigrant children, special education students, @nglish language learners, andchildren rom the lowest socioeconomic classes Because charter schools in CN$ canbe run by or-proft frms, the report also notes that management ees and chargesar eceed those o traditional public schools ?he report concludes that the growtho the charter sector will only eacerbate eisting ineAuities-+nother school choice parents can make is to send their children to a privateschool ?he primary reason parents send their children to private schools is orreligious instruction ?he second most common reason is the belie that privateschools are superior to public schools in terms o academic achievement $ontraryto epectations, there is evidence that public school students air as well or betteracademically as private school students Lubienski and Lubienski, using Cational+ssessment o @ducational Frogress %C+@F& data, report that math scores or publicschool students were higher than mathematics scores or private school studentsFarents also choose private schools or their children to have greater control overschool policy, avoid busing, or to obtain a specifc course o instruction, such asdance or music-)ome parents choose not to send their children to school at all but to teach them athome 844, 16 mil were homeschooled, maority 7 were white ?he three mostcommon reasons given by parents or homeschooling include the need or religiousand moral instruction, avoidance o the negative environment o public schools, and

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concerns over the Auality o instruction in public schools )ome evidence suggeststhat homeschooled children perorm as well as or better than their public schoolchildren counterparts-+rum and 9oska conclude that almost hal o college students made no signifcantimprovement in a variety o academic skills including critical thinking, complereasoning, and writing %ail to learn&

JUnderstanding Froblems in @ducation-$entury ago, U) had no systematic public education system at all %actories andarm work whatever education they received was rom amily or religiousinstitution&-mid 1K44s *orace Gann advocated mandatory education or all U) children 1K68the frst compulsory education laws in the U) were passed, reAuiring school-agedchildren to attend 18 weeks o school each year By World War E, every statemandated primary school education and by World War EE, secondary education wascompulsory too-*orace Gann dreamed o education as =balanced wheel o social machinery>,eAuali!ing social di"erences among members o an immigrant nation-Like Big Gacs, children are begin packaged in one-si!e-fts-all wrappers--- with

learning to think, eplore, Auestion, and debate being replaced by worksheets andstandardi!ed tests Qohn, pedagogy o poverty or Gc@ducation o the Cegro%*opkinson& 9avitch notes the present reorm movement that once was an e"ort toimprove the Auality o education has turned into an accounting strategy

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$*2- 9ace, @thnicity, and Emmigration

-?he election o Barack (bama represents a milestone in U) history, has ushered ina new era o hope or minorities +lso, )onia )otomayor sworn in as frst *ispanic)upreme $ourt :ustice But U) continues to be a nation where racial and ethnicminorities, as well as mied couples, are treated unairly-minority group 0 category o people who have uneAual access to positions opower, prestige, and wealth in a society and who tend to be targets o preudice anddiscrimination Ginority status is not based on numerical representation in societybut rather on social status +lthough *ispanic individuals outnumber non *ispanicwhites in $aliornia, ?eas, and Cew Geico, they are considered a minority becausethey are underrepresented in positions o power, prestige, and wealth, and they aretargets o preudice and discrimination-We ocus on preudice and discrimination, their conseAuences or racial and ethnic

minorities, and strategies to reduce these problems +lso we look at issues o U)immigration, because immigrants oten bear the double burden o being minoritiesand oreigners who are not welcomed by many native-born +mericans We begin byeamining racial and ethnic diversity worldwide and in the U), emphasi!ing frstthat the concept o race is based on social rather than biological defnitionsJ?he ;lobal $ontet Diversity Worldwide-Like apples, humans can be similar on the inside but they are oten classifed intocategories according to eternal appearance +ter eamining the socialconstruction o race and ethnicity, we review patterns o interaction among racialand ethnic groups and eamine racial and ethnic diversity in the U)

?he )ocial $onstruction o 9ace and @thnicity-Garger---race is one o the most misunderstood, misused, and oten dangerous

concepts o the modern world ?he term race has been used to describe people o aparticular nationality, religion, skin color, and even the entire human species$onusion around the term race stems rom the act that it has both biological andsocial meanings9ace as a Biological $oncept-9ace reers to a classifcation o people based on hereditary physical characteristicslike skin color, hair teture, si!e/shape o eyes, lips, and nose But there is noscientifc basis %no blood test or genetic test& that reveals a person's race ?here arealso no clear guidelines or distinguishing racial categories on the basis o visibletraits )kin color is not black or white but rather ranges rom dark to light withdi"erent shades Coses are not broad or narrow but come in a range o shapesFhysical traits come in an infnite number o combinations-+nother problem with race as a biological concept is that the physical traits used tomark a person's race are arbitrary 9aces are not scientifcally valid because thereare no obective, reliable, meaningul criteria scientists can use to construct oridentiy racial groupings-?he science o genetics also challenges the biological notion o race ;eneticistshave discovered that the genes o any two unrelated people, chosen at randomrom around the globe, are 2227 alike Gost human genetic variation %K67& can beound between any two individuals rom the same group %racial/ethnic/religious&

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?hus, the vast maority o variation is within-group variation $lassiying people intodi"erent races ails to recogni!e that, over the course o human history, migrationand intermarriage have resulted in the blending o genetically transmitted traits-?o summari!e, races are unstable, unreliable, arbitrary, culturally created divisionso humanity ?his is why scientists have concluded that race, as scientifcally validbiological divisions o the human species, is fction, not act

9ace as a )ocial $oncept-Edea that race is socially created is important in understanding race rom asociological perspective ?he social construction o race means that =the actualmeaning o race lies not in people's physical characteristics, but in the historicaltreatment o di"erent groups and the signifcance that society gives to what isbelieved to di"erentiate so-called racial groups> ?he concept o race grew out osocial institutions and practices in which groups defned as =races> have beenenslaved or otherwise eploited-Feople learn to perceive others according to whatever racial classifcation systemeists in their culture )ystems o racial classifcation vary across societies andchange over time-Encorporating both biological and social meanings o race, we defne race- category

o people who are perceived to share distinct physical characteristics that aredeemed socially signifcant ?he signifcance o race is not biological but social andpolitical, because race is used to separate =us> rom =them> and becomes a basisor uneAual treatment o one group by another Despite the increasing acceptancethat there is no biological ustifcation or the concept o race, its social signifcancecontinues to be evident throughout the world@thnicity as a )ocial $onstruction-@thnicity 0 reers to a shared cultural heritage, nationality, or lineage and is also inpart socially constructed $an be distinguished on the basis o language, orms oamily structures and roles o amily members, religious belies and practices,dietary customs, orms o artistic epression, as well as national origin or origin oone's parents

-Ferson can say they are *ispanic----socially constructed ethnicityFatterns o 9acial and @thnic ;roup Enteraction-When two or more racial or ethnic groups come into contact, one o severalpatterns o interaction occurs these include genocide, epulsion, segregation,acculturation, pluralism, and assimilation Cot all patterns o interaction betweenracial and ethnic groups are destructive, but Frechtel says =@very human on thisearth, whether rom +rica, +sia, @urope, or the +mericas, has ancestors whosestories, rituals, ingenuity, language, and lie ways were taken away, enslaved,banned, eploited, twisted, or destroyed>-;enocide 0 the deliberate, systematic annihilation o an entire nation or people-@pulsion 0 a dominant group orces a subordinate group to leave the country or tolive only in designated areas o the country-)egregation 0 the physical separation o two groups in residence, workplace, andsocial unctions $an be de ure %by law& or de acto %in act& De ure segregation isillegal in U), but de acto segregation still eists in the tendency or racial andethnic groups to live and go to school in segregated neighborhoods-+cculturation 0 adopting the culture o a group di"erent rom the one in which aperson was originally raised Gay involve learning the dominant language, adoptingnew values and behaviors, and changing the spelling o the amily name

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)ometimes could be orced =stolen generation>Rchildren o mied descent %hal-caste& had been stolen rom their amilies and their culture-Fluralism 0 reers to a state in which racial and ethnic groups maintain theirdistinctness but respect each other and have eAual access to social resources-+ssimilation 0 the process by which ormerly distinct and separate groups mergeand become integrated as one Frimary assimilation occurs when members o

di"erent racial or ethnic groups are integrated in personal, intimate associations, aswith riends, amily, and spouses )econdary assimilation occurs when di"erentgroups become integrated in public areas and in social institutions, such asneighborhoods, schools, the workplace, and in government-+ssimilation is sometimes reerred to as the =melting pot> whereby di"erent groupscome together and contribute eAually to a new, common culture +lthough the U)has been reerred to as a melting pot, in reality, many minorities have beenecluded or limited in their cultural contributions to the predominant white +nglo-)aon Frotestant cultureJ9acial and @thnic ;roup Diversity in the United )tates-?he frst census in 124 divided the U) population into 5 groups ree white males,ree white emales, slaves, and other people %including blacks and Endians& ?o

increase the si!e o the slave population, the one-drop rule specifed that even onedrop o =negroid> blood defned a person as black and thereore eligible or slavery

?he one-drop rule is still operative today Biracial individuals are typically seen as amember o whichever group has the lowest status-12 1224, U) $ensusrecogni!ed 5 racial classifcations white, black, +merican Endian/+leut/@skimo, and+sian/Facifc Eslander, and other En 8444, the census had racial categoriesepanded to include Cative *awaiian or other Facifc Eslander, and also allowedindividuals the option o identiying themselves as being more than one race ratherthan checking only one racial category-+lthough U) citi!ens come rom a variety o ethnic backgrounds, the largest

ethnic population in the U) is o *ispanic origin ?he $ensus Bureau begancollecting data on the U) *ispanic population in 124-?he use o racial and ethnic labels is oten misleading and impreciseU) $ensus Data on 9ace and *ispanic (rigin-U) is becoming increasingly diverse #rom 8444 to 8414, percent o populationthat is non *ispanic white declined rom


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origins are not races>, many *ispanics identifed their race as =Latino>, =Geican>, =Fuerto 9ican>, =)alvadoran> or other ethnicity or national origin 9esponses to thecensus race Auestion that re.ected *ispanic origin were classifed in the category o=)ome (ther 9ace>-$urrently, racial and ethnic minority populations outnumber non-*ispanic whites inour statesR$aliornia, Cew Geico, *awaii and ?eas En these states, *ispanics are

the largest minority group, ecept or *awaii, where the largest minority group is+sian +merican +nd in 14 states, racial and ethnic minority youth outnumber non-*ispanic white youthGied-9ace Edentity-8414 census data ound that only a small percentage o U) population identiythemselves as being o more than one race But in 14 year period between 8444and 8414, the mied-race population has grown 38 percent +mong U) children,the multiracial population has grown almost 647, making it the astest-growingyouth group in the country-?he multiracial population has grown as mied-race marriages have increased overrecent years Until 12


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-#irst 144 years o U) history, all immigrants were allowed to enter and becomepermanent residents ?he continuing in.u o immigrants, especially those comingrom nonwhite, non-@uropean countries, created ear and resentment among native-born +mericans, who competed with immigrants or obs and who held racist viewstoward some racial and ethnic immigrant populations-+merica's open-door policy ended in 1KK8 with the $hinese @clusion +ct, which

suspended the entrance o the $hinese to the U) or 14 years and declared$hinese ineligible or U) citi!enship ?he Emmigration +ct o 121 reAuired allimmigrants to pass a literacy test beore entering the U) +nd in 1281, the :ohnson+ct introduced a limit on the number o immigrants who could enter the country in asingle year, with stricter limitations or certain countries %including those in +ricaand the Cear @ast& 1285 Emmigration +ct urther limited the number o immigrantsallowed into the U) and completely ecluded the :apanese (ther ederalimmigration laws include 1253 repeal o the $hinese @clusion +ct, 125K DisplacedFersons +ct %which permitted reugees rom @urope&, 1268 Emmigration andCationality +ct which permitted a Auota o :apanese immigrants&-En the 12;uest workers oten incur debts ranging rom M644 to more than M14,444 to pay orvisas, travel costs, and recruiter ees When they arrive at their obs, theiremployers oten take their identity documents %passport and )ocial )ecurity $ards&to ensure that workers do not leave beore their contract is ulflled ;uest workersare oten paid substantially less than the minimum wage and are rarely paid

overtime pay, despite working over 54 hours a week +lthough guest workersperorm some o the most diHcult and dangerous obs in +merica, many who areinured on the ob are unable to obtain medical treatment and workers'compensation benefts +lthough employers hiring *-8+ workers are reAuired toprovide them with ree housing, the Auality o housing is oten substandard, evendangerous, and located in isolated rural areas where workers are dependent ontheir employers or transportation to work, grocery stores, and banks %or whichemployers oten charge ees& )ometimes guest workers are literally locked up intheir living Auarters Emmigrant women working at low-wage obs are oten targetso seual violence 3/5 Latinas in the )outh view seual harassment as a maorworkplace problem Unable to obtain legal assistance, guest workers who areabused and denied their legal rights must endure the abuse or try to escape in aoreign land without passports, money, or tickets homeEllegal Emmigration-occurs when immigrants enter the U) without going through legal channels suchas the *-8 visa program, and when immigrants who were admitted legally stay pastthe date they were reAuired to leave +lthough the term illegal immigrants iscommonly used, we preer the terms unauthori!ed immigrants and undocumentedimmigrants, used interchangeably

8K


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-?he maority o undocumented immigrants %


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detentions, or arrests i the police suspect that person is in the country illegally Enresponse to criticism that the law would lead to racial profling among police, the+ri!ona law was modifed to speciy that law enorcement oHcials may not use race,color, or national origin as the basis o implementing the law )B 144 criminali!esanyone who transports undocumented immigrants, which, according to the law,constitutes =smuggling o human beings> ?his provision not only a"ects employers

who transport undocumented day laborers to the worksite, but also churchmembers who transport immigrants to church ?hus, a local church that transportsan undocumented immigrant or )unday service could be charged with amisdemeanor and have their church van impounded + church volunteer whotransports a group o 14 immigrants could be classifed as a elon and incur a M1444fne or each immigrant in the van-+lthough < in 14 adults approve o +ri!ona's )B 144, lot o public opposition seenby protests and boycotts + lawsuit fled by U) Dep't o :ustice argued that )B144 intereres with ederal immigration regulations :udge Bolton granted aninunction blocking key provisions o )B 144 rom going into e"ect, including themandate reAuiring police to check the immigration status o those apprehended orarrested +ri!ona has tried, unsuccessully to date, to reverse the inunction and

+ri!ona sued the ederal government or ailing to secure the border against thecontinued in.u o illegal immigrants-)outh $arolina enacted )B 84, which states that i a law enorcement oHcer stops,detains, arrests, or investigates someone or a criminal o"ense and has a=reasonable suspicion> that the person is not in the U) legally, the oHcer must askor proo o citi!enship in the orm o identifcation and documentation-+ri!ona's and )outh $arolina's immigration laws reAuire local and state police toplay an increased role in immigration enorcement ?ramonte says most state andlocal police do not want to be put in the position o identiying non-criminalimmigrants or deportation because they believe doing so would make it morediHcult or them to earn the trust o immigrant residents and protect the entirecommunity rom criminals En contrast to states that have take a hard-line approach

to illegal immigration, more than 4 cities have policies that prohibit police romasking local residents who have not been arrested to prove their legal immigrationstatus-$hurches, synagogues, and other religious institutions have also played a role inassisting undocumented immigrants +rellano took reuge in church but wasdeported-Debate concerning immigration policies involving illegal immigrants whose childrenare U) citi!ens Worksite raids and home raids by immigration oHcials haveresulted in the arrest, detention, and deportation o thousands o immigrants,leaving tens o thousands o children, including children who are U) citi!ens,separated rom their parents or e"ectively deported with their amilies-En a country that emphasi!es the importance o amily unity in the sociali!ation andupbringing o its children, an immigration system that promotes amily separation isa broken system )ome parents even lose legal custody o their children-Development, 9elie, and @ducation or +lien Ginors +ct %D9@+G +ct& introduced in$ongress in 8442, would provide a path to legal status or undocumentedimmigrants who were brought to the U) as children E passed, the D9@+G actwould permit certain immigrant students who have grown up in the U) to apply ortemporary legal status and to eventually obtain permanent status and becomeeligible or U) citi!enship i they go to college or serve in the U) military ?he law

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would also eliminate a ederal provision that penali!es states that provide in-statetuition to undocumented immigrants-Emmigration policies will continue to be hotly debated +lthough most +mericans%K7& support stronger enorcement o immigration laws and border security, themaority %87& also avors creating a path to citi!enship or illegal immigrantscurrently in the country

Becoming a U) $iti!en-8442 o all oreign born U) residents, 557 were naturali!ed citi!ens 0 immigrantswho applied and met the reAuirements or U) citi!enship 9eAuirements to becomea U) citi!en or most immigrants include %1& having resided as continuously as alawul permanent U) resident or at least fve years %three years or a spouse o aU) resident& %8& being able to read, write, speak, and understand basic @nglish %3&being a person o good moral character %can't have a record o criminal o"ensessuch as prostitution, illegal gambling, ailure to pay child support, drug violations,and violent crime& %5& demonstrating willingness to support and deend the U)constitution by taking the (ath o +llegiance %6& passing an eamination on @nglish%speaking, reading, and writing& and U) government and historyGyths about Emmigration and Emmigrants

-Gany oreign born U) residents work hard to succeed educationally andoccupationally ?he percentage o oreign-born adults %age 86 and older& with atleast a bachelor's degree matches that o native-born U) adults %8K7& Despite theachievements and contributions o immigrants, many myths about immigration andimmigrants persist, largely perpetuated by anti-immigrant groups and campaigns-Gost academic economists agree that immigration has a small but positive impacton the wages o native-born workers because although new immigrant workers addto the labor supply, they also consume goods and services, which creates more

obs Emmigrants also start their own businesses at a higher rate than native U)residents, which increases demand or business-related supplies and serviceproviders-Unauthori!ed and temporary immigrants are ineligible or maor ederal beneft

programs, and even legal immigrants may ace eligibility restrictions ?wo beneftprograms that do not have restrictions against unauthori!ed immigrants are the)pecial )upplemental Cutrition Frogram or Women, Enants, and $hildren %WE$& andthe Cational )chool Lunch Frogram-9egarding public education, Flyer v Doe held that states cannot deny studentsaccess to public education, even i they are not legal U) residents ?he court ruledthat denying public education could impose a lietime o hardship on a discreteclass o children not accountable or their disabling status $hildren o unauthori!edimmigrants, 37 o whom are U) citi!ens, comprise only


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sy2550 textbook notes

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