sustainable cities. chapter overview questions how is the worlds population distributed between...
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Sustainable CitiesSustainable Cities
Chapter Overview QuestionsChapter Overview Questions
How is the world’s population distributed How is the world’s population distributed between rural and urban areas, and what between rural and urban areas, and what factors determine how urban areas develop?factors determine how urban areas develop?
What are the major resource and What are the major resource and environmental problems of urban areas?environmental problems of urban areas?
How do transportation systems shape urban How do transportation systems shape urban areas and growth, and what are the areas and growth, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of various advantages and disadvantages of various forms of transportation?forms of transportation?
Chapter Overview Questions (cont’d)Chapter Overview Questions (cont’d)
What methods are used for planning and What methods are used for planning and controlling urban growth?controlling urban growth?
How can cities be made more sustainable How can cities be made more sustainable and more desirable places to live?and more desirable places to live?
Core Case Study: The Ecocity Core Case Study: The Ecocity Concept in Curitiba, BrazilConcept in Curitiba, Brazil
70% of Curitiba’s 2 million people use the 70% of Curitiba’s 2 million people use the bus system.bus system.
Only high-rise apartments are allowed near Only high-rise apartments are allowed near bus routes and devote the bottom 2 floors to bus routes and devote the bottom 2 floors to stores.stores.
Bike paths run through the city.Bike paths run through the city. Cars are banned from 49 blocks of the city’s Cars are banned from 49 blocks of the city’s
downtown.downtown.
Core Case Study: The Ecocity Core Case Study: The Ecocity Concept in Curitiba, BrazilConcept in Curitiba, Brazil
This bus system This bus system moves large numbers moves large numbers of passengers based of passengers based on its infrastructure:on its infrastructure: Express lanes for buses Express lanes for buses
only.only. Double and triple length Double and triple length
buses.buses. Extra-wide doors for Extra-wide doors for
easy boarding.easy boarding.
Figure 23-1Figure 23-1
Fig. 23-1, p. 548
Route Express Interdistrict Direct Feeder Workers
City center
URBANIZATION AND URBAN URBANIZATION AND URBAN GROWTHGROWTH
People move to cities because “push” factors People move to cities because “push” factors force them out of rural areas and “pull” force them out of rural areas and “pull” factors give them the hope of finding jobs and factors give them the hope of finding jobs and a better life in the city.a better life in the city.
Urban populations are growing rapidly and Urban populations are growing rapidly and many cities in developing countries have many cities in developing countries have become centers of poverty.become centers of poverty.
Major Urban Areas of the WorldMajor Urban Areas of the World
Satellite images of the earth at night showing Satellite images of the earth at night showing city lights. Currently, 49% of the world’s city lights. Currently, 49% of the world’s population live in urban areas (2% of earth’s population live in urban areas (2% of earth’s land area).land area). Figure 23-2Figure 23-2
Fig. 23-2, p. 550
Karachi 10.4 million
16.2 million
Dhaka 13.2 million
22.8 million
Tokyo 26.5 million
27.2 million
New York 16.8 million
17.9 million
Cairo 10.5 million
11.5 millionMumbai (Bombay) 16.5 million 22.6 million
Calcutta 13.3 million
16.7 million
Osaka 11.0 million
11.0 million
Los Angeles
13.3 million 19.0 million
Mexico City
18.3 million
20.4 million
Lagos 12.2 million
24.4 millionDelhi 13.0 million
20.9 million
Jakarta 11.4 million
17.3 million
Manila 10.1 million
11.5 million
Sao Paulo 18.3 million
21.2 million
2015 (projected)
Shanghai 12.8 million
13.6 million
Buenos Aires
12.1 million 13.2 million
Beijing 10.8 million 11.7 million
Key2004 (estimated)
Case Study: Urbanization in the U.S.Case Study: Urbanization in the U.S.
About 48% of Americans live About 48% of Americans live in consolidated metropolitan in consolidated metropolitan areas (bottom map).areas (bottom map).
8 of 10 8 of 10 Americans Americans live in live in Urban Urban areas.areas.
Figure 23-4Figure 23-4
Urban SprawlUrban Sprawl
When land is available and affordable, urban When land is available and affordable, urban areas tend to sprawl outward because:areas tend to sprawl outward because: Federal government loan guarantees stimulated Federal government loan guarantees stimulated
the development of suburbs.the development of suburbs. Low-cost gasoline and government funding of Low-cost gasoline and government funding of
highways encourages automobile use.highways encourages automobile use. Tax-laws encourage home ownership.Tax-laws encourage home ownership. Most zoning laws separate residential and Most zoning laws separate residential and
commercial use of land.commercial use of land. Many urban areas lack proper planning.Many urban areas lack proper planning.
Urban SprawlUrban Sprawl
Urban sprawl in and around Las Vegas, Urban sprawl in and around Las Vegas, Nevada between 1973 and 2000.Nevada between 1973 and 2000.
Figure 23-5Figure 23-5
Urban SprawlUrban Sprawl
As they grow and As they grow and sprawl outward, sprawl outward, urban areas merge urban areas merge to form megalopolis.to form megalopolis. Bowash runs from Bowash runs from
Boston, Boston, Massachusetts to Massachusetts to Washington, D.C.Washington, D.C.
Figure 23-7Figure 23-7
Highway trust fundHighway trust fund
BrownfieldBrownfield
BrownfieldsBrownfields - - Contaminated properties that Contaminated properties that have been abandoned or are not being used have been abandoned or are not being used up to potential because of pollution up to potential because of pollution concerns.concerns. Up to one-third of all commercial industrial sites Up to one-third of all commercial industrial sites
in urban core of many big cities fall into this in urban core of many big cities fall into this category. Steel Yard Commons. In many cases, category. Steel Yard Commons. In many cases, property owners complain that unreasonably property owners complain that unreasonably high purity levels are demanded in remediation high purity levels are demanded in remediation programs.programs.
Fig. 23-6, p. 553
Natural Capital Degradation
Urban Sprawl
Land and Land and BiodiversityBiodiversity
Human Health and Human Health and AestheticsAesthetics
WaterWater Energy, Air, Energy, Air, and Climateand Climate
Economic EffectsEconomic Effects
Loss of cropland Contaminated drinking water and air
Increased runoff
Increased energy use & waste
Higher taxes
Loss of forests and grasslands
Increased surface water & groundwater pollution
Decline of downtown business districts
Increased air pollution
Weight gainLoss of wetlandsIncreased greenhouse gas emissions
Noise pollution
Increased use of surface water and groundwater
Increased unemployment in central city
Loss and fragmentation of wildlife habitats
Sky illumination at night
Enhanced global warming
Decreased storage of surface water and groundwater
Loss of tax base in central city
Increased wildlife roadkill
Traffic congestion
Warmer microclimate (urban heat island effect)
Increased soil erosion
Increased flooding
Decreased natural sewage treatment
URBAN RESOURCE AND URBAN RESOURCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMSENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Urban areas can offer more job opportunities Urban areas can offer more job opportunities and better education and health, and can and better education and health, and can help protect biodiversity by concentrating help protect biodiversity by concentrating people.people.
URBAN RESOURCE AND URBAN RESOURCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMSENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Cities are rarely self-sustaining, can threaten Cities are rarely self-sustaining, can threaten biodiversity, lack trees, concentrate pollutants biodiversity, lack trees, concentrate pollutants and noise, spread infectious diseases, and and noise, spread infectious diseases, and are centers of poverty crime, and terrorism.are centers of poverty crime, and terrorism.
Figure 23-3Figure 23-3
URBAN RESOURCE AND URBAN RESOURCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMSENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Urban areas rarely are sustainable systems.Urban areas rarely are sustainable systems.Figure 23-8Figure 23-8
Fig. 23-8, p. 554
Inputs Outputs
Energy Solid wastes
Food
Waste heat
Air pollutants
Water
Water pollutants
Raw materials
Greenhouse gases
Manufactured goods
Manufactured goods
Noise
Money
Wealth
Information
Ideas
URBAN RESOURCE AND URBAN RESOURCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMSENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Noise levelsNoise levels of some common sounds. of some common sounds. Prolonged exposure to lower noise levels and Prolonged exposure to lower noise levels and occasional loud sounds can greatly increase occasional loud sounds can greatly increase internal stress.internal stress.
Figure 23-9Figure 23-9
Fig. 23-9, p. 555
Permanent damage begins after 8-hour
exposure
Noise Levels (in dbA)
Normal breathing
Quiet rural area
Rainfall Vacuum cleaner
Lawn mower
Rock music
Earphones at loud level
Whisper Quiet room
Normal conversation
Average factory
Chain saw
Military rifle
Air raid siren
Thunder-clap
(nearby)
Boom cars
URBAN RESOURCE AND URBAN RESOURCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMSENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Extreme poverty forces Extreme poverty forces hundreds of millions of hundreds of millions of people to live in slums people to live in slums and shantytowns where and shantytowns where adequate water adequate water supplies, sewage supplies, sewage disposal, and other disposal, and other services do not exist.services do not exist.
Figure 23-10Figure 23-10
How Would You Vote?How Would You Vote?
To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main menu for Living in the Environment. menu for Living in the Environment.
Should squatters around cities of developing Should squatters around cities of developing countries be given title to land they live on?countries be given title to land they live on? a. No. No one has the right to steal and pollute a. No. No one has the right to steal and pollute
public or private lands.public or private lands. b. Yes. The poor need homes.b. Yes. The poor need homes.
TRANSPORTATION AND URBAN TRANSPORTATION AND URBAN DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT
Land availability determines whether a city Land availability determines whether a city must grow vertically or spread out must grow vertically or spread out horizontally and whether it relies mostly on horizontally and whether it relies mostly on mass transit or the automobile.mass transit or the automobile. If Americans doubled their use of mass transit If Americans doubled their use of mass transit
from 5% to 10%, this would reduce U.S. from 5% to 10%, this would reduce U.S. dependence on oil by 40%.dependence on oil by 40%.
TRANSPORTATION AND URBAN TRANSPORTATION AND URBAN DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT
Motor vehicles provide personal benefits and Motor vehicles provide personal benefits and promote economic growth, but also kill and promote economic growth, but also kill and injure many people, pollute the air, promote injure many people, pollute the air, promote urban sprawl, and result in traffic jams.urban sprawl, and result in traffic jams.
Although it would not be politically popular, Although it would not be politically popular, we could reduce reliance on automobiles by we could reduce reliance on automobiles by having users pay for their harmful effects.having users pay for their harmful effects.
Solutions: Solutions: Redesigning Urban TransportRedesigning Urban Transport
Alternatives include walking, bicycling, and Alternatives include walking, bicycling, and taking subways, trains, and buses.taking subways, trains, and buses.
How Would You Vote?How Would You Vote?
To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main menu for Living in the Environment. menu for Living in the Environment.
Should half the U.S. gasoline tax be used to Should half the U.S. gasoline tax be used to develop mass transit, bike lanes, and other develop mass transit, bike lanes, and other alternatives to the car?alternatives to the car? a. No. Money needed to repair roads and bridges a. No. Money needed to repair roads and bridges
should not be spent on bike paths and other should not be spent on bike paths and other projects that few people would use.projects that few people would use.
b. Yes. Encouraging alternatives to personal b. Yes. Encouraging alternatives to personal vehicles will decrease pollution and save energy.vehicles will decrease pollution and save energy.
Fig. 23-11, p. 560
Trade-Offs
Bicycles
Advantages Disadvantages
AffordableLittle protection in an accident
Produce no pollution Do not protect
riders from bad weather
Quiet
Require little parking space Not practical for
trips longer than 8 kilometers (5 miles)
Easy to maneuver in traffic
Take few resources to make
Can be tiring (except for electric bicycles)Very energy
efficientLack of secure bike parkingProvide exercise
Fig. 23-12, p. 560
Trade-Offs
Mass Transit Rail
Advantages Disadvantages
More energy efficient than cars
Expensive to build and maintain
Produces less air pollution than cars
Cost-effective only along a densely populated narrow corridor
Requires less land than roads and parking areas for cars Commits riders to
transportation schedules
Causes fewer injuries and deaths than cars
Can cause noise and vibration for nearby residents
Reduces car congestion in cities
Fig. 23-13, p. 561
Trade-Offs
Buses
Advantages Disadvantages
More flexible than rail system
Can lose money because they need low fares to attract ridersCan be rerouted
as neededOften get caught in traffic unless operating in express lanes
Cost less to develop and maintain than heavy-rail system
Commits riders to transportation schedulesCan greatly
reduce car use and pollution Noisy
Fig. 23-14, p. 561
Trade-Offs
Rapid Rail
Advantages Disadvantages
Can reduce travel by car or plane
Expensive to run and maintain
Ideal for trips of 200–1,000 kilometers (120–620 miles)
Must operate along heavily used routes to be profitable
Much more energy efficient per rider over the same distance than a car or plane
Causes noise and vibration for nearby residents
Solutions: Solutions: Redesigning Urban TransportRedesigning Urban Transport
Potential routes for high-speed bullet trains Potential routes for high-speed bullet trains in the U.S and parts of Canada.in the U.S and parts of Canada.
Figure 23-15Figure 23-15
Case Study: Destroying a Great Mass Case Study: Destroying a Great Mass Transit System in the U.S.Transit System in the U.S.
In the early 1900s, the U.S. had one of the In the early 1900s, the U.S. had one of the world’s best street car systems.world’s best street car systems. It was bought and destroyed by companies to sell It was bought and destroyed by companies to sell
cars and buses.cars and buses. At the same time, National City Lines worked to At the same time, National City Lines worked to
convert electric-powered commuter locomotives convert electric-powered commuter locomotives to diesel-powered ones.to diesel-powered ones.
URBAN LAND-USE PLANNING URBAN LAND-USE PLANNING AND CONTROLAND CONTROL
Most land-use planning in the U.S leads to Most land-use planning in the U.S leads to poorly controlled urban sprawl and fund this poorly controlled urban sprawl and fund this often environmentally destructive process often environmentally destructive process with property taxes.with property taxes.
Smart growth can help control growth Smart growth can help control growth patterns discourage urban sprawl, reduce car patterns discourage urban sprawl, reduce car dependence, and protect ecologically dependence, and protect ecologically sensitive areas.sensitive areas.
Fig. 23-16, p. 563
Solutions
Smart Growth Tools
Limits and Regulations• Limit building permits• Urban growth boundaries• Greenbelts around cities• Public review of new development
Protection• Preserve existing open space• Buy new open space• Buy development rights that prohibit
certain types of development on land parcels
Zoning• Encourage mixed use• Concentrate development along
mass transportation routes• Promote high-density cluster
housing developments
Taxes• Tax land, not buildings• Tax land on value of actual use (such as
forest and agriculture) instead of highest value as developed land
Tax Breaks• For owners agreeing legally to not allow
certain types of development (conservation easements)
• For cleaning up and developing abandoned urban sites (brownfields)
Planning• Ecological land-use planning• Environmental impact analysis• Integrated regional planning• State and national planning Revitalization & New Growth
• Revitalize existing towns & cities• Build well-planned new towns and
villages within cities
Case Study: Case Study: Land-Use Planning in OregonLand-Use Planning in Oregon
Oregon has a comprehensive land-use Oregon has a comprehensive land-use planning process:planning process: Permanently zone all rural land as forest, Permanently zone all rural land as forest,
agriculture, or urban land.agriculture, or urban land. Draw an urban growth line around each Draw an urban growth line around each
community.community. Place control over land-use planning in State Place control over land-use planning in State
hands.hands.
MAKING URBAN AREAS MORE MAKING URBAN AREAS MORE SUSTAINABLE AND DESIREABLE SUSTAINABLE AND DESIREABLE
PLACES TO LIVEPLACES TO LIVE
There is a growing movement to create There is a growing movement to create mixed-use villages and neighborhoods within mixed-use villages and neighborhoods within urban areas where people can live, work and urban areas where people can live, work and shop close to their homes. shop close to their homes.
Cluster DevelopmentCluster Development
High density housing High density housing units are concentrated units are concentrated on one portion of a on one portion of a parcel with the rest of parcel with the rest of the land used for the land used for commonly shared open commonly shared open space.space.
Figure 23-17Figure 23-17
Fig. 23-17a, p. 565
CreekUndeveloped land
Marsh
Fig. 23-17b, p. 565
Typical housing development
Fig. 23-17c, p. 565
ClusterCluster housing development Creek
Cluster
Pond
The Ecocity ConceptThe Ecocity Concept
An ecocity allows people to walk, bike, or An ecocity allows people to walk, bike, or take mass transit for most of their travel, and take mass transit for most of their travel, and it recycles and reuses most of its wastes, it recycles and reuses most of its wastes, grows much of its own food, and protects grows much of its own food, and protects biodiversity by preserving surrounding land.biodiversity by preserving surrounding land.
The Ecocity ConceptThe Ecocity Concept
Principles of sustainability:Principles of sustainability: Build cities for people not cars.Build cities for people not cars. Use renewable energy resources.Use renewable energy resources. Use solar-power living machines and wetlands Use solar-power living machines and wetlands
for waste water treatment.for waste water treatment. Depend largely on recycled water.Depend largely on recycled water. Use energy and matter efficiently.Use energy and matter efficiently. Prevent pollution and reduce waste.Prevent pollution and reduce waste. Reuse and recycle at least 60% of municipal Reuse and recycle at least 60% of municipal
solid waste.solid waste.
The Ecocity ConceptThe Ecocity Concept
Protect biodiversity by preserving, protecting, Protect biodiversity by preserving, protecting, and restoring surrounding natural areas.and restoring surrounding natural areas.
Promote urban gardens and farmers markets.Promote urban gardens and farmers markets. Build communities that promote cultural and Build communities that promote cultural and
economic diversity.economic diversity. Use zoning and other tools to keep the human Use zoning and other tools to keep the human
population and environmentally sustainable population and environmentally sustainable levels.levels.