support to the national water mission · support to the national water mission napcc iii appendix 1...

TA7417-IND Support for the National Action Plan

for Climate Change

Support to the National Water Mission

TA 7417- IND: Support for the National Action Plan on Climate Change Support to the National Water Mission

Final Report September 2011 Appendix 1 India Water Systems

PREPARED FOR Government of India Governments of Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu Asian Development Bank

Support to the National Water Mission NAPCC ii Appendix 1 India Water Systems

Appendix 1 India Water Systems

Support to the National Water Mission NAPCC ii Appendix 1 India Water Systems

Support to the National Water Mission NAPCC iii Appendix 1 India Water Systems

SUMMARY OF ABBREVIATIONS A1B IPCC Climate Change Scenario A1 assumes a world of very rapid economic growth, a global

population that peaks in mid-century and rapid introduction of new and more efficient technologies. A1 is divided into three groups that describe alternative directions of technological change: fossil intensive (A1FI), non-fossil energy resources (A1T) and a balance across all sources (A1B).

A2 IPCC climate change Scenario A2 describes a very heterogeneous world with high population growth, slow economic development and slow technological change.

ADB Asian Development Bank AGTC Agriculture Technocrats Action Committee of Punjab AOGCM Atmosphere Ocean Global Circulation Model APHRODITE Asian Precipitation - Highly-Resolved Observational Data Integration Towards Evaluation of Water

Resources - a observed gridded rainfall dataset developed in Japan APN Asian Pacific Network for Global Change Research AR Artificial Recharge AR4 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report AR5 IPCC Fifth Assessment Report AWM Adaptive Water Management B1 IPCC climate change Scenario B1 describes a convergent world, with the same global population as

A1, but with more rapid changes in economic structures toward a service and information economy. B2 IPCC climate change Scenario B2 describes a world with intermediate population and economic

growth, emphasising local solutions to economic, social, and environmental sustainability. BBMB Bhakra Beas Management Board BCM Billion Cubic Metres BML Bhakra Main Line Canal BPL Below the Poverty Line BPMO Basin Planning and Management Organisation of the CWC BSL Beas Sutlej Link CAD Command Area Development CADA Command Area Development Authority CBO Community Based Organisation CCA Command Control Area CCIP Climate Change Implementation Plan CDM Clean Development Mechanism CDMR Cauvery Delta Modernisation Report CESER Centre for Earth Systems Engineering Research, Newcastle University, UK CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CGWA Central Ground Water Authority CGWB Central Ground Water Board CMIP Coupled Model Intercomparison Project - an IPCC initiative to compare climate models CMR Cauvery Modernization Report CNES French Centre National d‘Etudes Spatiales CPCB Central Pollution Control Board CSK HPAU CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University cusecs cubic feet per second CWC Central Water Commission CWPRS Central Water and Power Research Station DEA Department of Economic Affairs DEM Digital Elevation Model DJF December-January-February DMC Developing Member Country DMR Delta Management Report DSS Decision Support System DSSAT Decision Support System for Agricultural Technology DTR Diurnal Temperature Range EC Electrical Conductivity ED&MM Exploratory Drilling and Materials Management EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EMC Environmental Monitoring Committee EMP Environmental Management Plan ESSP Earth System Science Programme ETo Evapotranspiration

Support to the National Water Mission NAPCC iv Appendix 1 India Water Systems

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations FASS Farmers Advisory Services Schemes FPARP Farmer's Participatory Action Research Programme FYP Five Year Plan GCM Global Circulation or Climate Model GIS Geographic Information Systems GLOF Glacial Lake Outburst Flood GOI Government of India GRBMP Ganga River Basin Management Plan GSI Geological Survey of India GW Groundwater HAM Hectare Metres HIS Hydrological Information System HP Himachal Pradesh HP2 Hydrology Project 2 I&D Irrigation and Drainage ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development ICT Information and Communication Technologies IITM Indian Institute for Tropical Meteorology IMD Indian Meteorological Department IMTI Irrigation Management Training Institute INCCA Indian Network of Climate Change Assessment IPCC International Panel on Climate Change IRBM Integrated River Basin Management IS Institutional Strengthening ISRO Indian Space Research Organisation IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management JF January-February JJAS June-July-August-September KVK Krishi Vigyan Kendras LBC Lateral Boundary Conditions l/s/ha litre per second per hectare LBC Lateral Boundary Conditions LIS Legal Information System MAM March-April-May MCM Million Cubic Meters MODFLOW Three-dimensional finite-difference groundwater flow model developed by the US Geological Survey MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forests MOHC Met Office Hadley Centre (UK) MOU Memorandum of Understanding MoWR Ministry of Water Resources MP Madhya Pradesh msl Mean Sea Level MSP Minimum Support Price MTM Megha-Tropiques Mission NAPCC National Action Plan for Climate Change NARBO Network of Asian River Basin Organisations NCDS National Committee on Dam Safety NCIWRD National Commission for Water Resources Development NCMRFF National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting NDC National Data Centre, India NDMA National Disaster Management Agency NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NIH National Institute of Hydrology NMSKCC National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change NREGA National Rural Employment Guarantee Act NRSA National Remote Sensing Agency NSRC National Remote Sensing Centre NWH North-western Himalayan Region NWM National Water Mission of the NAPCC ON October-November OND October-November-December

Support to the National Water Mission NAPCC v Appendix 1 India Water Systems

PAFC Punjab Agro Foods Corporation PAO Project Appraisal Organisation PATA Policy Advisory Technical Assistance PAU Punjab Agricultural University PES Payment for Environmental Services PIM Participatory Irrigation Management PPE Perturbed Physics Ensemble PPP Public Private Partnerships PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal PRECIS Providing Regional Climates for Impacts Studies PRI Panchayati Raj Institutions PWD Public Works Department Q14, Q1 Q0 Identifiers for runs with different perturbations QUMP Quantifying Uncertainty in Model Predictions is an approach which aims to provide probabilistic

projections of future climate. RegCM Regional Climate Model system RegCM , originally developed at the National Center for Atmospheric

Research (NCAR), is maintained in the Earth System Physics (ESP) section of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), Trieste

R&R Rehabilitation and Resettlement RBO River Basin Organisation RCM Regional Circulation or Climate Model RCP Representative Concentration Pathways RGNGT&RI Rajiv Gandhi National Ground Water Training and Research Institute RSC Residual Sodium Carbonate RTDSS Real Time Data Support Systems SAM Survey Assessment and Monitoring SAPCC State Action Plans for Climate Change SD&MA Service Delivery and Management Alternatives SGWA State Ground Water Authority SML Sustainable Management and Liaison S-NWM ADB Support TA to the National Water Mission of the NAPCC SRES Special Report on Emission Scenario (IPCC SRES November 2000 SRI System of Rice Intensification SRTM90 A DEM with 90m resolution developed by the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission START Global change system for analysis, research and training coordinated by IIT Mumbai SWAP Soil-Water-Atmosphere-Plant SWAT Soil and Water Assessment Tool T&TT Training and Technology Transfer TA Technical Assistance TERI The Energy and Resources Institute TN Tamil Nadu TNRRI Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute TNSEB Tamil Nadu State Electricity Board UKIERI UK India Education and Research Initiative UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme USDA United States Department of Agriculture UT Union Territory WC Conveyance efficiency WD Drainage efficiency WEAP Water Evaluation and Planning System- planning tool from Stockholm Environment Institute WF On-farm application efficiency WHS Water Harvesting Structures WP Water use efficiency at the project level WQAA Water Quality Assessment Authority WR Reservoir or weir efficiency WRCRC Water Resources Control and Review Council WRD Water Resources Department WRIS Water Resources Information System WRO Water Resources Organisation WUA Water Users Association WWF World Wildlife Fund

http://www.ucar.edu/

Support to the National Water Mission NAPCC vi Appendix 1 India Water Systems

I. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1

II. OVERVIEW OF THE INDIAN WATER SYSTEMS ................................................. 1 A. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1 B. Estimated Water Resources .............................................................................................................. 1 C. Groundwater ....................................................................................................................................... 4

III. WATER INFORMATION SYSTEMS ...................................................................... 7 A. Data Needs in Water Resources Planning and Management ........................................................... 7 B. Hydrometric Information Systems .................................................................................................... 12 C. Ground Water Information Systems ................................................................................................. 16 D. Experiences in the Pilot Basins ........................................................................................................ 17 E. Water Resources Data Management Strategy ................................................................................ 19 F. Implementation ................................................................................................................................. 24

IV. SUMMARY OF ONGOING CLIMATE INITIATIVES ............................................. 29 A. The National Action Plan for Climate Change ................................................................................. 29 B. Ministry of the Environment and Forests (MoEF) ............................................................................ 31 C. Summary of the Asian Development Bank Operations Relating to Water and Climate Change..... 33 D. European Union ............................................................................................................................... 34 E. United Kingdom Bilateral Support (DFID) ........................................................................................ 35 F. German Bilateral Support GIZ .......................................................................................................... 35 G. Summary Review of On-going Research in Relation to Climate Change ........................................ 36

V. INSTITUTIONS .................................................................................................... 38 A. Review of Policies, Legal, and Regulatory Frameworks .................................................................. 38 B. Ministry of Water Resources ............................................................................................................ 51 C. Central Ground Water Board ........................................................................................................... 58 D. Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) ........................................................................................ 59 E. Central Water and Power Research Station .................................................................................... 59 F. National Water Academy ................................................................................................................. 60 G. Strengthening of the Central Water Commission and MoWR Attached Organisations .................. 60 H. National Institute for Hydrology (NIH) .............................................................................................. 65 I. Related Agricultural Institutions ........................................................................................................ 65 J. State Level Institutions ..................................................................................................................... 66 K. Template for Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) at State and District ................... 77 L. River Basin Organisations ............................................................................................................... 80

VI. INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING AND CAPACITY BUILDING ..................... 84 A. Concepts .......................................................................................................................................... 84 B. Awareness public information, awareness and training ................................................................... 85 C. Capacity development ...................................................................................................................... 87 D. Training Processes and Responsibilities ........................................................................................ 92 E. Institutional Arrangements for Training ............................................................................................ 94 F. Training Content ................................................................................................................................ 96 G. Training Institutes/Organisations ...................................................................................................... 97

VII. WATER USE EFFICIENCY .................................................................................. 98 A. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 98 B. Modernisation and Optimisation of Irrigation Systems ................................................................... 105 C. Management Approaches .............................................................................................................. 109

Support to the National Water Mission NAPCC vii Appendix 1 India Water Systems

D. Conclusions .................................................................................................................................... 111

VIII. MANAGEMENT OPTIONS TO IMPROVE SERVICE DELIVERY AND EFFICIENCIES ........................................................................................................... 112 A. Role of Subsidies To Increase Efficiencies and Sustainabilities .................................................... 112 B. Alternative Service Delivery Systems ............................................................................................ 115 C. Private Sector Participation ............................................................................................................ 117

IX. FRAMEWORKS FOR CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION FOR THE INDIA WATER SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................... 120 A. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 120 B. Climate Change Assessments ....................................................................................................... 121 C. Data Management .......................................................................................................................... 121 D. Water Resources Modelling ........................................................................................................... 122 E. Incorporating Climate Change Information Into Planning .............................................................. 125 F. Water User Efficiencies ................................................................................................................. 127 G. Water Resources Management Issues .......................................................................................... 128 H. Implementation of Irrigation Development ..................................................................................... 131

FIGURES AND TABLES Figure 1 Mean annual precipitation ............................................................................................................... 3 Figure 2 Groundwater Resources ................................................................................................................. 4 Figure 3 Expansion of Groundwater ............................................................................................................. 5 Figure 4 Density of Pump Sets .................................................................................................................... 6 Figure 5 Role of Hydrological Information Systems .................................................................................... 13 Figure 6: HIS System at Regional State Level............................................................................................ 14 Figure 7 WRIS Portal Links to Nodal Databases ....................................................................................... 21 Figure 8 Proposed Arrangement for IWRM for States ................................................................................ 78 Figure 9 Institutional Responsibilities .......................................................................................................... 95 Figure 10 Trends in Expenditure and Irrigated Area in India .................................................................... 106 Figure 11 Changing Approaches of Government ..................................................................................... 118 Table 1 Estimated Water Resources ............................................................................................................ 2 Table 2 Databases of Importance to Climate Change Research and Adaptation ........................................ 7 Table 3 Software Modules Developed under HP-1 .................................................................................... 13 Table 4 HP-2 Project Agencies ................................................................................................................... 15 Table 5 Metadata Available with Different Agencies .................................................................................. 17 Table 6 Gridded historic data sets available from IMD ............................................................................... 18 Table 7 Water Resources Data Access and Management Strategy .......................................................... 21 Table 8 Specific Legislative Provisions for Water ....................................................................................... 42 Table 9 Stages of Groundwater Regulation and Policy .............................................................................. 50 Table 10 Hierarchy of Institutions Madhya Pradesh ................................................................................... 68 Table 11 Project Cycle Activities ................................................................................................................. 69 Table 12 Water Departments Punjab .......................................................................................................... 70 Table 13 Possible Cooperation Framework at State Level ......................................................................... 74 Table 14 Stages to Establish an RBO ........................................................................................................ 83 Table 15 Primary Audience Categories ..................................................................................................... 87 Table 16 Secondary Audience Categories ................................................................................................. 87 Table 17 Change Issues and Actions ......................................................................................................... 90 Table 18 Summary of Training Areas ......................................................................................................... 96 Table 19 Surface Water Efficiencies for Various Facilities ....................................................................... 100 Table 20 Present Status of Water Efficiency Programmes ....................................................................... 101 Table 21 Water Applications and Effects on Water Use and Yield ........................................................... 104

Support to the National Water Mission NAPCC viii Appendix 1 India Water Systems

Table 22 Irrigation Savings Through Mulching ......................................................................................... 105 Table 23.Effect of Conjunctive Use of Brackish/ Fresh canal water on Crop Yield(ton/ha) ..................... 105 Table 24 Typical Crop Coefficients ........................................................................................................... 107 Table 25 Comparison of Surface and Conjunctive Water Management .................................................. 110 Table 26 Financial Ratios for Irrigation 1901 to 2001 ............................................................................... 113 Table 27 Possible Models for Private Sector Participation ....................................................................... 119 Table 28 Summary of Key Issues ............................................................................................................. 120 Table 29 Summary of Model Types, Function and Expected Outputs ..................................................... 122 Table 30 Typical Basin Modelling Requirements and Modelling Features ............................................... 123 Table 31 WEAP Model Features .............................................................................................................. 124 Table 32 Climate Change Decision Matrix for Pilot Sub Basins ............................................................... 126 Table 33 Performance of AIBP ................................................................................................................. 132

Support to the National Water Mission NAPCC 1 Appendix 1 India Water Systems

Appendix 1 : India Water Systems

I. INTRODUCTION

1. This report is a supporting document to the main report and presents information on the water systems of India and the necessary directions for climate change adaptation. The objective of this part of the study is to compile information on the overall Indian water systems as well as the lessons learnt from the studies in the sub-basins into a cohesive set of proposals that can be applied towards strategy and policy primarily for the Ministry of Water Resources as well as general guidelines for the State Water Resources Departments.

2. The methodology has included; (i) compilation of lessons learnt the outputs sub-basin studies (ii) consultation with ongoing planning work being carried out within CWC; (iii) lessons learnt from initiatives in other states and parallel water and climate change programmes; and (iv) consultations and visits to ongoing climate change research programmes in India.

II. OVERVIEW OF THE INDIAN WATER SYSTEMS

A. Introduction

3. India, with its geographical area of about 329 million hectare is covered by a large number of small and big rivers. A major part of India‘s population is rural and agriculturally oriented, for whom the rivers are the source of their prosperity. Climate plays a very decisive factor in water resource availability. The climate ranges from continental to oceanic, from extremes of heat to extremes of cold, from extreme aridity and negligible rainfall to excessive humidity and torrential rainfall. Rainfall in India is mainly dependent on the southwest monsoon between June and September, and the northeast monsoon between October and November. The variations in temperature are also marked over the Indian sub-continent. During the winter season from November to February the temperature decreases from south to north due to the effect of continental winds over most of the country. Evapotranspiration rates closely follow the climatic seasons, and reach their peak in the summer months of April and May; the central areas of the country display the highest rates during this period. After the onset of monsoon potential evapotranspiration decreases generally all over the country. The freshwater ecosystem services offered relate very closely to the climatic settings of each of the biophysical systems. Therefore any deviation in the prevailing climatic system on account of climate change implications is going to result in very different implications in various geographical areas of the country and these need to be understood properly before formulating any adaptation actions.

4. Due to various constraints of topography, uneven distribution of resources over space and time, it has been estimated that only about 690 cu.km. of surface water resources potential can be put to beneficial use (NCIWRD, 1999). About 40 per cent of this utilisable surface water resources are presently in Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system. In the majority of river basins, present utilisation is significantly high and is in the range of 50 per cent to 95 per cent of utilisable surface resources. The per capita surface water availability in India on the basis of census of 1991 and 2001 works out to be 2,300 and 1,900 m3 and these are projected to reduce to 1,400 and 1,190 m3 for the years 2025 and 2050 respectively; merely on the basis of population projections and with the assumption that the availability of water resources shall not change in future.

B. Estimated Water Resources

5. The Ministry of Water Resources has concluded that the water availability shall be in a position to meet requirements till the year 2050 through integrated water management plans. The issue of demand management has been given due importance to achieve a higher level of water use efficiencies. It is important to note that some very crucial factors with potentially significant implications have been ignored in making these computations; the factors include;

(i) The impact of programmes such as watershed management (which allows a large number of small structures such as check dams, to be constructed in a watershed) on the water resources has been ignored maybe assuming that it shall have an insignificant impact.


(ii) The proposals to increase water efficiencies by 20% are based on surface water

assessments. Most irrigation systems incorporate conjunctive surface and groundwater with significant amounts of water reuse; and as such efficiencies are already quite high with limited scope to increase efficiencies.

(iii) There is no accounting of the major overexploitation of groundwater, rectification and controls

to ensure long term sustainabilities will put greater stress on the surface water resources.

(iv) Most of the rivers have no provision for environmental flow which will effectively reduce the availabilities of surface water resources.

(v) The analysis does not take into account any possible impact due to climate change.

6. Water is an important element through which climate change impacts will be experienced. Indian economy relies heavily on climate sensitive sectors like agriculture which operate close to availability of water in the environment. Managing the water resources effectively through integrated planning for the extreme climate events is most important for adaptation planning and implementation. Therefore vulnerability assessment for the different regions in the country and exhaustive risk management strategies are critical to the sound adaptation practices for the country.

7. Since independence, India has adopted policy of sustainable water resource development for both general welfare and poverty alleviation. The National Commission for Integrated Water Resource Development (NCIWRD) in 1999 made a comprehensive assessment of the Water Resource availability in India to be 1969 billion m3 (BCM) including surface and ground water. Out of this, the annual utilizable water is estimated to be 1124 BCM - surface water being 690 BCM and ground water 433 BCM. The Central Water Commission is currently carrying out a reassessment of availability of water resources in India. Notwithstanding the importance of surface water, ground water plays an important role in maintenance of Indian economy and environment and is the primary source of water supply for domestic and industrial uses. It is the most productive source of irrigated agriculture. A summary of the water resources in the fourteen basins of the country is shown in Table 1 below.

Table 1 Estimated Water Resources

Basin No.

Basin Surface water availability

Surface water utilizable

Percent utilizable surface water

Replenishable ground water resource

Total utilizable resource

Billion Cubic Metre 1 Indus 73.31 46.00 62.7 31.23 77.23 2 Ganga, Brahmaputra,

Barak and other Basins

1110.62 274.00 24.7 209.85 483.85

3 Godavari 110.54 76.30 69.0 37.50 113.80 4 Krishna 78.12 58.00 74.2 26.65 84.65 5 Cauvery 21.36 19.00 89.0 10.15 29.15 6 Subernarekha 12.37 6.81 55.1 5.13 11.94 7 Brahmani & Baitarani 28.48 18.30 64.3 6.70 25.00 8 Mahanadi 66.88 49.99 72.6 17.72 67.71 9 Pennar 6.32 6.86 108.5 5.10 11.96 10 Mahi 11.02 3.10 28.1 3.12 6.22 11 Sabarmati 3.81 1.93 50.7 2.98 4.91 12 Narmada 45.64 34.50 75.6 12.90 47.40 13 Tapi 14.88 14.50 97.4 7.36 21.86 14 Ten composite Basins 286.02 81.03 28.3 57.30 138.33 Total 1869.37 690.32 36.92 433.69 1124.01 The composite river basins are: 1. West flowing rivers of Kutch & Saurashtra, 2. West flowing rivers south of Tapi, 3. East Flowing rivers between Mahanadi and Godavari, 4. East flowing rivers between Godavari and Krishna, 5. East flowing rivers between Krishna and Pennar, 6. East flowing rivers between Pennar and Cauvery, 7. East flowing rivers south of Cauvery, 8. Area of north Ladakh not draining into Indus river, 9. Rivers draining into Myanmar and 10. Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands.


8. Large irrigation canals and multipurpose water resource projects were built in the nineteenth as well as twentieth century‘s by funding from central and state governments. The major objectives of these projects have been irrigation, drinking water, flood control and/or power generation. Ground water now plays an increasingly important role for meeting the water requirement for irrigation, domestic and industrial use.

9. The irrigation sector in India is viewed as a socialistic rather than an economic sector. Except for minor irrigation for which some institutional finance is available or ground water development for which some private investments are made, all programmes under major and medium irrigation, command area development and flood subsectors are government funded. Expenditure on irrigation as percent of total expenditure in the country has come down to 6.28% at the end of 10th Five Year Plan (FYP) from 22.54% during 1st Plan. Capital costs of development of irrigation are very high and

even for operation and maintenance (O&M), subsidies or incentives are provided by the governments. Challenge of food security requires increase in public investments in agriculture sector, particularly irrigation to enhance production and productivity; however, Government is finding it extremely difficult to fully finance irrigation and drainage (I&D) projects and this trend is similar world over. Compared to other infrastructure sectors, private investment opportunities in I&D sector are limited.

10. Annual rainfall varies from less than 130 mm in the west of Rajasthan to over 10,000 mm in Cherrapunji in the upper Meghna basin The mean annual precipitation is shown in Figure 1 below.

11. Precipitation mostly occurs in intense and unpredictable downpours within short monsoon period. About 50% of annual precipitation falls in less than one month of monsoon period. The precipitation and water availability is not uniformly distributed across the country. The Ganga, Brahmaputra, Meghna basins account for the large fraction of the water resource in the country with almost 62% of total water supply. Water flowing thought Western Ghats through rivers southern of Tapi is about 10% and balance only 28% is available from the other basins in the

country. Because of such high temporal and spatial variability, water does not meet the year round irrigation, drinking water and other demand of various regions across the country. Large irrigation canals and multipurpose water resource projects were built in the nineteenth as well as twentieth century with funding from central and state governments. The major objectives of these projects have been irrigation, drinking water, flood control and/or power generation. Ground water now plays an increasingly important role for meeting the water requirement for irrigation, domestic and industrial use.

12. In the recent years, water management issues including environment and water quality have assumed high importance. There has been shift in the thinking in recent years form top down approach to an open participatory approach where the stake holders have a say in the allocation and use of water resource. There is growing concern about the equitable distribution of water across all the consumers, with sustained development and economic growth. There is growing urgent need to tackle the various environmental concerns like degradation in the quality of water, over exploitation of ground water in many parts of country, frequent occurrence of floods and drought, water logging and

Figure 1 Mean annual precipitation1


salinity, efficient utilization of created irrigation potential, saltwater intrusion into coastal area, coastal erosion, loss of wetlands etc. There is now better awareness that the problem of water management and environment are intertwined and shall keep on assuming higher complexity with the rise in population, economic development, urbanization and industrialization.

13. Effective demand management measures have also been recognized as priority water management issue. Efforts to improve the efficiency of water use and to minimize demand in the agriculture sector have so far had limited success. Central and state government has been taking steps for renovation of irrigation infrastructure and enhancing the operation and maintenance budget of the irrigation systems. There is urgent need for working out effective ways to improve the water use efficiency and manage demand for water.

14. In the recent years, water management issues including environment and water quality have assumed high importance. There has been shift in the thinking in recent years form top down approach to an open participatory approach where the stake holders have a say in the allocation and use of water resource. There is growing concern about the equitable distribution of water across all the consumers, with sustained economic growth and development. These is growing urgent need to tackle the various environmental concerns like degradation in the quality of water, over exploration of ground water in many parts of country, frequent occurrence of floods and drought, water logging and salinity, efficient utilization of created irrigation potential, saltwater intrusion into coasted area, coasted erosion, loss of wetlands etc. The problem of water management and environment are intertwined and these problems are continued to grow with the rising population, economic development, urbanization and industrialization

15. The Ministry of Water Resources has produced a preliminary consolidated report on the effects of climate change on water resources1. The report examines a wide range of areas of climate impacts on water resources. The report concludes with the need for improved data collection, scientific studies, networking of institutions, impacts on other sectors, river basin organizations, flood management, capacity building and awareness.

C. Groundwater

16. Groundwater is a major component of the total available water resources. Groundwater utilisation has been increasing over the past three decades and is likely to increase. This trend can potentially change the existing environmental services of surface and groundwater resources. Ground water is an annually replenishable resource but its availability is non-uniform in space and time. The ground water for the entire country is estimated to be 433 BCM with a stage of ground water development in the country of about 60%. CGWB has prepared hydrogeological map of India depicting distribution of major rock types and the potential of different aquifer systems. A groundwater resources/recharge2 map is shown in Figure 2. A comparison of the expansion of groundwater use in India compared to other countries3 is shown in Figure 3. Over the years the government

1 Preliminary consolidated Report on the Effects of Climate Change on Water Resources 2008 2From the world-wide Hydrogeological Mapping and Assessment Programme (WHYMAP) overlaid on Google Earth.

3Shah et al 2007 and IWMI

Figure 2 Groundwater Resources


subsidies credit and rural energy supplies have encouraged rapid development of ground water resources. Problems associated with accelerated ground water development have increased. Both ground water depletion and pollution have emerged as points of concern of many areas. Water logging and salinity are also problems in some areas. The management of ground water is now a major challenge to address the broad arrays of problems that have emerged include ground water overdraft, pollution, poor water quality and impact of ground water table decline on environment. .

17. The techniques and initiatives for ground water management need to be addressed. These among other would include demand-side management, pollution avoidance, controlled ground water use while conjunctive use and artificial recharge would be central to ground water management.

Figure 3 Expansion of Groundwater

18. The rapidly falling groundwater tables in many parts of India present serious and immediate concern. There are many political difficulties and high level policy reform and a new approaches are required. There would however appear also to be options for lower level interventions that can be effectively implemented on the ground at lower political cost. India presents a unique case, with a globally unprecedented level of exploitation of groundwater bodies in a wide range of settings, requiring the formulation of adaptable, context specific solutions. The issue of power subsidies to farmers, which has undoubtedly been a major driver of groundwater development, requires particularly careful handling, as any increase in tariffs is viewed as an additional burden on the low income farming communities. The density of pump sets is shown in Figure 4. 4.

19. The findings of the World Bank‘s Study and Technical Assistance Initiative on Groundwater Management5 in India point towards a menu of pragmatic management interventions under three broad categories: (i) community-based groundwater resource management; (ii) targeted regulation; and (iii) sectoral policy interventions and coordination. Strengthening state groundwater agencies is a cross-cutting intervention underlying the whole process.

4 Tushaar Shah 5 Deep Wells And Prudence: Towards Pragmatic Action for Addressing Groundwater, 2010, World Bank


Figure 4 Density of Pump Sets

20. Artificial Recharge of Ground Water: Efforts to recharge depleted aquifers are not cohesive and fragmentary. There are reports of sporadic recharging experiments for which impacts are not very well catalogued. There is a need for further assessment of hydrological and hydrogeological suitability for Aquifer Storage and Recovery (AS&R) system development in flood plain aquifer of Sutlej river governed by the controlling factors of depth to ground water, transmissivity of aquifer layers and injection rates. During periods when river flow in Sutlej is plentiful, surface water can be stored in flood-plain aquifer and recovered in summer months using well recharge and well recover y system .Some surplus water can also be diverted to specially built ponds as series of laser-levelled infiltration basins. Similar efforts can be directed to basaltic aquifer system such as the Kshipra sub basin.

21. ASR can be considered as means for conserving surface water and is best suited to possible effects of global warming and climate change .Trying bed –mounted infiltration galleries in permeable alluvial flood-plain deposit of Sutlej river bed would improve water availability .Such gallieries are interlinked through network and to collector wells.

22. The western Himalayas are classified as alpine, while the northwest region including Rajasthan is arid. Much of the north central region, including much of the Ganges basin is classed as humid sub-tropical, as is the northeast of the country. Much of the central plateau region is classified as tropical wet and dry, due largely to the seasonality of rainfall, while the west coast region is classified as tropical wet. The east coast is classed as tropical wet and dry.

23. The Indian Meteorological Department defines four seasons to describe the Indian climate:

o winter, from December to early April; during these months average temperatures in the northwest are in the range of 10-15oC, increasing towards the southeast where average temperatures can be in the range of 20-25oC;

o summer or pre-monsoon, from April to June (early July in the northwest); this is the hottest season of the year, and in much of the interior average temperatures can be around 35oC;

o southwest monsoon from June to September; typically 80% of annual precipitation occurs during the southwest monsoon.

o post-monsoon season, from October to December; in this season the drier northeast monsoon brings clear cloudless conditions over much of India, with the exception of Tamil Nadu in the southeast, which experiences significant precipitation during this season.

24. Mean annual temperatures are highest in the southeast of the country where they are in excess of 25oC, and lowest in the western Himalayan region.

25. Climate extremes result in a number of hazards in India. Much of the country is drought prone, there are significant flood risks in many river basins, and particularly in the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins. Cyclones are a hazard in east coast regions and in the southwest in Kerala and northwest in Gujarat.


III. WATER INFORMATION SYSTEMS

A. Data Needs in Water Resources Planning and Management

1. Introduction

26. Data needs in water resources planning and management can vary significantly depending upon the objectives of analysis, the scale at which analysis is being carried out, the climatic characteristics of the basin under investigation and its hydrological response. Data needs vary significantly depending upon the level of water resources development that exists, the hydrological hazards that exist, and the risks that these present. Fundamental needs for any water resources assessment includes the following:

o precipitation data o climatic data from which potential evapotranspiration can be determined o river flow data o tidal outfall conditions o groundwater levels and aquifer characteristics o land use o soils characteristics o underlying geology o characteristics of water resources infrastructure o operational records for historic water use (surface water and groundwater) o crop characteristics and cropping calendars

2. Data Needs Identified in the NWM of the NAPCC

27. The above reflect very closely the data needs identified in the NWM of the NAPCC. Table 2 lists those databases identified in the NAPCC; the entries in italics in the table have been added under the present study.

Table 2 Databases of Importance to Climate Change Research and Adaptation Database Data collection and supplying

agencies Importance to NWM

1. Oceans; sea surface temperature, salinity, sea level rise

Ministry of Earth Sciences o saline intrusion to coastal aquifers

o impeded drainage in coastal zones

o saline intrusion in estuaries 2.Cryosphere; snow cover, glacial data

a) National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) b) Geological Survey of India c) Snow and Avalanche Studies Establishment (SASE), Defence Research and Development Organisation National Institute of Hydrology,TERI

o impact on seasonal water resources

o impact on flood response

3.Meteorology; precipitation, humidity, surface temperature, air temperature, evaporation data

India Meteorological Department, Ministry of Earth Sciences Indian Institute for Tropical Meteorology (IITM)

o impact on water resource availability and reliability

o impact on irrigation water demands

4. Land Survey, topography erosion, satellite imagery (land use) forest cover

a) Survey of India b) National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA)

o fundamental planning information

5. Hydrological; groundwater water quality, river water, water utilisation

a) Central Water Commission (CWC) b) State Water Resources Organisations

o fundamental resource planning information

6. Agriculture; soil profiles, areas under cultivation production and yield cost of cultivation

Ministry of Agriculture o assessment of irrigation water demands

o assessment of potential climate change impacts on production

7. Socio-Economic Census of India o potable and industrial water


Database Data collection and supplying agencies

Importance to NWM

Demography, economic status demand estimation 8. Forests; forest resources plant and animal species distribution

a) Forest Survey of India b) State Forest Department c) Botanical Survey of India d) Zoological Survey of India e) Department of Space

o impact of forest cover on hydrological response

o impact of forest cover on soil erosion

9. Health Related Data Department of Health Research

3. Precipitation Data

28. The spatial coverage required of a precipitation network depends very much on the scale at which resource assessment or hydrological analysis is required. The WMO give guidelines on minimum network densities for different climatic zones, but these do not relate to water use characteristics or hydrological hazard and risk within a particular basin. The adequacy of an existing precipitation gauge network in a particular basin has to be judged on the basis of the needs of analysis in that basin. A real time flood forecasting system, for example, would generally require a much greater gauge density than would a network for resource assessment or irrigation planning.

29. There are issues of topography and accessibility to be considered. In most countries, precipitation gauges are in locations that are relatively easily accessible. Generally in mountainous terrain precipitation gauges are in valley floors and may fail to capture the true characteristics of precipitation in a basin. Accessibility of gauge sites was an issue when gauges had to be read manually, but with modern instrumentation that can log data for long periods unattended, or transmit data via GSM or GPRS networks, it is now possible to deploy gauges more uniformly in upper catchment areas.

30. Precipitation data are collected primarily by the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), although additional observations are made by state water resources departments, and there will be project specific data collection also. In the Sutlej Basin for example, an extensive hydrometric network is being installed for to assist in operational management of the Pong and Bhakra reservoirs.

31. Long period continuous precipitation records are essential to provide the basis of water resources assessment, and to detect signals of climate change that will influence management and design of water resources infrastructure.

4. Climatic Data

32. The spatial coverage required for a network of climate stations is generally considerably less than that required of a precipitation network. For hydrological analysis, climatic data are used primarily in the calculation of potential evapotranspiration, with minimum data requirements of maximum and minimum daily temperatures, maximum and minimum daily relative humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation. Increasingly there is also a need to utilise climatic data in assessing the performance of climate models. Climate stations are generally located close to population centres, and few are deployed in upper catchment areas. With improved technologies and climate instrumentation, complete stations with data logging can be left unattended in remote locations for long periods.

33. Climatic data are collected by the IMD. Additional stations are run at some agricultural research stations, but the primary network is that of IMD. Long period climatic records are essential to detect signals of climate change, and to verify climatic model projections.

5. River Flow Data

34. River flow data are required for resource assessment purposes, and for operational purposes. They are the fundamental component in hydrological and hydraulic design. Often river flows are not available at the particular point of interest of hydrological analyses, and they are often for a shorter period of record than precipitation or climatic data. It is often necessary to use hydrological modelling


techniques to extend stream flow records and infill periods of missing data, and to synthesise data at locations for which no data exist. For any engineering design purpose, calibration against observed streamflow is necessary, prior to synthesising flows at a location where no data exist.

35. For surface water hydrology, river flow data provide the fundamental unit of assessment. River flows are influenced by upstream water use, and can also be influenced by changing upstream land use patterns. A knowledge of any changes in upstream conditions is fundamental to hydrological assessment, and often a process of naturalisation of river flows may be required, particularly if there has been staged development.

36. As with precipitation data, the network of flow gauging stations required in a basin depends very much upon the nature of the hydrological response and hydrological hazards present, the levels of development, and extent of existing water use and identified problems in the basin, such as water quality or sediment. There are no generally applicable rules with regard to gauge densities. River flow data are collected by the CWC for key locations on all major river basins. River flow data are also collected by state water resources departments.

6. Tidal Data

37. Tidal data are required in the assessment of drainage conditions in the lower reaches of river systems. Tidal data are also required to assess rates of sea level rise under the influence of climate change. Tidal data are typically recorded by port authorities, but there is increasingly good argument for including tidal data collection as part of hydrometric monitoring.

38. Survey of India has a long history of about 130 years since 1877 of maintaining tidal data, generated from dedicated tide gauge network along the Indian coast and islands. Survey of India provides tidal predictions for any place along the Indian coast (other than 30 ports included in the Indian Tide Table) to the various government or private agencies on demand. An initiative has already been taken to transform this data into computer accessible format. Experience in the present project in the Cauvery Delta was, however, that there were no relevant nearby tide gauges.

7. Groundwater Levels and Aquifer Characteristics

39. Groundwater plays an important role in meeting agricultural, domestic and industrial water requirements in many parts of India. Often assessments of groundwater and surface water resources are made by independent groups and the interactions between the two components of the water resource is ignored. In surface water assessment the focus is often at a particular point in a river system, while groundwater is assessed in a regional manner and is developed in a spatially distributed manner. An integrated approach to surface and groundwater development is required.

40. Groundwater is being over-exploited in many parts of India. Monitoring of groundwater levels in all areas in which it is being exploited is very important, as is knowledge of the aquifer characteristics of transmissivity and storativity. The extent of the observation network required depends largely upon the level of exploitation taking place, as well as physical aquifer characteristics6.

41. Groundwater data are collected by the Central Groundwater Development Board (CGWB) which operates a network of observation wells throughout the country. Groundwater observations are also made by state water resources departments.

8. Land Use Data

42. Information on landuse at the national level is available in the form of thematic maps, records and statistical data from various central, state departments and other institutional and organisations7. Duplication and lack of updating are the main flaws in these information. Some of the data sources include:

6 a good overview of requirements may be found at http:// ww.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y4495E/y4495e06.htm). 7 http://applications.nrsc.gov.in:15001/images/lulc_report_0405.pdf

http://applications.nrsc.gov.in:15001/images/lulc_report_0405.pdf


o Nationwide LULC analysis for Agro-climatic zone planning: 22 fold classification using remotely sensed data by National Remote Sensing Agency 1988-89 at 1:250,000 scale;

o National Wasteland Inventory Project: 13 categories of wasteland mapping at national level by National Remote Sensing Centre for the entire country on the Scale of 1:50,000 using Landsat TM and IRS LISS II/III data, updated during 2003-04;

o Forest cover analysis: Forest Survey of India assesses the forest cover of the country on a two-year cycle using satellite data. The main objective is presentation of the information on forest resources of the country at state and district level and to prepare forest cover maps on 1:50,000 scale. First assessment of forest cover of the country was made in 1987 and thereafter eight more assessments have been made. District wise information on forest cover has been made available from the third assessment (i.e. from 1991) onwards. From the eighth assessment onwards the entire country was covered by digital assessment;

o Land cover mapping using SPOT-VEGETATION for South Central Asia: Global Land Cover (GLC) 2000 is an initiative to make Global Land Cover data sets available for researchers involved in Global/Regional Studies for land surface parameterization. The Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS), Dehradun, India has carried out a study for South Central Asian Region as part of this programme8 outputs are at km resolution

o State Remote Sensing Centres; o Bhoosampada: Department of Science, Government of India, Spatial and temporal seamless

database on LULC at 1:250,000 scale at the end of each calendar year since 2004-2005. Current data is available for 2008-2009 from NRSC and user registration is needed for data download;

International sources:

Global landuse, Hansen et al., 1999 o Source: http://glcfapp.glcf.umd.edu:8080/esdi/index.jsp o Resolution: 1 km

IWMI o Global Map of Land Use/Land Cover Areas (GMLULCA) o IWMI‘s Global Map of Irrigated Areas (GMIA) o Source: http://www.iwmigiam.org/info/main/index.asp

FAO o Global Map of Irrigation Areas - version 4.0.1 o Resolution: 5 arc minute cells o http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/irrigationmap/index10.stm.

9. Soils Data

43. The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur (NBSSLUP), collect and compile soil data at the National level.

International sources: o FAO Global soil Source:

o http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/fao.html o 1:5M (50 km)

o FAO/IIASA/ISRIC/ISSCAS/JRC, 2009. Harmonized World Soil Database (version 1.1). FAO, Rome, Italy and IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria

o NBSSLUP Soils of Gujarat for Optimising Land Use, NBSS Publ.29b, 1994, ISBN:81-85460-13-2 1:500,000 http://nbsslup.nic.in/

8 http://bioval.jrc.ec.europa.eu/products/glc2000/products.php

http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/fao.html

http://bioval.jrc.ec.europa.eu/products/glc2000/products.php


10. Geological Mapping.

44. The Geological Survey of India produces mapping at a scale of 1:50,000 that are known as Geological quadrangle maps. At present only paper maps are available and efforts are ongoing to convert all these 286 maps into a digital geo-database.

45. GSI has covered 98% of land area by geological mapping and have prepared first generation 1:50,000 geological maps. GSI has started using digital cartography for processing the maps to be printed. Since 1994 digital products of many maps have been generated. Also an action plan to convert most of its unpublished reports and accompanying plates, as well as 1:50,000 scale geological maps of the country into digital format has reportedly been completed. Besides this, digital aero- geophysical maps are also available and on sale. Also a digital seismo-tectonic atlas of India has been prepared.

11. Water Resources Infrastructure

46. Water resources infrastructure data relate to the dimensions, capacities and design criteria of dams and reservoirs, barrages, irrigation distribution systems, flood mitigation works, river abstractions for potable or industrial water supply etc. Meta data on the locations of major infrastructure are held by the CWC and included in the WRIS database. Key characteristic data are generally held by the operator of the infrastructure, or by the state water resources departments. Operational records for major infrastructure are generally held at state level, or by the organisation responsible for operation.

12. Operational Records of Water Use

47. In most water resources assessments it is necessary to have good knowledge of historic water use from both surface and groundwater. In India the primary water use is for irrigation. Historic data for surface water irrigation diversion and use is held by the irrigation sections of state water resources departments. Data are often distributed amongst district offices and may not be centralised at state level, although major diversion data normally would be. Operational records for barrages, dams and reservoirs are held by the owners of the infrastructure. These data are very important in assessing existing water resources, and in establishing naturalised flow series. ( A census of minor irrigation may be found at http://mowr.gov.in/micensus/mi3census/index.htm)

48. Records of groundwater abstraction are estimated. based on running hours of pumps and other estimates of abstractions which are made by state water resources departments, and data forwarded to CGWB. There is no metering of groundwater abstractions.

13. Crop Characteristics and Cropping Calendars

49. Cropping data are collected by state agricultural departments. Data collated include cropped areas and yields, and planting dates and farm inputs. From a water resources perspective these data are used to assess irrigation demands and crop water use. Cropping calendars need to be presented in a standardised format suitable for linkages to databases.

14. The Challenges of Climate Change

50. With climate change, it will become increasingly important to monitor climate and other aspects of the water cycle in order to monitor changes and their impacts, and to assist in model development and validation. Having a sound hydrometric database is essential. Climate science is developing rapidly, and there are significant uncertainties associated with climate projections and scenarios. It is, however, necessary to make planning and adaptation decisions now for developments that may be affected by future climate change. This requires utilising the outputs of global and regional climate models (GCMs and RCMs). GCM results are generally at too coarse a scale for use in basin planning, and recourse is made to RCM results that have a finer spatial resolution. At present in India, RCM results are only available from the Hadley Centre's PRECIS model for a limited number of scenarios. At present results are available through IITM in Pune for three A1B scenarios, and for the A2 and B2 SRES scenarios. Having results from a wider range of scenarios, and from a range of models is important and aids in assessing uncertainty.


B. Hydrometric Information Systems

1. Hydrological Information Systems

51. Hydrological information in India is collected by agencies at both Central Government and State Government levels. The Central Water Commission (CWC) has responsibility at Central level for surface water data, while the Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) has responsibility for groundwater data. Both organisations are agencies of the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR), and have a regional / state presence also. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) collects meteorological data. At state level there are agencies with responsibility for surface water and for groundwater within state water resources / irrigation departments. Water quality data collection is the responsibility of Central and State Pollution Control Boards, and State Public Health Engineering Departments. Water quality data are also collected by the CWC and the CGWB.

52. In recognition of the importance of sound hydrological data for water resources planning and management, and sustainable national development, the Government of India established the Hydrology Project (HP-1). The Hydrology Project was launched by the Government of India in 1995 and had duration of 8 years. The primary objective of HP-1 was to improve hydrological information systems (HIS) in India - "to develop a comprehensive, reliable, easily accessible, user friendly and sustainable HIS in the concerned agencies". This was to be achieved through improvement of institutional and organisation arrangements, improvement of measurement infrastructure and technical capabilities for data measurement, collection and validation, analysis and dissemination. The project was concerned with hydrological, hydro-meteorological and water quality data, and involved both Central Government agencies and agencies in the participating states. The participating central Government agencies were the MoWR, the Central Water Commission (CWC), the Central Groundwater Board (CGWB), the National Institute of Hydrology (NIH), the Central Water and Power Research Station (CWPRS) and the India Meteorological Department (IMD). The participating state agencies were the surface water and groundwater departments of Andhra Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.

53. An overview of the Hydrological Information System (HIS) was produced in July 2000, and may be accessed from http://www.hydrology-project.gov.in/hp2.htm. The project developed an HIS in each state and for the central agencies. The primary role of the HIS was considered to be the provision of long-term reliable data sets for planning and design, for development of rules for water management and water use, and for research activities. Figure 5 presents an overview of the role of an HIS, and is taken from the July 2000 report. The activities under the HIS were classified as follows:

o Assessing the needs of users o Establishment of an observational network o Management of historical data o Data collection o Data processing, analysis and reporting o Data Exchange and reporting o Data storage and dissemination o Institutional and human resource development


54. The structure developed for the HIS under HP-1 is shown in Figure 6. The central agencies operate observation networks that are independent of those operated by the state agencies. The central agency systems are used for national planning purposes, whereas the state systems are used for more local water resources management and design. Many of the river systems in India are inter-state and the existence of independent data networks is important in basin scale water management, and in developing water sharing rules between states. The CWC river gauging stations are located on major river courses, while state stations are mainly on tributaries and smaller rivers.

55. An objective in the development of the HIS was that it should be demand driven, and to this end it was required that each state / agency constitute a Hydrological Data User Group (HDUG).

56. As indicated in Figure 6 the HIS adopts a distributed approach to data processing and management. In most of the participating States there is a common data storage centre for surface water and groundwater data. The CWC and CGWB have separate data storage centres for each of the regions, as well as national data storage centres at which the data from the regional centres is consolidated. Each data storage centre maintains a catalogue of data stored in their own database as well as those stored in the databases of other agencies. The components of the database systems developed were the same at both Central and State agencies. The databases have been developed in Microsoft Access. The software modules used to enter and access data are summarised in Table 3 below.

Table 3 Software Modules Developed under HP-1 Name Function

SWDES Surface water data entry system HYMOS Hydrological data processing and analysis, provides secondary data validation and

reporting for surface water data GWDES Groundwater data entry system GEMS Hydrogeological data processing and analysis, including GIS support WISDOM Provides access to meta data for the surface water and groundwater data held in the

HIS, and is accessible by the public. Forms for data purchasing and ordering are provided.

Figure 5 Role of Hydrological Information Systems


Figure 6: HIS System at Regional State Level

57. The SWDES and GWDES systems are known to be very robust and easy to use. HYMOS and GEMS require a higher level of hydrological and hydrogeological knowledge, and are for use by staff professionally qualified in hydrology or hydrogeology. WISDOM contains only meta data, and provides both a list based system and map based system of data availability. WISDOM was developed as tool through which data could be purchased. Data are not available for international river basins. The meta data in WISDOM is updated from the states, and data requests may be made to the relevant agency.

58. The second phase of the hydrology project (HP-2) was begun with World Bank funding assistance in 2008. Details may be found at http://www.hydrology-project.gov.in/. The mission statement of HP-2 is:

"To establish an effective and sound hydrologic database and Hydrological Information System (HIS), together with the development of consistent and scientifically-based tools and design aids to assist in the effective water resources planning and management within each to the implementing agencies based on sound scientific driven hydrogeological information and models." 59. The project development objectives are stated to be: (i) to extend and promote the sustained and effective use of the Hydrological Information System (HIS) by all potential users concerned with water resources planning and management, both public and private, thereby contributing to improved productivity and cost-effectiveness of water related investments in the 13 States and eight Central


agencies"; (ii) to extend HIS to the four new State agencies of Goa, Himachal Pradesh (H.P.), Pondicherry and Punjab and two central agencies: Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB) and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB); and (iii) strengthening the capabilities of implementing agencies at state/central level in using HIS for efficient water resource planning and management; (iv) awareness building and outreach services about HIS use." The agencies are summarised in Table 4.

Table 4 HP-2 Project Agencies Agencies of States Central Agencies 1. Andhra Pradesh 2. Chhatisgarh 3. Goa 4. Gujarat 5. Himachal Pradesh 6. Karnataka 7. Kerala 8. Madhya Pradesh 9. Maharashtra 10. Orissa 11. Punjab 12. Pondicherry 13. Tamil Nadu

1. Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB) 2. Central Water Commission (CWC) 3. Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) 4. Central Water & Power Research Station (CWPRS) 5. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) 6. Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) 7. National Institute of Hydrology (NIH) 8. Ministry of Water Resource (MoWR)

60. HP-2 continues with the development of comprehensive HIS in India. Activities are expanded under the project to cover four more states. HP-2 has three main components:

i) institutional strengthening in all 13 states and eight central agencies ii) vertical extension covering the nine states included in HP-I and eight central agencies

including CPCB and BBMB iii) horizontal expansion covering the four new states. 61. Under HP-2 some of the software modules developed under HP-1 will be upgraded to make use of improving computational facilities. SWDES and GWDES will be upgraded, and GEMS will be replaced by EGEMS. EGEMS will be a web based system managed by the CGWB, and there will be little demand on the states for data management. HP-2 will upgrade the WISDOM software. It is intended that the new system will provide long term data storage, security and data access. The states will be using the same software as CWC, and it will be possible to synchronise regional and state data with that held by CWC. Although at present internet connectivity is not adequate for centralised data storage, this could be an option for states in the future, thus reducing their database maintenance costs.

2. Water Resources Information Systems

62. The CWC released its web based Water Resources Information System (WRIS) in November 2010. The India-WRIS project was a joint venture between the CWC and the Indian Space Research Organisation. Project details may be found at: http://www.india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/. The aim of the project was to make available water resources related data in standardized GIS form to the user community. The project scope included the generation and collection of data pertaining to 30 geospatial layers. This information can be accessed by the user through a web based geo-spatial application. WRIS incorporates a wide range of tools: map based display, data query and search, map based distance measurement, data presentation and analysis, and annotation and output. The spatial layers are grouped under the main headings of:

o watershed atlas; o administrative layers; o water resources projects; o thematic layers; o environmental data.

63. The watershed atlas layers are based on the SRTM90 DEM. They include the river networks, as well as basin, sub-basin and watershed boundaries. Administrative layers include international,


state, district and tehsil / taluk boundaries, village boundaries, town and village locations and extent, major tourist attractions on river banks, major water sanctuaries and major waterfalls. Also included is an infrastructure layer with roads and railways.

64. Thematic layers include land use and land cover, wastelands, land degradation, snow cover areas, flood inundation maps, surface water bodies, waterlogged and salt affected areas in major and medium scale irrigation projects, soil analysis results in major and medium irrigation projects, numbers of minor irrigation projects by district / tehsil, groundwater depths and levels, lithological data with aquifer parameters, drought prone area maps, inter-basin transfer links maps, inland navigation waterways maps.

65. Water resources project information is accessed by project type: Major and medium irrigation projects and command areas, hydropower projects, multipurpose projects, canal networks. Only limited information can be retrieved on water resources projects. It is not, for example, possible to retrieve dam and reservoir characteristics, or hydropower characteristics.

66. Environmental data include locations of CWC and IMD meteorological stations and mean monthly precipitation and potential evapotranspiration, hydrometric station locations, and pollution monitoring station locations. Basically meta data are provided. It would be helpful to extend the metadata to include stations owned and run by organisations other than CWC.

67. The India-WRIS is a significant achievement, providing an excellent overview of national and regional water resources, access to fundamental planning data and offering much potential for future development. A link between WRIS and the HIS databases for data retrieval would for example be very useful, as would inclusion of additional characteristics on water resources infrastructure. It could in future also be possible to provide links to climate change scenarios and potential impact assessments, as well as to repositories of reports and design studies by basin and sub-basin.

C. Ground Water Information Systems

1. Introduction

68. The distribution of ground water in time and space is uneven and unlike surface water, that is often developed at a point on a river system, groundwater is developed and managed spatially. Web based GIS tools are particularly well suited for the development planning and management of distributed resources, such as groundwater.

69. The CGWB has developed a "Web enabled Ground Water Information System (WEGWIS)‖ for users in the water sector. The system has been developed to provide a unified internet based access to water related information (spatial/ non spatial) for policy planning and management.

2. Creation of Spatial Data infrastructure by CGWB

70. CGWB identified a need to create spatial and non spatial hydrological datasets that could be linked with various socio economic data for more holistic planning and management of water resources projects. Under HP-2 and an initiative by CGWB, a spatial database including various themes related to ground water was created for the entire country, utilizing source map data on 1; 250,000 scale. These datasets were also to be integrated with the dedicated software developed for ground water data processing under HP1.

71. CGWB collated 1:250,000 scale topogaphic mapping, along with landuse, geomorphology, soils, geology, and geological structure mapping. These were digitised for inclusion in the GIS with the assistance of the National Informatics Centre (NIC), New Delhi.

3. Web Enabled Ground Water Information System (WEGWIS)

72. WEGWIS is a web based GIS system that provides a functional internet based platform for accessing water related maps and data for decision making and planning. WEGWIS has been integrated with thematic data, dynamic data such as water level/water quality, other ground water


related information and socio-economic databases. The information can be accessed at different and can be viewed at a user selectable zoom level. The various spatial data uploaded in the system are summarised in Table 5 below. Responsibility for updating particular layers rests with the owners of the original data for these layers.

Table 5 Metadata Available with Different Agencies

SI. No. Feature Source 1. Hydrogeological Map on 1:2 million scale CGWB 2. Watershed Maps on 1:250,000 Scale CGWB 3. Landuse maps on 1:250,000 Scale NRSA 4. Geological maps on 1:250,000 Scale GSI Geomorphology on 1:250,000 Scale NRSA 6. Soils 1:500,000 scale National Bureau of Soil

Survey 7. Drainage on 1:250,000 scale Survey of India (SOI) 8. Administrative boundaries up to block, Transport network, SOI/NIC 9. Elevation Contour as depicted on 1:250,000 scale SOI 10. Depth to Water Level, Water level Fluctuation Maps etc on

the 1:250,000 scale CGWB

11. Ground Water Quality maps showing locations having EC, Cl, F, NO3, Arsenic and Fe above permissible limit

CGWB

12. Area Feasible for Artificial Recharge CGWB

4. WEGWIS Utilities

73. It was envisaged that WEGWIS would be utilized for various purposes including (i) providing a National Framework of a water resources database and reference system; (ii) bringing together all spatial datasets related to water resources into one common platform; (iii) facilitating access to geospatial data and other related non spatial data and conducting queries for specialized analysis; (iv) providing a tool for decision makers & planners for effective management water resources.

74. WEGWIS is an internet based system having two mirror sites, one located at NIC Head Quarters, New Delhi and other at CGWB Head Quarters, Faridabad. Both the Mirror sites are connected by internet gateways through a 2 mbps lease line. Users have options to perform geographical queries and print visible information from the WEGWIS but do not have access to the vector data that underlies the system.

75. The Ground Water Information System is presently accessible through the CGWB website which inter- alia consists of time series data of ground water level and quality monitored by CGWB for last five years. The system has been launched at NICserver (www.gis2.nic.in/cgwb).

D. Experiences in the Pilot Basins

1. Introduction

76. Three pilot study basins were used in the project to study the potential impacts of climate change and to identify appropriate adaptation measures. These were the Sutlej Basin, which is snow fed, the Cauvery Basin which has high groundwater use, and the Cauvery Delta, where sea level rise and coastal processes pose developing issues for the future.

2. Precipitation and Climatic Data Availability

77. The source of meteorological data in India is the National Data Centre (NDC) of the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD). The NDC has as its mandate: "to preserve quality controlled data and supply for Weather Prediction, Aviation, Agriculture, Environmental studies, Oceanography and Shipping and Researchers of various Institutions and Universities".

http://www.gis2.nic.in/cgwb


78. The NDC archives data from extensive network of stations and there is an on-line catalogue of stations (www.imdpune.gov.in). IMD has produced daily gridded data sets for precipitation and temperature. IMD has produced gridded data sets of rainfall and temperature that are readily available at a relatively modest cost. The available gridded data sets are listed in. Table 6. These datasets are available on CD-ROM and are apparently intended primarily for research purposes. However, there are many practical water resources investigations for which they would be useful and restriction to research use should not be necessary. These data sets are a very valuable resource for water resources investigations on large basins. They are however not useful for any flood related analysis for which short duration point data are required.

Table 6 Gridded historic data sets available from IMD

Parameter Resolution Period of Record Precipitation 1o × 1o 1951 - 2007 1o × 1o 1901 - 2004 0.5o × 0.5o 1971 - 2005 Temperature 1o × 1o 1969 - 2005

79. There should be no need to place restrictions on the retrieval of precipitation and meteorological data, and a strong argument exists for making the data readily available on a web based retrieval system for those who wish to use the data. Restrictions need only be placed on any attempts to re-sell downloaded or partially processed data. The quality controlled data held by the NDC should be considered a public good.

80. Obtaining access to available historic precipitation and climate data was a serious issue in all three basins. IMD were unable to provide data requested in a timely fashion, and charges for data were found to be prohibitive, thereby significantly limiting the extent of analyses undertaken as part of the project. IMD have been upgrading their database systems, and some of the delays in obtaining data may have been related to this. However, a policy shift is required to make data more freely available to those who need to use it. The current practice is likely to be negatively impacting on hydrological and hydraulic design processes.

81. There are internationally available sources of gridded data that have been compiled primarily for use in climate change studies. The Asian Precipitation - Highly-Resolved Observational Data Integration Towards Evaluation of the Water Resources (APHRODITE's water resources) project provides daily data on 0.25o and 0.5o grids for the period 1951 - 2007. This resource is free to academics and researchers. Another source of data is Global Historical Climatological Network (GHCN), which contains long term records. These data sources are accessible through web portals giving rapid data access. A web based portal to IMD data would be an appropriate means of access.

3. Streamflow Data Availability

82. River flow data are available through CWC with some additional data from the states. Data were available in electronic form since 1990. The format in which the data were provided was not conducive to analysis, being in tabulated spreadsheet form, with one table per year of data. Data would be better issued to prospective users in the form of ascii text files or binary files that can be easily processed. A further issue noted with the CWC data was that station locations were not given. This created difficulties in catchment delineation for hydrological modelling. Station locations should be a fundamental part of the river flow databases.

4. Water Resources Infrastructure Data Availability

83. Meta data for large structures are readily available through CWC and WRIS, and sourcing these data did not prove difficult. Obtaining more detailed data on reservoir characteristics was time consuming, and some elements of data, such as rule curves could not be obtained.


5. Operational Data

84. Obtaining operational data proved to be time consuming in both the Sutlej and Cauvery basins. In the Sutlej basin operating rules for Bhakara reservoir could not be obtained. Irrigation records for the Sirhind command are only available in paper form and obtaining these proved to be time consuming also. Many operational records for irrigation systems are kept at district level and there do not appear to be plans to put these into electronic form at present. Having records in electronic form would assist in evaluating historic operation, and in considering alternative water distribution and management options.

6. Land Use and Other Data

85. In the pilot basins, topographic, land use and soils data were sourced from global data sets. These proved adequate for the studies being carried out. For hydrological modelling the data used included:

o Soil maps and associated soil characteristics (source: FAO Global soil)9 o Land use (source: Global landuse)10 for Sutlej basin since part of the basin boundary falls

outside India

86. For the Kshipra basin, landuse and irrigation source map from IWMI was used for the present study. IWMI derived mapping of the Ganges River Basin Irrigated Area using MODIS 500-m and AVHRR 10-km Satellite sensor data, merged with IWMI‘s Global Map of Land Use/Land Cover Areas, to derive a new landuse map with agriculture landuse as well as sources of irrigation. For the Cauvery basin study, NRSC land use data for 2007-2008 was used.

7. Issues of Data Sharing

87. Experience in the pilot basins has indicated clearly that data sharing is an issue. There is duplication of effort in the collection of streamflow data. CWC operate their own networks, while state water resources departments also have their own networks. It is understood that there are three underlying reasons for this overlap:

o the CWC network is intended to provide national planning data, and also to serve as unbiased records in the event of inter-state disputes over water sharing;

o at state level there is a high turn-over of staff in the hydrology sections of state water resources departments; as a result of staff rotations and the lack of any career path in hydrology, staff do not build up the expertise necessary to maintain good quality hydrometric data;

o states are apparently reluctant to share their data, either with CWC or neighbouring states, in fear of losing water rights or allocation.

88. The same issues do not exist with groundwater data, and there is apparently good co-operation between the CGWB and state level water resources departments. This is most likely the case because groundwater is considered as more of a localised resource with which there are few trans-boundary issues.

E. Water Resources Data Management Strategy

1. Introduction

89. The NWM of the NAPCC document stated that: "There is a need to review the restrictions on data access. The Ministries and their agencies should also take action to digitise data, maintain databases of global quality, and streamline procedures governing access." The importance of data management and access was clearly identified in the report of the National Water Mission (NWM, 2009), where the first of the five goals identified was "Comprehensive water database in public

9 http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/fao.html 10 http://glcfapp.glcf.umd.edu:8080/esdi/index.jsp

http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/fao.html

http://glcfapp.glcf.umd.edu:8080/esdi/index.jsp


domain and assessment of the impact of climate change on water resource". Data access has been clearly identified as an issue.

90. Water resources data need to be accessible between central Government departments and state organisations, to researchers, and to organisations working on behalf central or state Governments, and indeed to any organisation that needs the data for design or operational purposes. Organisations in India collecting data that of importance in water resources assessment include:

o IMD o CWC o State WRDs o CGWB o IITM Pune o State Departments of Agriculture o Geological Survey of India (GSI) o National and state remote sensing centres o Reservoir operators such as BBMB

91. Key elements of data in water resources assessment have been outlined above. Table 7 presents a summary of how data collected at central and state level could form part of a distributed data management system. Some elements of data could be stored in a central water resources repository with CWC, while others should be held and accessed through the organisations that have collected and processed them. A key element of the strategy should be that data are available through web based portals, forming a distributed network or knowledge base. Each node of the network could contain links to other nodes. The strategy should be to create a transparent system through which users can quickly assess data availability, and download data relevant to their needs. With a nodal system, nodal organisations would retain full responsibility for keeping their databases up to date, and for administering access. The existing CWC WRIS could be developed to provide a gateway to the databases of other organisations on the network, with perhaps a single authentication. An overview of how the network might be linked is shown in Figure 7.

2. Precipitation and Climate Data

92. The primary source of historic precipitation and climate data should be the IMD. Both individual station data and gridded data sets should be made available. Ideally users of the data would be able to identify stations of interest through a map based display, from which data availability could be determined and stations selected and data downloaded. The entire historic record should be accessible for every station. An approach would be to extend the existing WRIS interface to include the metadata relating to all IMD stations (at present it includes only meteorological stations), such that station selection could be made through WRIS, with automatic links to the IMD database for data downloading. IMD would of course have their own portal, and WRIS would simply be able to communicate with the IMD database at a lower level.

93. A secondary source of precipitation and climate data should be the owners and operators of reservoirs and other infrastructure, for which independent hydrometric networks have been established and are growing. An example is the BBMB. With the assistance of HP-2, BBMB is establishing an extensive telemetry network, including climate stations, snow gauges, rain gauges and stream gauging stations. These data would clearly be invaluable in future water resource assessments in the Sutlej basin, and in research focussed on the impacts of climate change on glacial melt and the longer term water resource availability. The data collected by BBMB and similar organisations should also be made available through a web based portal, and a valuable resource opened up to those with a potential use for it. Again it could be possible to link to BBMB data through WRIS.


CWC Infrastructure

State WRDsIrrigation Systems

State DoAsAgriculture

CWC Tides / Sea Level

IMDPrecipitation &

Climate

CWC River Flows

State WRDs River Flows

CGWB / IGSGroundwater

CWC / IITMClimate Scenarios

SROSoils & land use

IGSGlaciers

CWC WRIS Portal

IMDPrecipitation &

Climate

CWC River Flows

State WRDs River Flows

CGWB / IGSGroundwater

CWC / IITMClimate Scenarios

SROSoils & land use

IGSGlaciers

Independent Databases

CWC Infrastructure

State WRDsIrrigation Systems

State DoAsAgriculture

CWC Tides / Sea Level

CWC / WRIS Databases

Table 7 Water Resources Data Access and Management Strategy

Data Type Ownership and Management Independent Web Portal

WRIS Portal Access

Precipitation & climate

Data held and maintained primarily by IMD.

√ √

River flow data Data held and maintained by CWC and by State WRDs for respective networks. Databases updated under HP-2.

√ √

Water resources infrastructure

Metadata should be held by CWC for all infrastructures exceeding a certain size. Links to owners data.

√

Groundwater data

Data held and maintained centrally by CGWB. Links to GIS for mapping.

√ √

Irrigation systems

State WRDs to create and maintain electronic databases accessible for basin planning.

√

Agriculture State Departments of Agriculture hold and maintain state statistical and phenological data.

√

Climate scenarios

Repository created by CWC in collaboration with IITM for data relevant to water resources.

√ √

Soils and land use

A central repository of state land use and soils date should be established at National Remote Sensing Centre.

√ √

Tidal data Network of primary tidal stations to be established and maintained under CWC hydrometric activities.

√

Glaciers Basin wise inventory / database to be established and maintained by IGS.

√ √

94. Most databases will include "raw" and "verified" or "Quality controlled" data, and these should be kept distinctly apart. Raw data would generally not be made available outside of the organisation that collects it, but must be maintained. Verified data can be made available both in the form of summary statistics and full datasets.

Figure 7 WRIS Portal Links to Nodal Databases


3. River Flow Data

95. River flow data are collected by the CWC as well as state WRDs. The CWC network is generally considered to provide more reliable data than does state networks, largely because CWC is able to retain professional staff. Staff in WRDs are rotated regularly and may not have any prior hydrometric background when assigned to hydrometric duties. This poses a significant challenge to maintaining the continuity of data quality in state WRDs, and in some cases may threaten the sustainability of their networks.

96. Data from the CWC network of stations is held centrally at a national data centre in Delhi. These data should be openly accessible through a web based portal to registered data users. Data collected by state WRDs has not in the past been accessible to either CWC or neighbouring states. River flow data held a state level is likely to become of increasing importance in monitoring responses to climate change, and in developing appropriate adaptation strategies.

97. Metadata on CWC flow monitoring sites is included in WRIS. The WRIS data should be extended to include metadata for all stations, with direct links to the appropriate databases for downloading. WRIS should include links to the new database being created under HP-2. State WRDs should be encouraged to provide access to their data across the network also as they will be provided with the same databases as CWC under HP-2. Access to state data could be through WRIS also.

4. Water Resources Infrastructure

98. WRIS contains metadata for some elements of water resources infrastructure. Key characteristics data are generally with the owners for the infrastructure and are generally not in electronic form. Many of these data could usefully be incorporated into WRIS, having the advantage that all data could be maintained in the same format. CWC could, through WRIS, build up comprehensive databases of basin infrastructure.

5. Groundwater

99. The locations of groundwater observation wells are included in WRIS at present, with some data on depths to water table, although no means of converting water table depths to levels. An ideal development of WRIS would be to permit selection of observation wells through WRIS, and to have a link to the CGWB database for data retrieval and downloading.

100. In addition to observation well information, it is also necessary to have access to information on abstraction well numbers, annual abstraction rates, and estimated recharge rates. These data currently appear in annual reports to the CGWB made by state ground water departments/ organisations, and these data could be incorporated in the CGWB databases.

6. Irrigation Systems

101. WRIS currently displays irrigated areas of different scales (Large, medium and small), and some information on command areas for large and medium systems. Detailed data on irrigation systems could not be maintained in a centralised database and should be managed through state WRDs. At present few irrigation system data are available in electronic form. There is therefore an opportunity to provide some level of standardisation between states, and to prioritise digitising efforts. Access to irrigation system data through a WRIS type interface is probably some way off, but provision should be made when states are developing their irrigation system databases for a level of external access to data appropriate for basin planning studies. With irrigation as the largest water user it is important to develop information on the irrigation systems linked to a GIS system; larger schemes should be developed as polygons which would delineate the command areas; smaller schemes as points.

7. Agriculture

102. Data on cropped areas and crop yields are collected by state departments of Agriculture. These data are available by district. The cropping databases should be maintained at state level, and


it would be useful if they could be accessed from WRIS. WRIS displays district boundaries, and a feature that would permit links from WRIS to state databases for crop statistics on selected districts could be developed.

8. Climate Scenarios

103. Currently there is only limited availability of RCM scenarios for India. Modelling capability exists at IITM and at TERI, and both of these centres are using PRECIS with HADCM3 boundary conditions. TERI are currently working on a very limited domain with a high resolution model. IITM on the other hand have been working with a domain that covers the entire continent.

104. IITM have produced simulations with the A2 and B2 SRES scenarios for the 2080s time slice as well as a baseline period, and have produced three simulations with the A1B scenario. The three A1B scenarios are alternative realisations using boundaries from the Hadley Centre's HADCM3 QUMP (quantifying uncertainty in model predictions) ensemble. The QUMP approach involves carrying out multiple model simulations with parameters adjusted within what are considered to be feasible ranges. The approach is designed to account for modelling uncertainties (and inter-model variability), and produces an internally consistent set of scenarios. IITM have thus far selected three of the 17 available QUMP ensemble members. They plan to carry out further simulations, and also intend to work with RegCM in future.

105. At present there is no formal means of obtaining simulation results from IITM, although they do provide data to other researchers on request. There would be advantage in making the data more widely available either through an ftp site or a web based portal, as exists for GCM data through the IPCC.

106. For water resources investigations, the data generally required from GCM and RCM simulations are:

o precipitation; o maximum and minimum daily temperatures; o relative humidity; o wind speed; o solar radiation reaching the ground surface.

107. These are a subset of the data produced by a RCM, and there is a good argument for creating a separate archive or repository for those data specifically required for water resources investigations. Data for the existing PRECIS scenarios (3 A1B scenarios plus A2 and B2) could be extracted and archived for the entire model domain used by IITM, and an interface set up to permit data extraction from the archive for any selected location and planning horizon. The archive could be hosted and maintained by CWC, and accessible through WRIS. It would also be possible to provide standard analysis and reporting routines that would make the data accessible to people with a wide range of skill sets. The repository could also include GCM data for the same domain as the PRECIS data.

108. Creation of the repository would provide a resource for all water resources studies in India, and would prevent duplication of effort in data extraction and analysis. It would be of assistance to both researchers and practitioners. IITM would be a partner organisation in its creation and maintenance.

109. Creation of the repository would not require a great deal of effort. There are many highly skilled IT people who could set up a web based portal for data access. A hydrologist could provide the data analysis and presentation routines, as well as specifications for data formats.

9. Soils and Land Use

110. Soils and land use data should be made available through a repository at the National Remote Sensing Centre. Data should be held in GIS layers and available at different resolutions. The


repository should hold all data prepared through state remote sensing centres and provide links to other internationally available resources. It should have its own web based portal, and a link to this should be provided through the WRIS system.

10. Tidal and Coastal Data

111. From a water resources perspective the needs of ocean data relate primarily to estimates of sea level rise that will influence urban drainage in coastal cities, agricultural and natural drainage systems in lowland areas, saline intrusion to coastal aquifers and saline intrusion in estuaries and drainage outfall channels. In regional or sub-regional planning it is relative sea level rise that is of importance rather than eustatic sea level rise. Relative sea level rise is influenced by land movements. The requirement is therefore for regionally focussed relative sea level rise scenarios. Information on the coastal currents and wave patterns is important to assess requirements for coastal protection.

112. A primary network of tidal gauges should established around the Indian coastline for the purposes of sea level rise monitoring and drainage design in estuarine and low lying coastal areas. A database of available stations and records should be set up and be maintained by CWC, with access to it through WRIS.

113. The CWPRS would be well placed to collate such information, drawing on the work of climate modelling centres and the Geological Survey of India

11. Glacier Inventories

114. The Geological Survey of India (GSI) have prepared a very comprehensive inventory of glaciers. This inventory should be transferred to a GIS. Ideally it should be possible to query the database by river basin and by catchment. The database should be under the control of GSI, and regularly updated as improved information on glacier areas and mass becomes available. The database should record time series data, all be it that time steps might be quite irregular from one glacier to another. There should be open access to the database and considerable added value might come from its use by a variety of researchers in India and beyond. The research community could also contribute to updates to the database. A link to the database could be provided from WRIS.

F. Implementation

1. Introduction

115. Implementation of the strategy will require a co-ordinated effort amongst the organisations involved in order to ensure that appropriate access provision is made in the independent databases. Fundamental agreement is required on data sharing, not only between concerned organisations, but with the public and organisations with a role in water management. The data involved are collected with public money for the benefit of society as whole and ownership should be considered to be with the public and not with the organisation that collects it - they are custodians. There will also have to be agreement on user registration and authentication procedures.

116. All aspects of the data are important, but a roadmap should be prepared for implementation of the strategy. In parallel with the data and information systems there is a need to build up and coordinate specialist knowledge systems. The proposed approach for sub basin planning proposes is the integration of specialist inputs from institutes and consultants. Discussion follows in implementation of key aspects, including key specialist information systems.

2. Hydrometric Information Systems

117. Under HP-1 and HP-2 there have been significant improvements to the hydrometric networks in India. CWC is currently considering the future needs in hydrometric networks, and a working paper has been prepared considering existing network density, criteria for network design, and concluding that a significant increase in the density of hydrometric observations is required. The working paper


considers the technical aspects of network design and adequacy, but does not address institutional and sustainability issues.

118. Extension of hydrometric networks and services should be viewed as part of an integrated water resources management approach. A priority should be to put in place mechanisms that ensure the sustainability of the existing networks. In parallel it is important to ensure that existing data are accessible to those that can purposefully use it. To be of real value in water resources planning, design and management, hydrological data need to be continuous with no record gaps, and of long duration. Hydrological data collection is fundamental to the planning and management of water resources, and long term budgetary and institutional commitment is required to ensure this. Good quality data results in more cost effective planning, design and management of resources, that will generally justify the cost of data collection and processing.

119. The institutional framework within which hydrometric services are provided is key to the sustainability and quality of the service. The service is a fundamental part of river basin planning and management that becomes increasingly important as stress on water resources systems and hydrological risk change through increasing and competing demands for water, and the potential impacts of climate change.

3. Basin Management Planning

120. There is no doubt that further improvements to hydrometric networks are required, but planning of further improvements should be an outcome of basin planning activities, linked to institutional initiatives that will:

o ensure sustainability of existing networks through adequate maintenance of equipment and suitably qualified professional staff to operate networks and process the data collected;

o provide a greater degree of data sharing than exists at present and co-operation between central and state agencies to ensure that duplication of effort does not take place and that the best use is made of all available resources.

121. Creating an appropriate institutional framework for hydrological and hydrometric services is important. At state level the present practice of staff rotation can result in staff with no hydrometric experience or interest being assigned hydrometric duties. Staff turnover does not permit establishment of an experience and knowledge base of basins that are becoming increasingly more stressed.

122. The importance of understanding local catchment conditions, and hydrological hazards and risks, has been stressed as being fundamental to hydrometric network design. Hydrometric network design and management should therefore be a fundamental part of river basin management planning. Creation of a river basin management plan requires in the first instance creation of a river basin profile that identifies key features of the hydrology and hydrogeology, existing hydrometric networks and data availability, existing water use, stakeholders and actors in the water environment or in activities that influence the water environment, and future development plans. Through this process an understanding is developed of hydrological risks in the basin, and the adequacy of the existing hydrometric network to quantify the water resource, assess hydrological risk, and to permit planning of future sustainable water resources development and management.

123. Through the creation of basin management plans, issues will be identified as will the data needs required to adequately address these, both now and in the future under uncertain climate conditions. Through the creation of basin management plans, it should also be possible to identify appropriate staffing levels to maintain the network additions proposed. Creation of recognised career paths for hydrologists and specialist staff at state level should be a priority, and is something that could come through the creation of basin planning and management organisations.

124. A number of activities being undertaken as a part of HP-2 will help in developing basin management planning approaches. These include:


(i) the development of a planning decision support system, to be trialled in catchments in nine States, which is intended to support provision of key data to inform water resource planning and management decisions within each basin;

(ii) the development of "Hydrological Design Aids" to assist understanding of surface water hydrology, to be made available by CWC to all States, which will include rainfall runoff models and guidance in their use (data-sets, calibration process etc)

(iii) key applied hydrology studies we are undertaking to look at critical water management issues; such as the impact of climate change in the Upper Beas catchment;

(iv) development of a decision support system to inform real-time operation of the BBMB river management system. 4. CWC Network Design Approach

125. The CWC working paper on hydrometric network adequacy outlines a pragmatic and practical approach to network design. This provides a useful basis for identifying network needs and could help guide network design as part of a basin planning approach. The key has to be to put network design in the context of basin needs now and in the future when the data collected will be at their most useful.

126. Aspects of hydrometric data collection that do require immediate attention at the national level are the creation of a network of primary tidal stations following a review of the existing Survey of India network, and increased investment in glacial monitoring and research.

5. Coastal and Ocean Information

127. From a water resources perspective the needs of ocean data relate primarily to estimates of sea level rise that will influence urban drainage in coastal cities, agricultural and natural drainage systems in lowland areas, saline intrusion to coastal aquifers and saline intrusion in estuaries and drainage outfall channels. In regional or sub-regional planning it is relative sea level rise that is of importance rather than eustatic sea level rise. Relative sea level rise is influenced by land movements. The requirement is therefore for regionally focussed relative sea level rise scenarios.

128. Information on the coastal processes is critical for planning coastal development and protection projects. Issues of estuaries and river mouths require good information sources on littoral drift, wave and currents.

129. The CWPRS would be well placed to collate such information, drawing on the work of climate modelling centres, the Geological Survey of India, the National Institutes of Oceanography and MoEF.

6. Cryosphere11 Information Systems

130. Cryosphere Data are of most importance in the Ganges and Indus basins, where snow and glacial melt make a significant contribution to the water resources. The potential impact of climate change on snow and glacial storage in the Himalayas and on rates of storage depletion is the subject of a many international research projects at the present time. Studies are being carried out by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), the National Institute of Hydrology (NIH), and other organisations. A significant international effort is the "HighNoon Project" that is being funded through the EU Framework 7 programme. Indian collaborators include IIT Delhi, TERI and IIT Kharagpur. The HighNoon project ".... aims to assess the impact of Himalayan glaciers retreat and possible changes of the Indian summer monsoon on the spatial and temporal distribution of water resources in Northern India. The project further aims to provide recommendations for appropriate and efficient adaptation strategies to hydrological extreme events through a participatory process." (see http://www.eu-highnoon.org/templates/dispatcher.asp?page_id=25222858).

131. The Centre for Earth Systems Engineering Research (CESER) at Newcastle University is studying water resource management in the Hindu Kush-Karakoram-Himalaya region ( see: http://www.ncl.ac.uk/ceser/projects/hkh/). The aims of their research are: 11 Frozen areas, snow and glaciers


(i) to produce both statistical and physically-based models of flow to develop and improve seasonal flow forecasting to reservoirs in the HKH; critical for both water supplies and hydropower generation;

(ii) to use these modelling procedures to examine the impact of future climate change on water

resources using predictions from the latest climate models;

(iii) to examine how seasonal flow forecasts could be applied to present water management strategies and how these may need to change when considering the impacts of climate change.

132. Studies being carried out by TERI include the establishment of monitoring networks for glacial movements, melt and micro-climate, with an overall objective of assessing the spatial and temporal distribution of the Himalayan cryosphere to river flows. Changes in plan area of glaciers are being studied by the ISRO.

133. It is important that the organisations involved in cryosphere research are able to share their information freely, and that the results of such research can be easily accessed by those involved in water resources planning and management in the Ganges and Indus basins. An appropriate repository for such research findings could be the NIH.

7. Land Survey Data

134. Topographic and land use data are particularly important for water resources planning studies, and these data should be available in digital form for use with hydrological models. In many water resources investigations the CGIAR SRTM90m (http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/index.asp) digital elevation model data are now used. These data are generally more accessible than products available through national mapping agencies. Catalogues of mapping products available from the Survey of India are available from the Survey of India web site (http://www.surveyofindia.gov.in/Products.html).

135. Various GIS thematic layers, covering for example soils, land use, water logging and salinity are available through the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), and through state Remote Sensing Centres. Other than providing satellite imageries (Satellites: IRS-P3, IRS-P6, IRS-P5, IRS-P4, IRS-1D, IRS-1C Sensors and Resolution: AWiFS: 56 m, LISS III : 24 m, LISS-4: 5m (IRSP6), PAN: 5m (IRS 1C/1D), Cartosat 2: 1m, Cartosat 1: 2.5 m) NRSA provides the following products (User registration is required to get the data): State and district level Land Use Land Cover statistics for 2004-05, 2005-06, 2006-07, 2007-08 at National level (1:1M and 1:250K); Seasonal snow cover and Water bodies -Year wise for 3 months October, February and May 2004-05, 2005-06, 2006-07, 2007-08.

136. Identification of areas vulnerable to soil erosion is particularly important for catchment planning. Soil loss may result in more rapid loss of reservoir storage, as well as reducing the conveyance of water courses. In addition, loss of soil and vegetation cover leads to more rapid runoff response which in turn leads to more intense flood response. The Central Water Commission has conducted capacity survey of 30 important reservoirs in the country. It is not known if an evaluation of rates of sedimentation has been made.

8. Agricultural Data and Information Systems

137. Irrigated agriculture is the single largest use of water in India, accounting for an estimated 83%12 of the renewable resource. Irrigated agriculture thus offers the greatest potential for demand management and for improving water use efficiency. In managing water resources at the basin scale, a clear knowledge of cropping patterns, of water use efficiency, and of water abstractions is essential.

12 CWC Annual Report (2008-2009)


138. At state level, data on cropping are held by Department of Agriculture13. Data are available on cropping patterns, on crop yields, and on the distribution of tubewells. Data are available as yearwise-districtwise-cropwise irrigated area, and yearwise-districtwise-irrigation sourcewise irrigated area for the last 10 years. However, yearwise-districtwise-cropwise_sourcewise irrigated area data are not available.

139. Included with the agricultural data, should be information on the irrigation systems - canal networks and capacities, historic diversion records, maps showing salt affected areas and water logged areas etc. In many states GIS layers of canal and drainage networks have been prepared, along with layers showing salinity and water logging. Canal discharge records are not as yet recorded in any electronic databases in any of the states visited.

140. Under climate change it is possible that irrigation demands will change as a result of changes in precipitation and potential evapotranspiration, and also as a result of CO2 fertilization. Crop varieties will be adapted to changing conditions, and in many areas there could be shifts in cropping patterns. Databases of potential crop response to climate change scenarios are required.

9. Socio-economic Data

141. Socio-economic data are generally available through state statistical data and are of value in identifying adaptive capacity and adaptation measures. State statistical data are generally available in district statistical handbooks published by the Economic and Statistics Department of a State.

10. Forestry Data

142. From a water resources perspective, the importance of forestry data is in monitoring land use changes and their impact on catchment response. Forestry plans are of course an important input to catchment management planning. Current forest extent is included in available land use mapping.

13 http://dacnet.nic.in/lus/dt_lus.aspx


IV. SUMMARY OF ONGOING CLIMATE INITIATIVES

A. The National Action Plan for Climate Change

143. NAPCC - National Action Plan on Climate Change encompasses a range of measures to simultaneously advance India's development and climate change-related objectives. It focuses on eight missions, as outlined below (in bold mission components of high relevance to this project).

i) National Solar Mission: The NAPCC aims to promote the development and use of solar energy for power generation and other uses, with the ultimate objective of making solar competitive with fossil-based energy options. It also includes the establishment of a solar research centre, increased international collaboration on technology development, strengthening of domestic manufacturing capacity, and increased government funding and international support.

ii) National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: The NAPCC recommends mandating

specific energy consumption decreases in large energy-consuming industries, with a system for companies to trade energy-saving certificates, financing for public-private partnerships to reduce energy consumption through demand-side management programs in the municipal, buildings, and agricultural sectors, and energy incentives, including reduced taxes on energy-efficient appliances.

iii) National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: The NAPCC also aims at promoting energy

efficiency as a core component of urban planning by extending the existing Energy Conservation Building Code, strengthening the enforcement of automotive fuel economy standards, and using pricing measures to encourage the purchase of efficient vehicles and incentives for the use of public transportation. The NAPCC also emphasizes on waste management and recycling.

iv) National Water Mission: - Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) leads on this mission. The

main objective of the National Water Mission is ―conservation of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring its more equitable distribution both across and within States through integrated water resources development and management‖. The five identified goals of the Mission are: (a) comprehensive water database in public domain and assessment of impact of climate change on water resource; (b) promotion of citizen and state action for water conservation, augmentation and preservation; (c) focused attention to over-exploited areas; (d) increasing water use efficiency by 20% through pricing and other measures to deal with water scarcity as a result of climate change, and (e) promotion of basin level integrated water resources management.

v) National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: This particular mission sets the

goal to prevent melting of the Himalayan glaciers and to protect biodiversity in the Himalayan region.

vi) Green India Mission: The NAPCC also aims at afforestation of 6 million hectares of degraded

forest lands and expanding forest cover from 23 to 33% of India's territory.

vii) National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: The NAPCC aims to support climate adaptation in agriculture through the development of climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather insurance mechanisms, and agricultural practices.

144. The National Water Mission (referred to as the mission) is the most relevant mission to the study, although parts of the other missions are relevant. The National Water Mission (NWM) documents present a wide range of recommendations toward adaptation to climate change in the water sectors. The main objective of the National Water Mission is ―conservation of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring its more equitable distribution both across and within States through integrated water resources development and management‖. The five identified goals of the Mission are: (i) comprehensive water data base in public domain and assessment of impact of climate change on water resource; (ii) promotion of citizen and state action for water conservation, augmentation and


preservation; (iii) focused attention to over-exploited areas; (iii) increasing water use efficiency by 20%, and (iv) promotion of basin level integrated water resources management.

145. Various strategies for achieving the goals have been identified which lead to integrated plan for sustainable development and efficient management with active participation of the stakeholders. The S-NWM has worked with these proposals to define, identify and evaluate the development scenarios in the three selected sub-basins to develop proposals appropriate for the specific needs and assurances of acceptability to meet present needs as well as potential requirements to meet the impacts of climate change on water resources based on reliable data and information.

146. Identified strategies of the Mission also aim to review; (i) the national water policy, (ii) policy for financing water resources projects, and (iii) criteria for design and planning for water resources projects. The most important strategy is to identify and evaluate development scenario and management practices towards better acceptability with due consideration to integrated water resources planning and emphasis on ensuring convergence among various water resources programmes. Some of the important features of the Mission include:

o Review of National Water Policy. o Research and studies on all aspects related to impact of climate change on water resources

including quality aspects of water resources. o Expeditious implementation of water resources projects particularly the multipurpose projects

with carry over storages; o Promotion of traditional system of water conservation; o Intensive programme for ground water recharge in over-exploited areas; o Incentives for recycling of water including wastewater; o Planning on the principle of integrated water resources development and management. o Ensuring convergence among various water resources programmes; o Intensive capacity building and awareness programme including those for Panchayati Raj

Institutions, urban local bodies and youths. o Sensitization of elected representatives of over exploited area on dimensions of the problem

and to orient investment under NREGA towards water conservation.

147. For achieving the objectives of the Mission, long-term sustained efforts both in terms of time bound completion of identified activities and ensuring the implementation of identified policies and enactment of necessary legislation through persuasion at different levels with the State Governments have been envisaged. The first and foremost action is to put in place appropriate mechanism for coordinated actions followed by intensive capacity building and awareness programme up to lower most level of management i.e. Panchayati Raj Institutions, urban local bodies, Water User Associations etc. All sections of the society, particularly youths are planned to be actively involved in the process. The S-NWM TA has worked in three pilot basins to investigate how these and other proposals can be developed into viable programmes on the ground.

148. The NWM sets out a series of programmes and targets for implementations; some of these are now underway and the S_NWM will liaise and coordinate with these ongoing initiatives to provide complementarities and support. The NWM suggests a mix of research and programmes; particularly the conservation of water through storages both above and below ground; specific action points include:

o Comprehensive water data base in public domain and assessment of the impact of climate change on water resources including additional data

o Review and establishment of network for collection of additional necessary data by March 2011.

o Development of water resources information system and bringing all information in public domain except the data of classified and sensitive nature by March 2012.

o Reassessment of basin wise water situation by March 2011. o Impact of climate change on water resources based on reliable data by March 2012. o Promotion of citizen and state actions for water conservation, augmentation and preservation o Expeditious formulation of river interlinking projects by March 2012. o Focused attention to over-exploited areas


o Intensive rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge programme to cover 1120 over-exploited, critical and semi-critical blocks during XI Plan and rest to be covered in XII Plan and 30% of the urban areas by March 2012.

o Intensive rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge programme to cover all the blocks by March 2017.

o Increasing water use efficiency at least by 20% o Development of guidelines for incentivizing for recycling of water including wastewater by

March 2011. o Development of guidelines for incentives for water-neutral and water-positive technologies by

March 2011. o Development of guidelines for improving efficiency of urban water supply system by March

2011. o Preparation of guidelines and manuals for mandatory water audit including those for drinking

water purpose by March 2011. o Review of financing policy and allocations by March 2010. o Undertake Pilot studies in collaboration with States by March 2012. o Promotion of basin level integrated water resources management o Guidelines for different uses of water e.g., irrigation, drinking, industrial etc particularly in

context of basin wise situations by March 2011. o Review of National Water Policy and adoption of revised Policy by March 2013 o Establishment of a dedicated Mission Secretariat through creation of three posts. B. Ministry of the Environment and Forests (MoEF)

149. NATCOM India signed the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) on 10 June 1992 and ratified it on 1 November 1993. Under the UNFCCC, developing countries such as India, known as Annex I countries do not have binding of GHG mitigation commitments in recognition of their small contribution to the greenhouse gases as well as low financial and technical capacities.

150. The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) has been recognized as the nodal agency for climate change issues in India. MoEF undertook India's initial National Communication (NATCOM) to the UNFCCC as implementing and executing agency of the project. The main objectives set for the project include; (i) development of a comprehensive GHG inventory for 1994, (ii) assessment of likely vulnerabilities and developing adaptation strategies to combat impacts of climate change, (iii) identification of financial, technological, capacity needs and constraints for Climate change research and communication of information to UNFCCC on a regular basis, (iv) development of a reliable and comprehensive database for all the outputs produced, (v) preparation of a 'Targeted Research Proposal' for developing a medium- to long-term action plan for climate change research in the country.

151. This exercise involved detailed work on estimation of sectoral GHG emissions and identification of country-specific emission factors. Vulnerability and adaptation assessment was also part of the National Communication project. The Final report of India‘s Initial National Communication was submitted to the UNFCCC in June 2004 (http://www.natcomindia.org/natcomreport.htm). It would be worth mentioning that India acceded to the Kyoto Protocol on 26 August 2002.

152. Since all Parties of UNFCCC are required to develop, periodically update, publish and make available to the Conference of the Parties (COP), information in accordance with the Article 12 of the Convention taking into account their common but differentiated responsibilities and specific national regional development priorities, objectives and circumstances. India undertook Second National Communication (NATCOM Phase II) with the following work plan (http://www.natcomindia.org/SNC.htm#work).

o Development of a consistent, comparable, comprehensive, and transparent national GHG emission inventory for the year 2000 with reduced uncertainties

o Development of new Climate Change Scenarios o A Comprehensive assessment of impacts of climate change on key sectors such as water

resources, agriculture, forests and natural ecosystems, coastal zones, human health, energy and infrastructure

http://pib.nic.in/archieve/lreleng/lyr2002/raug2002/07082002/r070820027.html


o Integrated vulnerability assessment in selected areas to provide representative sample of climate change impacts and adaptation responses leading to the formulation of adaptation framework.

o Assimilation of information on national circumstances for addressing national needs and constraints arising from adverse impacts of climate change. .

o A description of the Policies and programmes, including programmes related to sustainable development that help in the implementation of the Convention.

o The financial, technological, capacity needs and constraints for Climate change research and communication of information to UNFCCC on a regular basis.

o Development of a national inventory management system o Capacity enhancement through training, thematic and awareness workshops.

153. The final report of NATCOM Phase II is under preparation and is expected to be submitted to UNFCCC in 2011. The two phases of the NATCOM projects have been very successful in fulfilling the set objectives. A large number of national organizations (both research and educational) have been very actively involved in participating and contributing to the project.

154. INCCA; MoEF took another initiative of putting in place an Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA) with a mandate to; (i) Assess the drivers and implications of climate change through scientific research; (ii) prepare climate change assessments once every two years (GHG estimations and impacts of climate change, associated vulnerabilities and adaptation); (iii) develop decision support systems; and (iv) build capacity towards management of climate change related risks and opportunities

155. This network of over 120 institutions and over 220 scientists from across the country has undertaken scientific assessments of different aspects of climate change and produced a report in 2010 titled ‗A ―4X4‖ assessment of the impact of climate change on key sectors and regions of India in 2030s‘. The report provides an assessment of impact of climate change in 2030s on four key sectors of the Indian economy, namely Agriculture, Water, Natural Ecosystems & Biodiversity and Health in four climate sensitive regions of India, namely the Himalayan region, the Western Ghats, the Coastal Area and the North-East Region (http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/Innca-press-release.pdf).

156. State Action Plans for Climate Change; each State has been tasked to prepare State Action Plans for Climate Change (SAPCC). The plans will identify vulnerable sectors, Green House Gas inventory, strategies, plan of action, timeline and evaluation criteria. The plans are programmed to be ready by March 2011.

157. As part of SAPCC each state government has identified nodal departments, who have been given charge of the eight missions enumerated in NAPCC. Climate change experts, researchers and top bureaucrats in the state will work in the areas of non-conventional and solar energy, enhanced energy efficiency, sustainable habitat, water, sustaining the Himalayan ecosystem, Green India, sustainable agriculture and strategic knowledge for climate change. For these initiative, the state governments are tying up with donors who are providing the assistance for formulating the State Action Plans. Specialist consultants have been recruited to help the respective State.

158. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC): under the auspice of DST, it aims to gain a better understanding of climate science, impacts, and challenges. The plan envisions a new Climate Science Research Fund, improved climate modelling, and increased international collaboration. It also encourages private sector initiatives to develop adaptation and mitigation technologies through venture capital funds.

159. National Monsoon Mission - Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) proposed this national mission to develop advanced dynamic model framework for forecasting monsoon rainfall and its variability in various space and time scales. It brings together experts form: Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) and Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS).

http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/search?q=SAPCC

http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/search?q=Green%20House%20Gas

http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/search?q=Green%20House%20Gas

http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/search?q=NAPCC


160. INCCA - Indian Network of Climate Change Assessment, an initiative coordinated by MoEF. In Nov 2010, a major report was published, ―Climate Change and India: A 4x4 Assessment - A Sectoral and Regional Analysis for 2030s‘.

161. START - global change SysTem for Analysis, Research and Training, a non-governmental research organisation, coordinated by National Physical Laboratory and Shailesh J Mehta School of Management at Indian Institute of Technology in Mumbai (IITB)

162. MTM - Megha-Tropiques Mission (planned mission to study the water cycle in the tropical atmosphere in the context of climate change; collaborative effort between Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and French Centre National d‘Etudes Spatiales (CNES)) – launch was planned in early 2011.

163. GRBMP – Ganga river basin management plan: The NRCD (National River Conservation Directorate), Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF), Govt. of India has assigned a challenging task of formulation of the Ganga River Basin Management Plan to the consortium of IITs.This work shall help the Ganga River Basin Management Authority to identify the development pathways for the Ganga River in a sustainable manner.

164. UKIERI – UK India Education and Research Initiative One standard project that is connected to water resources is ‘Impact of climate change on the water cycle and ecosystem functioning at the river basin scale’ undertaken by University of Liverpool, UK, IIT Delhi and IISc. Bangalore.

C. Summary of the Asian Development Bank Operations Relating to Water and Climate Change.

165. The India Country Partnership Strategy (CPS 2009–2012) has been prepared within a results-based framework and aims to significantly strengthen ADB support for infrastructure development in the relatively poorer states of India, promote public–private partnerships in infrastructure, support climate change adaptation and mitigation, and encourage innovative financing. modalities (non-sovereign loans and co-financing) to increase the leverage of ADB operations.

166. ADB will support leverage of additional resources through co-financing, tapping concessional money for climate change mitigation and adaptation, and focusing more on value addition (through innovative financing modalities, public–private partnerships, non sovereign operations, better project design and implementation, capacity building, incorporation of best practices, and support for weaker and poorer states).

167. Support for the National Action Plan for Climate Change. ADB has been requested to support the National Water Mission (NWM) and is presently implementing a $0.75 million TA to provide support to the Ministry of Water Resources, Planning by the NWM has identified a wide range of issues and possible responses to climate change and the TA project is designed to develop follow on frameworks and strategic planning for the Government of India to meet the needs of robust water systems to meet the needs of climate change. The project will deliver four outputs; (i) strategic Frameworks for the India Water Systems; (ii) strategic frameworks for pilot sub-basins: three pilot sub-basins have been selected to address major areas of concern: (i) alterations of winter snow-pack dynamics on the snow-fed river systems; (ii) basins where groundwater is major water source with issues of overexploitation (iii) coastal areas where sea level rise will impact on surface and groundwater. For each of the three pilot sub basins location specific strategic frameworks will be developed; (iv) effective Institutions, finance, training and awareness:;(vi) integrated strategy and road map for water resources adaptation.

168. Preparation of Climate Change Adaptation in Himachal Pradesh- Sustainable Strategies for Water Resources. 2009/2010. ADB has provided support for the development of a climate change adaptation water resources strategy for the state of Himachal Pradesh in an effort towards reviewing and assessing the requirements for efficient and sustainable water resources management for this Himalayan Mountain State. The study has presented a seven point road towards to move forward ideas into viable and sustainable actions for climate adaptation.


169. Integrated Water Resources Management Scoping Study for the Sutlej River Basin 2010/2011. Following on from the 'sustainable strategies for water resources scoping study' described above; ADB is now supporting a $0.1 million more detailed study for the Sutlej River Basin. The study is directed at identifying and assessing the key issues and requirements for sustainable and environmentally appropriate development of water resources as well as adaptation to meet the likely vulnerabilities from climate change.

170. Coastal Protection and Management Project (2008/2010) ADB has supported a PPTA and follow on support work for three states to address long term coastal protection and management including possible climate change impacts. The PPTA studied and developed proposals for (i) medium term management and protection initiatives to address immediate coastal erosion needs through environmentally and socially appropriate solutions including detailed designs for three subprojects (ii) natural protection measures through development and planting of dunes, planting of mangrove or other trees for protection or shelter, (iii) wider coastal protection issues including water quality, navigational entrances, dredging, reclamation, and training of river and drain mouths, and (iv) fostering private sector participation in coastal protection and management. A $25014 MFF loan package is presently being processed. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is considering providing $2 million in grant financing from the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) to incorporate climate change considerations and capacity development for sustainable coastal protection and management into the Investment Program components.

171. Integrated Water Resources Management and Sustainable Water Service Delivery in Karnataka (2009/2010) ADB supporting a scoping study and a follow on CDTA $0.75. The project aims to contribute in the longer term to economic growth through sustainable and robust water systems to meet present and long term needs of livelihood enhancement, poverty reduction, improved environment and public health in water scarce river basins through efficient, effective and sustainable water resources management for irrigation and water supply/ sanitation. The CDTA also examines the sustainable planning aspects through an investigation of the impacts of climate change.

172. Scoping Study on Mainstreaming Climate Change 2010/2011 (TA 7092 IND: Knowledge Management for Enhanced Operational Effectiveness). The main objectives of this study are: (i) to conduct a review of all ongoing and proposed ADB projects in India from the viewpoint of their climate change mitigation and adaptation potential; (ii) develop a strategic framework for mainstreaming climate change adaptation and mitigation across ADB‘s operations.; (iii) identify knowledge, information and modeling gaps and develop an immediate strategy for ADB to undertake strategic main-streaming activities. The objectives of this collaborative programme of research were defined as: (i) improve our understanding of the likely effects of climate-induced changes in the water cycle on ecosystem functioning and the economics and delivery of dependent goods and services; (ii) develop innovative integrated approaches to assist government agencies and society in adapting to change; (iii) share experience in the assessments of the vulnerability of the environment and socio-economic systems to water related stress; and (iv) develop new operational tools for the assessment of ecosystem functioning and biodiversity with special reference to wetland, forest and rain-fed and irrigated cropping.

D. European Union

173. India-EU Initiatives: India-EU and Member States Partnership for Strategic Roadmap in Research and Innovation was held in November 2010 in Delhi where the main related themes were (i) Water quality and health challenges, and (ii) Water supply, re-reuse and environment. A side event on ‗Water Technology Research and Innovation Collaboration‘ was also held in IISc Bangalore. The thrust areas that were identified were; (i) water availability and its management; (ii) water purification and associated issues; (iii) urban water management; (iv) storm water management; (v) water reclamation and reuse; and (vi) efficient use of water in irrigation.

174. CCAFS – CGIAR Challenge Program on Climate change Agriculture and Food Security. The overall goal of MP7 (Mega Program 7) is to promote a food-secure world through the provision of science-based efforts that support sustainable agriculture and enhance livelihoods while adapting to

14 ADB Contribution only.


climate change and conserving natural resources and environmental services. MP7 builds on the new strategic collaboration between the Alliance of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Centers and the Earth System Science Partnership (ESSP) established under the CGIAR Challenge Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security in 2009. IGBP basin has been identified as one of the basins to be taken under the study.

E. United Kingdom Bilateral Support (DFID)

175. The UK-India Co-Operation Agreement for Joint Research Initiative on ‗The Changing Water Cycle‘ . This programme includes:

(i) The Changing Water Cycle Programme directly relates to delivery of the NERC Strategy (in particular Climate System (CS), Sustainable Use of Natural Resources (SUNR) and Natural Hazards (NH) Science Themes) and UK Governments Strategic Goals with respect to the adaptation to, and mitigation of, climate change.

(ii) It is anticipated that this Research Programme will make a significant contribution to the Living With Environmental Change15 programme. The programme will have global dimensions and take advantage of international collaboration opportunities; the programme will also have a more specific regional focus on the UK/European region and an overseas developing region, South Asia. The programme will be fully interdisciplinary, aiming to bring science understanding across four themes in a fully integrated way.

(iii) This programme will address the urgent needs to understand the changes taking place now, to improve projections of changes that will take place over the next 10-60 years; and, through LWEC, work with partners to develop methods and approaches to use this knowledge to support the management of the water system.

176. UNDP – e.g. RCRRP – Regional Climate Risk Reduction Project is being implemented in four countries in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region viz. Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan.

177. CDKN – large Climate and Development Knowledge Network, which supports decision-makers in designing and delivering climate compatible development. Coordinated by PWC.

178. DfID - UK Fast Start Climate Change Finance to provide to help to the poorest to adapt to climate change and promoting cleaner, greener growth. The UK Government is helping developing countries carry out the urgent work needed to adapt to climate change and develop in a low carbon way, including reducing emissions from deforestation.

179. WF - Environment and Development Programme has been set up to provide strategic guidance and promote action towards sustainable development in the face of threats to the environment and depleting natural resources. The programme aims at reducing the impacts of climate change on people and livelihoods. The project intends to develop a framework for sustainable water and energy management in critical parts of the Ganga Basin focusing on river restoration, community education and engagement, business and government involvement, and biodiversity conservation projects (http://www.wwfindia.org/about_wwf/reducing_footprint/living_ganga/). The key objectives of the programme include: (i) Develop and promote approaches for sustainable water resources management including environmental flows, which conserve biodiversity and support livelihoods, (ii) Develop and implement Pollution abatement strategies, demonstrating benefits for key stakeholders, (iii) Promote and advocate measures for water and energy co-management in agriculture, urban and industrial sectors, (iv) Influence Government, public and private sector towards sustainable hydropower development, (v) Determine vulnerability of people, livelihoods and biodiversity to prioritize adaptation strategies, and (vi) Develop and implement communication strategies that create awareness and mobilize action by key stakeholders.

F. German Bilateral Support GIZ

180. GIZ are working in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal working with Indian partners are using a multi-level approach involving several different components; including 15 www.lwec.org.uk/

http://www.wwfindia.org/about_wwf/reducing_footprint/living_ganga/

http://www.lwec.org.uk/


o State-level vulnerability and risk assessments; developing and testing a structured approach to climate change vulnerability and risk assessment at the state level to provide the scientific data for decision making at the policy level. The component should result in a simple and reliable approach that can also be used by other federal states.

o Developing and testing adaptation measures supporting the governments of the federal states, as well as local communities and other relevant stakeholders in identifying, developing and carrying out adaptation measures in pilot regions. The interventions will be designed in line with the results of the vulnerability and risk assessments and the priorities set out in the federal states' action plans on climate change.

o Climate proofing of public investments and rural development programmes; supporting the introduction of a climate proofing tool which will allow them to analyse whether the objectives of government projects might be threatened by climate change, and how the planned measures can be adapted accordingly. The project is the first of its kind to carry out climate proofing of public investments.

o Development of financial instruments for adaptation; assessing a number of simple financial instruments that already exist, including insurance and credit schemes that might be suitable for promoting adaptation to climate change. The expected outcome will be a range of tailor-made financial instruments that can be used to finance relevant climate change adaptation measures, for the rural target group as well as state investments.

o Information and knowledge management; the focus of the project is on communicating relevant approaches, technologies and lessons learnt; it is also building up a network of stakeholders for future activities and exchanges of information. The activities include the promotion of technical, financial, and political adaptation measures, the documentation and publication of lessons learnt, and capacity development measures. The results will be made available to rural communities and the federal states, and at national and international levels. Through their participation in an information and knowledge management system, various stakeholders at different levels will be able to enhance their expertise and raise the resilience of the communities.

o State-level action plans on climate change; helping eleven of the federal states to formulate their state action plans on climate change.. The state-level plans are very important for the implementation of the NAPCC, and for the inclusion of particular regional and local characteristics. For this reason, GTZ and other organisations, such as the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the UK Department for International Development (DFID), are supporting the Indian federal states in the development of these plans.

G. Summary Review of On-going Research in Relation to Climate Change

181. Both the national and international community carries out a great deal of research on climate change issues in South Asia and India in particular. A comprehensive review of all relevant research topics would go beyond the scope of this report, however some of the current active research topics have been highlighted above, as far as they are relevant to this project (areas such as efficient use of energy, low-carbon technologies etc. were not commented on if they are mostly concerned with mitigation issues). The International Climate Change Consultant during November and December visited and consulted with a wide range of organisations within India to review and assess their ongoing and planned climate change programmes. The details of the meetings are presented in Appendix 6. A summary of the findings based on visits and discussions with 30 academics and researchers and review of around 100 scientific publications are summarised below.

(i). There is a significant amount of research into various aspects of climate change (ii). In several areas however there seems to be a 5-10 year lag compared to cutting edge climate

science in countries such as UK or US and many academics work in a disconnected fashion (iii). Networking and overall directive (at the highest level) has only been provided recently (e.g.

INCCA) (iv). Data sharing still a major obstacle, but real (observed) data is key to establishing / correcting

of baseline results (v). Capacity building and better integration with international research community required. There

are some outstanding papers that hardly anyone outside India knew, since they were published in obscure / national journals

(vi). ―The next big thing‖ in Indian climate change research will probably include: climate projections over South Asia in a probabilistic fashion, which would enable adaptation / policy


planners with data for more robust decision making; an ensemble of high resolution climate projections which does well on present day baseline; significant improvements in seasonal to decadal Monsoon predictions.

182. In Feb 2006, the journal ―Current Science‖ ran a special issue on ―Climate Change and India‖, which provided a good introduction into Indian climate science at the time – since then this field has expanded greatly. However, often results are published in less-well known journals, which are frequently overlooked by the international academic community.

183. The following items were seen to stand out in the judgement of the consultant as ―cutting edge‖:

(i). Downscaling of QUMP ensemble for India, which will enable a first quantification of uncertainty in projections (other than via different scenarios) – Krishna Kumar et al, IITM; comprehensive analysis of performance of individual models from the CMIP3 ensemble (R H Kripalani et al, IITM). IITM is now fast gearing up to become one of the foremost climate modelling centres in South Asia.

(ii). Using these RCM results to drive hydrological models for all river basins over India – A K Gosain et al, IIT Delhi; also the statistical downscaling techniques employed by P P Mujumdar, IISs.

(iii). A computationally more demanding approach, using a high-resolution GCM (grid size 20km), which gives good results for monsoon precipitation over India, by K Rajendran at IISc / Earth Simulator (Japan).

(iv). The collaborative network ―INCCA‖ and their first comprehensive (―4x4‖) report, which focuses on the 2030s time horizon, which is important for adaptation planners.

(v). Statistically rigorous analysis of climate & extreme events trends from observations – B N Goswami et al (IITM / IISc), S K Dash (IIT Delhi) and P Guhathakurta (IMD); however, what is still missing are similar analyses for river basins (or meteorological sub-divisions of India) rather than state boundaries.

(vi). International projects such as EU funded ―High-Noon‖, involving e.g. researchers from TERI, looking at ―big-picture‖ impact of climate change onto hydrology etc

184. ―Generally for India only a few downscaled data sets exist for a limited number of GCMs and scenarios; a popular route to generating downscaled data is to use RCMs for 1-2 scenarios and potentially 1-2 GCMs, which is not ideal for assessing risks – usually restricted to a few specialised centres of expertise. Limited attempts at statistical downscaling are often constrained by lack of adequate expertise on the techniques and their application. There is also a lack of adequate understanding on how to correctly interpret/use downscaled data, particularly in the user sectors. Correctly using the downscaled data in applications and further impact (e.g. hydrological and crop) modelling, requires constant interaction and discussions (beyond workshop environments) between the producers of the downscaled climate change data and the impact modellers.‖ – after R K Kolli (WMO)


V. INSTITUTIONS

A. Review of Policies, Legal, and Regulatory Frameworks

1. Introduction

185. The role of institutions is critical to ensure adaptation responses to climate change impact in general and on water sector in particular.

186. Water governance deals with the design and implementation of public policies for sustainable water investments and management that elicits the support of society as a whole. Governance activities include legal frameworks, policies, institutions, and management tools. The logic steering the sustainable development process is that without appropriate policies institutions cannot function – without appropriate institutions policies will not work – and without a working set of policies and institutions management tools are irrelevant. Without good governance civil society will not support the policies and will have a difficult time achieving sustainable and equitable water use. Good governance requires, above all, transparency of the institutions and participation by the citizens. Of late there are instances where the Governments, civil society and active water-related knowledge portals have increased their scrutiny of water groups, having been driven by accountability concerns, and demanding performance assessments to translate development process into development outcomes but not yet at a scale sufficient for sustainability. The enabling environment is determined by national, state and local policies and legislation that create a foundation for the negotiation of water management arrangements and enable all stakeholders to play their respective roles in the development and management of water resources in an integrated manner especially in the context of climate change. The National Action Plan on Climate Change document released June 2008 includes National Mission on Water which addresses the issues related to water in the context of climate change. One of the key strategies advocated in the water mission is the promotion of basin level integrated water resource management.

2. IWRM as a Tool for Adaptation16

187. Enhanced variability climate change shall directly impact availability and quality of water. Through management of the resource at the most adequate level, participation in management practices and policy development, and assuring that the most vulnerable groups are considered, IWRM instruments directly assist communities to cope with climate variability.

188. The potential of IWRM to be used as a means of reconciling varied and changing water uses and demands has been receiving enhanced acceptability since the since the post climate change era of end of twentieth century and it appears to offer greater flexibility and adaptive capacity than conventional water resources management approaches. It is critical that focus in water governance be laid on reducing vulnerability of poor people, in maintaining sustainable livelihoods and supporting sustainable development. The IPCC report (AR4) makes recommendations on adaptation, vulnerability and capacity enhancement; the main recommendation asserts that reducing the vulnerability of nations or communities to climate change requires an increased ability to adapt to its effects. Working to improve the adaptive capacity at community level is likely to have a broader and more long-lasting effect on reducing vulnerability. Tailoring adaptation assistance to local needs requires a) Addressing real local vulnerabilities b) Involving real stakeholders early and substantively; and c) Connecting with local decision-making processes.

189. IWRM offers various tools and instruments that deal with providing access to water and protecting the integrity of the ecosystem, thus safeguarding water quantity and quality for future generations. In this way, IWRM can assist communities to adapt to changing climatic conditions that limit water availability or may lead to excessive floods or droughts. Key water resources management functions are; (i) water allocation; (ii) monitoring; (iii) financial management; (iv) flood and drought management; (iv) information management; (v) basin planning; and (vi) stakeholder participation. These functions are instrumental for integrated resources management and can be of help in coping with climate variability. IWRM makes it easier to respond to changes in water availability. Risks can 16 Source: Cap-Net


be better identified and mitigated through the process of basin planning. When action is needed, stakeholder participation helps to mobilize communities and generate action. Water users can be stimulated to use the resource sustainably in the face of changing water conditions.

3. Policies and Regulatory instruments17

190. The two events that prompted a significant change in recent water policies in India are the drought of 1987 and the macro economic crisis of the late 1980s. The drought led to the first ever National Water Policy (NWP) of 1987. The austerity measures that followed the economic crisis reduced water sector investment and prompted irrigation departments to examine the internal resources from improved cost recovery and external resources mobilized through specifically created semi-autonomous agencies (e.g., Narmada Valley Development Authority and Krishna Valley Development Corporation). While the NWP advocates full cost pricing, the 1992 Committee on Pricing Irrigation Water suggests higher water charges and group-based volumetric distribution of canal water [Government of India (GOI), 1992]. The Model Groundwater Bill that advocates, for the first time in India, ideas like well permits, water metering and withdrawal limits was circulated in 1992. Since irrigation departments have realized the value of farmers‘ participation in water distribution, cost recovery and system maintenance, they are beginning to actively promote WUAs and system turn-over programs. Despite the commitments and efforts the turnover process has been very slow with the area under WUAs less than 1% in the early 1990s. Significant policy efforts by central and state governments have occurred since then and piloting is accelerating in states such as Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan.

4. National Water Policy 2002: Key features relevant for IWRM

191. National Water Policy 2002 advocates that special multi-disciplinary units should be set up to prepare comprehensive plans taking into account not only the needs of irrigation but also to harmonize various other water uses so that the available water resources are determined and put to optimum use. Further the policy advocates that water resource development and management will have to be planned for a hydrological unit. The policy makes a reference to planning of water resource projects in a manner which is conducive for multipurpose and multi disciplinary approach having regard to human and ecological aspects including those of disadvantaged sections of the society. The key features of National water Policy 2002 among others include the following:

o The policy prioritizes the allocation of water and accordingly place first priority for drinking followed by irrigation, hydro-power, agro-industries and non-agricultural industries, navigation and other uses in that order

o Training and research efforts to be intensified as an integral part of water resource development

o What is striking in the policy is the fact that it clearly states that ground water extraction should be regulated with reference to recharge possibilities and consideration of social equity and further it calls for prevention of over exploitation of ground water as it has its implications on environment

o The policy calls for an adequate emphasis to be given to physical and financial sustainability of existing water resources and to ensure that the water charges for various uses should be fixed such as to cover at least O & M charges initially and a part of the capital cost subsequently

o The policy advocates a) for regular monitoring of both surface and ground water for its quality b) to treat effluents to acceptable levels and standards before discharging them into natural streams and c) to ensure a minimum flow in the perennial streams for maintaining ecology

o Improvement in the efficient utilization in all the diverse use of water, consciousness promoted through education, regulation and incentives and disincentives

o Minimization of land erosion by sea or river through cost effective measures and through regulation of indiscriminate occupation and economic activity in coastal and flood plain zones

17 Source: An abstract from Water Law in India: Overview of existing framework and proposed reforms IELRC

working paper 2007 -01


o Importantly, the policy advocates that the water sharing /distribution amongst the states be guided by a national perspective with due regard to water resource availability and needs within the river basins

o The National Policy also makes specific reference to institutional mechanism for water resource management. Titled Institutional Mechanism the policy specifies planning, development and management of the water resources on a hydrological unit basis, using multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary and participatory approaches. It also emphasizes on integrating quality, quantity and the environmental aspects. It further states that the existing water resources sector institutions at various levels will have to be appropriately reoriented / reorganized and even created where necessary to give effect to the policy

o The policy specifically mentions that the institutional arrangements should be revised so that maintenance is given importance equal or even more than new construction. Towards this endeavour, the policy suggests that appropriate river basin organizations should be established for the planned development and management of a river basin as a whole or sub-basins wherever necessary.

5. An assessment of water Policies

192. Although all the States have adopted a Water Policies, problems continue within the water sector. To provide an overall perspective of these problems and to address them within the framework of IWRM, key areas are summarised below.

Organizational structures

o There is no agency dedicated to water resources management providing properly functioning regulatory services to equitably share resources and to protect the common property environmental and social uses

o Existing agency structures do not adequately separate functions create potential conflict of interests between resource management and service provision

o Duplication of institutional effort arising from overlapping mandates and lack of a coordinating agency

o Little or no transparency and poor accountability arising from ill-defined institutional structures (overlaps, gaps, clash of interest); few mechanisms for stakeholder involvement and public participation related in part to limited focus on building awareness on water issues

o Blurring boundaries between private sector and public sector including the farming communities in resource management, resource protection, service provision and resource use need to be addressed

Legislative and procedural issues

o Land management and land use change controls are yet to include processes to evaluate and manage impacts on water.

o A unified plan and operation for data collection and information generation and for data and information sharing necessary to support integrated water resources management is yet to be developed.

o Cost recovery mechanisms lack defined processes for setting charge levels with respect to service levels and are subject to political interference.

o Insufficient care in strengthening and building the capacity of WUA as they are formed, and in confirming their capability before management functions are handed over to them in conformity with provisions in the Irrigation Act. WUA establishment is a top down approach

o Need to standardize and strengthen dispute resolution mechanisms at various levels.

Human resource management o A weak institutional capacity arising in part from an inability to develop specialist skills

because of staff mobility. o Inefficient and weak service providers at the district level resulting from inadequate capacity

building and support. o Insufficient attention to match human resources requirement with changing responsibilities o Need to strengthen enforcement capacity in line with developing regulatory processes.


193. Without good regulation it is not possible to maximize the economic and social benefits resulting from water use in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. Good water resource regulation requires an enabling environment which ensures the rights and assets of all stakeholders (individuals as well as public and private sector organizations and companies, women as well as men, the poor as well as the rich) and protects public assets such as intrinsic environmental values.

194. The enabling environment is determined by national, state and local policies and legislation that create a foundation for the negotiation of water management arrangements and enable all stakeholders to play their respective roles in the development and management of water resources. This environment also includes the forums and mechanisms, including information and capacity-building, created to facilitate and exercise stakeholder participation.

195. The roles, responsibilities and functions like policy formulation; planning and investigation; education and promotion; networking and information exchange; regulation, control and enforcement; surveillance and monitoring; allocation and supply of water; flood control and risk mitigation; water treatment and reuse; conservation and protection; pollution control and water quality management and adjudication in the case of conflict are being performed by various organizations/institutions in line with provisions in the policies/acts/statues. However, the effectiveness of roles, responsibilities and functions of these institutions requires strengthening in the light of growing demands for water and water services.

196. Agriculture Price Policy : The main objectives of the Government's price policy for agricultural produce, aims at ensuring remunerative prices to the growers for their produce with a view to encourage higher investment and production. Towards the end, minimum support prices for major agricultural products are announced each year which are fixed after taking into account, the recommendations of the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP). The CACP while recommending prices takes into account all-important factors, viz. Cost of Production, Changes in Input Prices, Input/Output Price Parity, Trends in Market Prices, Inter-crop Price Parity, Demand and Supply Situation, Effect on Industrial Cost Structure, Effect on General Price Level, Effect on Cost of Living, International Market Price Situation and Parity between Prices Paid and Prices Received by farmers (Terms of Trade). Of all the factors, cost of production is the most tangible factor and it takes into account all operational and fixed demands. Government organises Price Support Scheme (PSS) of the commodities, through various public and cooperative agencies such as FCI, NAFED, etc., for which the MSPs are fixed. For commodities not covered under PSS, Government also arranges for market intervention on specific request from the States for specific quantity at a mutually agreed price. The losses, if any, are borne by the Centre and State on 50:50 basis. The price policy paid rich dividends. The Government have raised substantially the MSPs in recent years.18

6. Legal and Regulatory Frame Work

a. National Level

197. In a federal structure of India, though ownership of water is with the state governments, the national government can intervene in the management of water resources when the public interest has to be protected. The relevant legislative provisions in the constitution make a specific reference to entry 17 in the state list, entry 56 in the union list and article 262. The first provision makes water a state subject qualified by entry 56 in the union list which states that ―Regulation and development of interstate rivers and river valleys to the extent to which such regulations and development under the control of the union is declared by Parliament by law to be expedient in the public interest‖. Article 262 explicitly grants Parliament to legislate over the matters in entry 56 and gives it primary over the Supreme Court. The following table gives an insight into specific legislative provisions for water resources administration and management in India The legislative procedures are summarised in Table 8.

18 Source: http://agro.indiamart.com/agricultural-price-policy


Table 8 Specific Legislative Provisions for Water Article 245 Refers to the extent of law made by Parliament and Legislature of the States: (1) subject

to the provision of the constitution, Parliament can make laws for the whole or any part of the constitution, Parliament can make laws for the whole or any part of the territory of India and the legislature of a state can make law for the state as a whole or any part of the state

Article 246 Refers to subject matter of laws made by Parliament and Legislature of States: (1) Notwithstanding anything in clauses (2) and (3), Parliament has exclusive

powers to make laws with respect to any of the matters enumerated in list 1 in the Seventh Schedule (referred to as ―Union list‖)

(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (3) Parliament, subject to clause (1) the Legislature of any State also has powers to make laws with respect to any of the matters enumerated in list III in the Seventh schedule (referred to as ― Concurrent List‖

(3) Subject to clause (1) and (2), the Legislature of any State has the exclusive powers to make laws for such State or any part thereof with respect to any matter enumerated in the list II of the Seventh Schedule (referred to as ―State List‖)

(4) Parliament has the power to make laws with respect to any matter for any part of the territory of India not included in a State not withstanding that such a matter is enumerated in the State List.

Article 248 Refers to Residuary power of the Legislation: Parliament has exclusive powers to make any law with respect to any matter not enumerated in the Concurrent List or State List

Article 262 Refers to Adjudication of disputes related to waters of Interstate rivers or river valleys. (1) Parliament by law provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint with

respect to the use, distribution or control of waters of, or in, any interstate river or river valleys

(2) Notwithstanding anything in the Constitution, the Parliament my by law provide that neither the Supreme Court nor any other court shall exercise jurisdiction in respect of any such dispute or complaint as is referred to in clause (1)

Under this Act, the Parliament has enacted the Inter- State Dispute Act, 1956

Entry 56 of the Union List

Development and Regulation of Inter State River and River valleys to the extent to which such regulation and development under the control of Union is declared by Parliament by law to be expedient in the public interest. Under Entry 56 the Parliament has enacted the River Board Act 1956

Entry 17 of the state list

Water, that is to say, water supplies, irrigation, canals, drainage and embankments, water storage, and water power, subject to provisions of Entry 56 of List

Source: The Indian Constitution

7. Review of Legal provisions19

198. Based on the review of literature one could infer that the National water law in India is more developed than international water law. However, what is needed to make these laws effective is an umbrella framework to regulate freshwater in all its dimensions. The existing water law framework in India is characterized by the co-existence of a number of different principles, rules and acts adopted over many decades. These include common law principles, irrigation or canal acts and easement act of 1882 as the case may be.

199. Notwithstanding the above, in our assessment, the absence of an ―umbrella legislation‖ at the national level has ensured that the different state and central legal interventions and other principles do not necessarily coincide and may in fact be in opposition in certain cases. Thus, the easement act 1882, vests ground water ownership to land owners i.e., the claims that landowners have over groundwater under common law principles may not be compatible with a legal framework based on

19 Source: Water Law in India: Overview of existing framework and proposed reforms IELRC working paper 2007 -01


the human right to water and the need to allocate water preferentially to domestic use and to provide water to all, whether landowners or not on a equal basis.

200. In terms of statutory development, irrigation/canal acts in all the states and in the selected basin states namely, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu constitute on an historical time line the most developed part of water law. This also included the need to introduce a regulatory framework in this area. As a result, some of the basic principles of water law applicable today in India are in a way a derivative form of respective state irrigation acts.

201. Specifically, Punjab Canal and Drainage Act, 1873 (known as Northern India canal and drainage act 1873) was enacted for the purpose of regulation, irrigation navigation and drainage in Northern India. One of the long-term implications of this act was the introduction of the right of the Government to ‗use and control for public purposes the water of all rivers and streams flowing in natural channels and of all lakes.

202. However, the act was silent on making an explicit reference to state ownership over surface waters. Nevertheless, this act served as a bench mark since this act did assert the right of the Government to control water use for the benefit of the broader public. This was progressively strengthened.

203. The Madhya Pradesh Irrigation Act, 1931 in comparison to Punjab canal and irrigation act was progressive in terms of asserting direct state control over water by making statement like all rights in the water of any river, natural stream or natural drainage channel, natural lake or other natural collection of water shall vest in the Government. Further, the Regulation of Waters Act, 1949 of MP reasserted that ‗all rights in the water of any natural source of supply shall vest in the Government.

204. Amendments/enactments: Statutory water law also included a number of pre- and post-independence enactments in various areas. These include laws on embankments, drinking water supply, irrigation, floods, water conservation, river water pollution, rehabilitation of evacuees and displaced persons, fisheries and ferries.

205. In brief, one could mention without loss of generality that water law is largely state centric. This is largely due to the relevant legislative provisions in the constitution which makes a specific reference to entry 17 in the state list, entry 56 in the union list and article 262. The first provision makes water a state subject qualified by entry 56 in the union list

206. Thus, all the states in general and specifically, the selected basin states have the exclusive power, except in case of the use of interstate rivers20, to regulate water supplies, irrigation and canals, drainage and embankments, water storage, hydropower and fisheries etc (the respective state policies are testimony to this).

207. The Constitution also provides that the Union can legislate with regard to the adjudication of inter-state water disputes. While no substantive clauses could be adopted at the time of the adoption of the Constitution, a specific act, the Inter-State Water Disputes Act was adopted in 1956. This introduces a procedure for addressing disputes among states concerning inter-state rivers that have not been solved through negotiations. Parliament also enacted the River Boards Act, which provides a framework for the setting up of river boards by the Central Government to advise state government concerning the regulation or development of an inter-state river or river valley. River boards can advise state governments on a number of issues including, conservation, control and optimum utilization of water resources, the promotion and operation of schemes for irrigation, water supply or drainage or the promotion and operation of schemes for flood control. This act has, however, never been used in practice21.

20 Further, the Union is entitled to legislate on certain issues. These include shipping and navigation on national waterways as well as powers to regulate the use of tidal and territorial waters. 21 One could infer from the key provisions as contained in different articles of our constitution that it provides an enabling environment to pursue the agenda of IWRM through creation of river basin organization and


8. Water Regulation

208. While the intervention of the central government in water regulation is limited by the constitutional scheme, the importance of national regulation in water has already been recognized in certain areas. With regard to water pollution, Parliament did adopt an act in 1974, the Water Act. This act seeks to prevent and control water pollution and maintain and restore the wholesomeness of water. It gives powers to water boards to set standards and regulations for prevention and control of pollution.

209. On water laws: water law is made of a number of formal and informal laws, rules and principles. It has evolved over time in a relatively uncoordinated and ad hoc manner. This started to change with the progressive realization that existing laws were inappropriate to ensure access to water to all for domestic purposes and because of the fast increasing use of this finite resource. Over the past couple of decades, a more coordinated effort at changing water law has been put in place. This is based on a relatively specific set of principles that are meant to guide the overall development of water law. This is meant to make water law suitable to face the challenges of the water sector in the 21st century.

210. While water law reforms are more than welcome given existing problems with water, it is unlikely that law reforms based on the principles put forward in the water sector reforms constitute an appropriate response. Ongoing water law reforms may contribute to enhancing water management but they are conceptually incapable of addressing the human right, social, environmental and health aspects of water. This is regrettable because any water law, which is not based on the constitutional right to water and the principle of public trust is bound to fail as a legal tool and in its implementation as far as the overwhelming majority of people is concerned22.

211. Besides statutory frameworks, a number of common law principles linking access to water and rights over land are still prevailing in India. These include separate rules for surface and groundwater.

9. Surface water

212. With regard to surface water, existing rules still derive from the early common rule of riparian rights. Thus, the basic rule was that riparian owners had a right to use the water of a stream flowing past their land equally with other riparian owners, to have the water come to them undiminished in flow, quantity or quality. In recent times, the riparian right theory has increasingly been rejected as the appropriate basis for adjudicating water claims. Further, common law rights must today be read in the context of the recognition that water is a public trust. If the latter principle is effectively applied in the future, it would have important impacts on the type of rights and privileges that can be claimed over surface water.

10. Ground water

213. Legislative interventions concerning groundwater are significant for two main reasons. Firstly, from a legal perspective they constitute a major organized attempt at redrawing the rules concerning control and use of groundwater, which is still otherwise largely based on common law principles that make it part of the resources a landowner can use largely without outside control. Secondly, they constitute a response to the fact that over time groundwater has in various areas become the most important source of water and provide in particular 80 per cent of the domestic water supply in rural management. However, the success of the operative part of these provisions to constitute River basin organizations, as contained in these articles, depends largely on the request made by the respective state governments. However, Inter-State Water dispute Act which was enacted in 1956 is in a way contained the implementation of River Board Act of 1956 which by design places demand on collective request by the states to form such a board(s). The nature of conflict lies in the fact that in case of Inter-state Water dispute act, the right of individual riparian states to complain is recognized by the Water Tribunal constituted by the Central Government under Inter State Water Dispute Act where as in case of River board act, the collective request of states is recognized. The issue therefore is to remove the paradox as contained in individual complaint vs. collective request provisions under the respective acts. 22 Water Law in India: Overview of existing framework and proposed reforms IELRC working paper 2007 -01


areas and supports around 70 per cent of agricultural production and this strengthens the case for ensuring the sustainable use of groundwater.

214. The ―reality of ground water: in most parts of India, and particularly in the selected sub basin states of Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu is the basic principle governing the ground water use is that access to and use of groundwater is a right of the landowner. In other words, it is one of the rights that landowners enjoy over their possessions. The inappropriateness of this legal principle has been rapidly challenged during the second half of the 20th century with new technological options permitting individual owners to appropriate not only water under their land but also the groundwater found under neighbours‘ lands. Further, the rapid lowering of water table in most regions of the country has prompted to question legal principles and giving unrestricted rights to landowners over groundwater. Similarly, the growth of concerns over the availability of drinking water in more regions has led to the introduction of social concerns in groundwater regulation. As a result of the rapid expansion of groundwater use, the central government introduced a bill named Ground Water (control and regulation) Act 1992 with subsequent revision to augment ground water recharge through rain water harvesting to guide the state governments in enacting legislation to empower themselves to establish state ground water authorities vested with the powers to regulate extraction and use of ground water in specified areas as water is state subject and necessary legislation in the matter has to be enacted by the concerned state governments/UT administration. However, the critical issue in the ground water legislation is the conspicuous absence of ownership of ground water in any of the list in the 7th schedule of constitution of India. The Indian Easement Act 188223 however vests ground water ownership to land owners. The Indian Easement Act 1882 read as ―The rights of every owner of land to collect and dispose within his own limits of all water under the land which does not pass in a defined channel and all water of its surface which does not pass in a defined channel‖.

215. In response to Ground water bill of 2005 (revised), only eight states (out of 30 states and 5 UT), namely, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Pondicherry, and Lakshadweep have enacted ground water legislation act. The approach and experiences of these 8 states are different.

216. The general picture which emerges is that of a multiplicity of principles and rules, a multiplicity of instruments and the lack of an overall framework. While certain principles have remained relatively constant until recently like the assertion of the state‘s right to use surface waters in the public interest, there have been a number of changes

11. Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) Act

217. Recognizing the need for sound legal framework for PIM in the country, the Ministry brought out and circulated in 1998 a model act to be adopted by the State legislatures for enacting new irrigation acts/amending the existing irrigation acts for facilitating PIM. In accordance with the model act eight State Governments, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Kerala have enacted new acts. The legal framework provides for creation of farmers organizations at different levels of irrigation system as under:

o Water Users‘ Association (WUA) will have a delineated command area on a hydraulic basis, which shall be administratively viable. Generally a WUA would cover a group of outlets or a minor

o Distributary Committee will comprise of 5 or more WUAs. All the presidents of WUAs will comprise general body of the distributary committee

o Project Committee will be an apex committee of an irrigation system and presidents of the distributary committees in the project area shall constitute general body of this committee.

218. The Associations at different levels are expected to be actively involved in: (i) maintenance of irrigation system in their area of operation; (ii) distribution of irrigation water to the beneficiary farmers as per the warabandi schedule; (iii) assisting the irrigation department in the preparation of water

23 However, the recent Kerala High Court ruling in Coca-Cola case seem to indicate that the right is not

unfettered and the extraction has to be within a reasonable limit.


demand and collection of water charges; (iv) resolve disputes among the members and WUA; (v) monitoring flow of water in the irrigation system etc.

12. Basin State Initiatives in Response to Ground Water Legislation

219. Punjab24: Punjab is not in favour of ground water regulation as it is felt that such a regulation

will create a hardship to its farmers. However, in order to minimize its over extraction, state is willing to adopt different measures such are a) large scale artificial recharge b) modification in cultivation practices like sowing of paddy after mid June so as to decrease evaporation c) conforming to controlled, regulated and metered electricity supply d) promotion of micro irrigation e) crop diversification through guaranteed minimum price support and f) encouraging industries. The other measure includes banning of tube wells completely and restricting the energy power to 10 HP so that deeper aquifers are spared from exploitation.

220. Madhya Pradesh: The state WRD prepared the Madhya Pradesh Boojal Vidheyak 1999 (draft) in line with the Model bill circulated by MOWR, Government of India and the draft bill got approved by the department of law in 1999. However, model bill 2005 received from MOWR, Government of India prompted the state to revise their earlier bill of 1999 and the new Madhya Pradesh (Regulation and control of Development and Management) Act 2007 has been prepared and awaiting approval by the government of MP.

221. The key features of the MP Ground water act are: (i) notification of areas; (ii) grant of permit to extract and use ground water in the notified area; (iii) registration of existing users in the notified area; (iv) registration of users of new wells in non-notified areas; (v) registration of drilling agencies; (vi) rain water harvesting for ground water recharge in over exploited areas; (vii) protection of public drinking water sources and (viii) two tier of authority i.e., State level Ground water Authority and District level ground water authority as an implementation mechanism.

222. Tamil Nadu: Tamil Nadu undertook a scientific assessment of the ground water availability between 1965-1972 with the support from UNDP and then followed some micro level studies. In 1987, the TN government enacted Chennai Metropolitan Area Ground Water (Regulation) Act and after a gap of 16 long years, TN ground water (Development and Management) act 2003 was enacted and is implemented by TN Ground Water Authority. This act is prohibitive in nature and largely depends on permit systems. Most striking feature of this act is that it does not allow the supply of electrical energy from the Tamil Nadu State Elelectricty Board (TNSEB) for energizing wells sunk in contravention of the provision of the act. The other features are:

o Exemption of wells used for a) domestic purposes b) wells sunk by state and central agencies for scientific purposes and c) wells sunk by small and marginal farmers.

o The Act is implemented by the TN Ground Water Authority which has the powers to control and regulate ground water extraction; monitor ground water regime in the mining areas and direct the disposal of mine water suitably; lay down or adopt standards for water quality depending on the kind of water use; alter, amend, cancel of registration, permit or license.

o Provision of ground water management by identifying and notifying suitable areas for conjunctive use of surface and ground water.

o Compulsory registration of wells with the authority sunk after the commencement of the act o Offences under the act are cognizable. o State Assembly may make a modification or may decide that the rules or notification should

not be made or issued. o Penalty for non compliance of the act ( Rs 1000 for the first offence, 2000 for the 2nd offence

and Rs 500 per day for continued offence). o

13. Broad Assessment of the Water Policy

223. National water Policy 2002, State Water Policies and the Water acts both surface and ground water in its present from provide limited enabling environment to implement IWRM and to support 24 This was evident from the discussion with officials and farmers during the field visit to Sutlej river basin on

questions concerning ground water regulation.


adaptation responses. From an perspective of IWRM and Climate Change Adaptation; a summary of the general observations as well as specific points to the three study states is described below.

o Policy to shift its orientation from an engineering approach to ecology and equity approach o Policy to move away from supply side water management to demand side management

approach o Policy to accord balance the development of new water resources projects in parallel with

improved management of existing projects o Ground water development to be integrated with surface water and to include specifically rain

water harvesting and artificial recharge with a special emphasis on water security at the Gram Panchayat level and ground water to be treated as common property resources

o Focus on de-silting of water bodies as part of flood control management and using low lying lands for flood alleviation.

o Establishment of independent regulators at state level to allocate water, set water charges on volumetric basis – critical for efficient water distribution and management

o WUA to be given the powers to set tariff above the tariff set by the regulators so that money collected over and above the tariff set by regulators for O & M. Policy to consider differentiated tariffs

o Electricity supplied to ground water use to be metered and charged o Ground water use by industries to be limited to sustainable use o Industries be made responsible for effluent impacts and reuse of water o Prime responsibility of water supply with the state and in particular with PRIs o Shift from project mode to integrated sub-basin or basin level program planning o In order to provide clarity on water rights, improve WUE, regulating water resources to enable

conflict resolution, the National Policy on water should aim at over-arching water legislation (all states to formulate a comprehensive IWRM act merging ground water, irrigation-canal-drainage, environment acts)

o CADA to be effective within the basin, its programs be merged with water resources projects and water budgeting and auditing in all the watersheds and CADAs in the sub-basin level must be made mandatory

o One could broadly conclude that the water legislations/policies /statutes in most of the states address water rights, quality standards, ground water use, demand management approach, resource conservation, private sector participation, civil society participation and appropriate institutional responses

o In addition to all the laws, rules and regulation that make up water law, there is a substantial body of additional rules and regulations at the local level. These include the multiplicity of written or unwritten arrangements that regulate access to and use of water for domestic purposes or irrigation. An array of different rules govern, for instance, access to existing sources of drinking water. They run in many cases along caste lines even though other rules of access also exist. With regard to irrigation water, all manmade structures such as tanks and check dams include a system of allocation. Rules of access and control have often evolved over long periods of time but are often unwritten or not formally recognized in the legal system. As a result, they often run in parallel to ‗formal‘ water rules and regulations. Another consequence of the lack of visibility of local level arrangements is that they can easily be displaced or extinguished by new laws that may fail to even acknowledge their existence

o The Kerala High Court ruling in Coca-Cola case seems to indicate that the right is not unfettered and the extraction has to be within a reasonable limit. Given the emerging legal position, no change in basic legal regime relating to ground water seems necessary. Given the complexity involved, any amendment to the Easement Act to make the ground water a community or state property is not warranted.

o Metering and tariff rationalization of ground water use has the potential to impact the cropping pattern, water use, water markets and also political sensitivity in Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh

o In all the 3 states, no steps have been taken to involve PRI as institutional options to implement ground water acts

o Unlike Tamil Nadu, the state of MP does not differentiate the legal approach in urban areas from that in rural areas

o In the states of Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh, potential exists for use of GIS in an integrated manner with information technology for an effective ground water management


o MP Ground Water Act needs strengthening with specific and objective regulations based on safe yields and draw downs in the case of abstraction as it is of fundamental and paramount importance to the productivity of water, access to its benefits, poverty alleviation and economic growth

o Potential exists in these three states for community approach to manage new wells, construction of ground water recharge structures

o NREGS schemes in its present form is acting like a separator between Sarapanch and Other welfare programs thus limiting the scope of NREGS to undertake critical life line supporting activities like rehabilitation of water harvesting structures/construction of stop dams in the villages.

o Many programs like Swajaladhara25 watershed programs, Accelerated Rural Water Supply Program exist to prompt the formation of ground water cooperation committees to allocate water rights and oversee that farmers restrict their use of ground water within their rights.

14. Key Requirements

224. Policy relating to water resource development and management should recognize the following in its totality

o Information Systems and Resource Planning: Functional information systems need to be created to provide much needed information about surface and groundwater availability, quality and withdrawal, etc., at the drainage basin level for use by planners and for the purposes of monitoring and further research.

o Demand-Side Management: Systems need to be developed for regulating surface and groundwater withdrawals at sustainable levels. Such mechanisms would include, for example, licences, laws, pricing systems, use of complementary water sources and water-saving crop-production technologies (In conformity with IWRM principles)

o Supply-Side Management: Groundwater recharge needs to be augmented, for example, by means of rainwater harvesting and recharge activities, the maximization of surface water use for recharge and the introduction of incentives for water conservation and artificial recharge. However, it is important to set an overall trade-off for the rainwater and artificial recharge which is not detrimental to river flows and existing projects

o Groundwater Management in a River Basin Context: In order to maximize efficiency, the focus of interventions could be expanded from a very ‗local‘ level to the level of entire river basins thereby incorporating the philosophy of integration of various interventions and their implications at the river basin level with the overall objective of maintaining the hydrological health of the system in a sustainable manner.

225. Though the ground water model bill has its own advantages, implementation is problematic26 including;

(i) Registration of tube wells for agriculture use (which consumes the maximum quantum of water) is not very viable, monitoring their actual withdrawals has proved more intractable.

(ii) Issuing permits has failed as farmers wanted unrestrained access to ground water. (iii) Institutional and regulatory action to improve ground water governance by legislation through

the Model Bill has not helped in solving the problems to the desired extent. (iv) For registration, concessions/subsidies were provided by various countries to get the job

partially done.

25 Swajaldhara scheme a potentially significant scheme, which now covers the whole country, is not part of any

legislation submitted to parliament. Swajaldhara, a government of India initiated progarmme which proposes to foster new types of intervention to ensure better drinking water availability in villages.

26 Source: Ground water governance issues and perspectives regarding model bill application in Punjab state by ER. Kuldip Singh Takshi, Director, water resources & environment directorate, Punjab, Irrigation Department, SCO 32-34, sector 17-C, Chandigarh.


(v) Small and poor farmers are affected by controls on groundwater exploitation and only marginal benefits flow from various subsidies whereas these subsidies have little impact on wealthy farmers, thus creating social injustice.

(vi) Regulation by control will not work because ownership of groundwater traditionally vests in the owners of land and because of its intrinsic nature of being an invisible source.

(vii) There is hardly any useful or gainful purpose served by way of registration of wells and adopting procedures for seeking permission for new structures which would rather create hurdles and cumbersome procedures for the semi-literate farmers.

(viii) The institutional and regulatory action to improve ground water governance through Model Bill by resorting to coercive means may create feelings of distrust and tensions.

Other issues of model bill needs to be taken note of namely

(i) The overlapping of functions of SGWA with CGWA in the Model Bill is required to be sorted out so as to avoid conflict

(ii) Water, both surface and underground, being a State Subject under Entry 17 List II of the constitution and ground water ownership having been linked to the land ownership under the Easements Act, the implementation of the provisions in the Model Bill should be the responsibility of the State Governments. In case the State Authorities under the Model Bill are required to act as per directions of CGWA, the enactment at state level will hardly serve any purpose. The implementation of Model Bill for governance and as per regulatory directions of CGWA will require necessary constitutional amendment and repealment of relevant clause in the Easements Act

(iii) The provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 which empower the CGWA to issue directions to take such measures or pass any order for the purpose of regulation and control of ground water management and development along with power to resort to the penal provisions should be vested in the State Authorities under the Model Bill so that there is no conflict in the matter of exercise of powers between the States and the Centre in the field assigned to each under the constitution

(iv) The severity of the restrictions which are to be imposed upon ground water withdrawals will vary according to the existing ground water resources in the block areas. This necessitates the strengthening of legal provisions for proper implementation

(v) Incentive structure needs to be provided in the Model Bill to promote community management of new wells and other schemes for conservation of water resources

(vi) Lack of proper institutional structure and capacity to manage ground water along with insufficient human resources and small holdings of farmers hamper the implemention process.

226. Ground water policy and regulation process that has given rise to the problems being faced in India has been analysed and presented in Table 927.

27 IWMI-Tata Water Policy Program Putting research knowledge into action: The Socio-Ecology of groundwater in India.


15. Broad Conclusions

227. The vision in the respective State water policies requires water resources planning, development and management to be carried out through an integrated approach adopting a hydrological unit such as river basin as a whole or a sub basin multi-sectorally and conjunctively; water resources planning has to address surface and ground water.

228. For surface and ground water development incorporating quantity, quality and environmental considerations projects and investment proposal need to be formulated and considered within the framework of the river basin or sub-basin plan so that the best possible combination of options can be obtained for poverty alleviation, increasing incomes and productivity, equity, reduced vulnerability to natural and economic risks and costs and solutions to water allocation and planning issues will be found adopting a demand management approach.

229. In addition to addressing technical issues around ground water, in the context of climate change impacts, it is important to consider the socio-ecology of ground water in its different stages in our select basins.

The state water policy clearly stipulates the need for private sector participation in various aspects of planning, investigation, design, construction, development and management of water resources projects for diverse uses, wherever feasible. Private sector participation is required for better service delivery and increase in accountability to users. It stipulates that various kinds of private sector participation in building, owning, operation and maintenance, leasing and transferring of water resources facilities would be considered.

230. The role of regulatory agencies towards following the demand management approach to water allocation and use within the framework of IWRM is critical to ensure good water governance. Good water governance has the potential to minimize conflicts arising out of water use in a water deficit situation during which time the people become more vulnerable to adapt to such situations.

Table 9 Stages of Groundwater Regulation and Policy


231. Regulation: Transparency of information is a critical first step towards effective regulation. States should provide access to information through online reporting mechanisms with information placed in the public domain to bring transparency and informed decision making28.States are required to establish a regulatory body as a condition of the 13th Finance Commission. However, many interim steps can be taken to establish sound regulatory functions.

Water resources regulation29 should: o Put in place systems for measuring availability of water through monitoring surface and

groundwater resource at strategic locations and translate the resource availability to the watershed/village level through process of simulation

o Calculate existing usage of water by various categories of users o Determine the distribution of entitlements for various categories of use and the equitable

distribution of water within each category of use (irrigation water supply, rural water supply, municipal water supply or industrial water supply)

o Determine the priority of equitable distribution of water available, and adjustment of entitlements during drought.

o Establish a water tariff system for bulk supply, and fix the criteria for water charges o Keep in mind inter-state water resources apportionment on river systems o Improve water use efficiency by 20% over existing levels.

Economic regulation (setting, monitoring and enforcing tariffs and service standards for water service providers) should: o States must establish policy on service standards and cost recovery o District Water and Sanitation Missions should have the responsibility of ‗planning coordination‘

to check that village plans meet policy objectives and are what communities want, assess technical, financial and operational viability, facilitate financing, and monitor progress and performance

o The GP should support a process of social audit by placing key issues for discussion and decisions in the Gram Sabha, including selection of sources and systems, community contributions, user fee charges and connection fees, and subsidies/concessions provided to ST, SC and BPL households.

Environmental regulation (regulating water abstractions and discharges back to the environment so as to manage resources in a sustainable manner) o States should enact integrated water resource legislation to regulate abstraction o GPs should be empowered to address the issue of controlling irrigation and industrial demand

within their boundaries to secure their own drinking water supply o The GP, Block and District should establish mechanisms for regulating water abstractions and

discharges back to the environment so as to manage resources in a sustainable manner o Larger schemes and works such as storage tanks require attention to assess environmental

and social impacts.

232. In summary, the State Water Policy should be a restatement of IWRM principles and acts and laws to provide an enabling environment to practice IWRM approach towards adaptation to climate change.

B. Ministry of Water Resources

1. Introduction

233. Establishing an institutional structure for IWRM, to respond to adaption response in a climate change scenario, is a fundamental role of social policy for a country like India. However, the choice of an institutional structure is ultimately a compromise between the physical nature of the resource, 28 A good example is the Madhya Pradesh State Planning Commission web portal for integrated district planning

carried out in five pilot districts under the Planning Commission - UNDP Joint Programme on Convergence. 29 Adopted from Key Provisions of the Maharashtra Water Resources Act of 2005, based on MWRRA (2005).


human reactions to policies and competing social objectives. Not surprisingly, different cultures of selected ―basin states‖ make tradeoffs based on the relative importance of their locations and context since local institutions play a significant role in responding to service delivery by different state level institutions. In this context, an institutional mapping at national, state and local level is considered necessary including their structure, functions/activities.

2. Ministry of Water Resources

234. The Ministry of Water Resources and its allied supporting agencies function as the apex body responsible for planning, formulating policy, and coordinating water resources at the national level. The national policy regarding water resources in India is spelled out in the National Water Policy 2002 (Government of India, 2002), which emphasizes the need to reorient the existing water related institutions. The main thrust of the national policy has shifted toward a participatory, multi-sectoral approach leading to the establishment of River Basin Organizations (RBOs), which advocate a hydrological basis for water governance. Compared to surface water governance institutions, groundwater institutions at the federal and state levels are yet to be established. Lack of integration of policy at central and state levels and lack of coordination within government ministries and line departments dealing with water remain core institutional deficiencies at the federal level

235. Many technical agencies under the umbrella of MOWR help manage the surface and ground water (CWC and CGWB) and assess the nature and scope of inter basin transfer possibilities (National Water Development Authority). The other key institutions linked to MOWR are (i) Indian National Committee for Irrigation and Drainage; (ii) Indian Water Resources Society; (iii) Water and Land Management Institutes; (iv) Central Water and Power Research Institute; and (v) National Institute of Hydrology and others which are involved in various aspects of river basin management like a) waste land development b) promoting drinking water and sanitation c) agricultural development d) pollution control .

236. MOWR has the responsibility to develop, conserve and manage water whereas other linked/associated organizations of MOWR have the task of administration and control of water resources. Key functions of these agencies include among others; (i) development of general policy, provision of technical assistance and training to the states on topics like irrigation, dam safety, water logging, flood control ground water exploration, hydraulic structures for navigation and hydropower;(ii) regulation and development of interstate rivers; (iii) water quality assessments; (iv) water laws legislation including international water laws (v) interstate river matters and vi) bilateral and external assistance and cooperation programs in the sector of water resource development and management such as IWRM technical assistance programs supported by Asian Development Bank as an example.

3. Central Water Commission30 (CWC)

a. Overview

237. Central Water Commission (CWC) is the apex technical organization in the field of water resources development. It has attained its present distinctive place amongst the foremost technical and scientific organisations in the world through a process of gradual evolution conditioned by the growing importance for accelerated and optimum development and management of water resources and the purposeful contributions it has been making towards this end.

238. The Commission, as per the notification31, will act generally as a Central fact-finding, planning and coordinating organization with the authority to undertake construction work. It will be available to advise the Central, Provincial and State governments in regard to waterways, irrigation and navigation problems throughout the country. The Commission was to be a strong technical organisation designed to conduct, where necessary, surveys and investigations with a view to secure planned utilisation of water resources of the country as a whole and, in consultation with the provincial and 30 Source: Restructuring of CWC: Final Report July 2007 commissioned by MOWR-GOI 31It was in the year 1945 that the government of India vide Department of Labor Resolution No. DW 101(2), dated

5th April 1945, notified as under, the setting up of a Commission, under the name of Central Waterways, Irrigation and Navigation Commission, generally known as CWINC.


State governments throughout the country, to coordinate and press forward schemes for the conservation, control and regulation of water and waterways and further, when so required by the Government of India, to undertake the execution of any such scheme.

239. The genesis of the Central Water Commission (CWC32) dates back to 1974 and has been functioning since then under the umbrella of‘ the Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR) in the Government of India (GOI). Over a period of time, the CWC, has acquired body of expertise in various facets of water resources engineering and management of surface water resources and therefore, serves as the apex technical organization in the country responsible for initiating, coordinating and furthering, in consultation with the State Governments, the schemes for control, conservation, development and utilization of water resources throughout the country for the purpose of irrigation, flood management, power generation, etc.

240. The Commission is headed by a Chairman with the status of Ex-officio Secretary to the Government of India, and three Members with the status of Ex-officio Additional Secretary to the Government of India. The three Members head the three technical wings namely; (i) Design & Research Wing; (ii) Water Planning and Projects Wing and (iii) River Management Wing. There are two units, namely Human Resources Management and Training headed by two Chief Engineers functioning under the overall control of the Chairman. The structure of CWC is ably supported by thirteen regional offices which are each headed by a Chief Engineer, responsible for monitoring of major and medium projects and appraisal of medium projects of the region in addition to flood forecasting and hydrological observations. Monitoring of Command Area Development Programmes in certain projects, minor irrigation schemes and other water management activities have also been added to the responsibilities of the regional field offices.

241. CWC functions with a clearly defined tasks and responsibilities as evolved over a period of time. During the sixties when the states did not have adequate expertise to handle project implementation themselves, CWC did engaged itself in the construction works for projects (like Hirakud). As the states gained confidence, CWC disengaged itself from construction works and began concentrating more on technical examination of water resources development projects. This led to strengthening the functions related to hydrological observation and studies, design and flood forecasting services through the seventies and eighties. The nineties saw CWC catching up on environment management, project monitoring and performance enhancement and paying closer attention to dam safety, modernization of hydrological data collection etc. Undoubtedly, the organization has been moving with the times, responding to new challenges caused by changes in technological and environmental regimes, while zealously building up its reputation as the apex technical body in the country for water resources development.

b. CWC Organizational Structure.

242. Central Water Commission is headed by a Chairman, with the status of Ex-Officio Secretary to the Government of India. The work of the Commission is divided among 3 wings namely (i) Designs and Research Wing (D&R); (ii) Water Planning and Projects Wing (WP&P) and (iii) River Management Wing (RM). Allied functions are grouped under respective wings and each wing is placed under the charge of a full-time Member with the status of Ex-Officio Additional Secretary to the Government of India. Each wing comprising of a number of Organizations, is responsible for the disposal of tasks and duties falling within the scope of functions assigned to it. In the discharge of these responsibilities, the Members are assisted by officers of the rank of Chief Engineer, Director/Superintending Engineer, Deputy Director/Executive Engineer, Assistant Director/Assistant Executive Engineer and other Engineering and Non-Engineering officers and supporting staff working in the various field organizations and at HQ. There is a separate Human Resources Management Unit headed by a Chief Engineer, to deal with Human Resources Management & Development, Financial Management, Training and Administrative matters of the Central Water Commission. National Water Academy is located at Pune for training of Central and State in-service engineers, which functions directly under the guidance of the Chairman. In order to achieve better management in the Water Resources Sector and have better coordination with State Government departments, CWC has established regional offices. It has 13 regional offices, each headed by a Chief Engineer. The offices

32 More institutional assessment on CWC and MOWR to follow in another report


are located at Bangalore, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Chandigarh, Coimbatore, Delhi, Hyderabad, Lucknow, Nagpur, Patna, Shillong, Siliguri and Gandhi Nagar. In addition, for training of Central and State in-service engineers, CWC also has a National Water Academy located at Pune.

c. Functions of Chairman and Members of CWC

o Chairman Head of the Organization – Responsible for overseeing the various activities related to overall planning and development of surface water resources of the country.

o Member (Water Planning & Projects) - Responsible for overall planning and development of river basins, national perspective plan for water resources development in accordance with the National Water Policy, techno-economic appraisal of Water Resources Projects and assistance to the States in the formulation and implementation of projects, monitoring of selected projects for identification of bottlenecks to achieve the targeted benefits, preparation of project reports for international assistance, environmental aspects, issues related to construction machinery of projects, application of remote sensing technologies in water resources etc.

o Member (Designs & Research) - Responsible for providing guidance and support in planning, feasibility studies, standardization and designs of river valley projects in the country, safety aspects of major and medium dams, hydrological studies for the projects, coordination of research activities etc.

o Member (River Management) - Responsible for providing technical guidance in matters relating to river morphology, flood management, techno-economic evaluation of flood management schemes, collection of hydrological and hydro-meteorological data, formulation of flood forecast on all major flood prone rivers and inflow forecasts for selected important reservoirs, investigation of irrigation/hydro-electric/multipurpose projects, monitoring of major and medium projects with regard to Command Area Development etc.

d. Responsibilities of CWC

243. CWC is charged with the general responsibility of initiating, coordinating and furthering in consultation with the State Governments concerned, schemes for the control, conservation and utilization of water resources in the respective state for the purpose of flood management, irrigation, navigation, drinking water supply and water power generation.

244. The Commission, if so required, can undertake the construction and execution of any such scheme. In exercise of the above responsibilities following are the broad main functions of CWC include:

o undertake necessary surveys and investigations as and when so required, to prepare designs and schemes for the development of river valleys in respect of power generation, irrigation by gravity flow or lift, flood management, environmental management, rehabilitation and resettlement, soil conservation, anti-water logging measures, reclamation of alkaline and saline soils, drainage and for drinking water supply;

o undertake construction work of any river valley development scheme on behalf of the Government of India or State Government concerned;

o advise and assist, when so required, the State Governments (Commissions, Corporations or Boards that are set up) in the investigation, surveys and preparation of river valley and power development schemes for particular areas and regions;

o advise the Government of India in respect of Water Resources Development, regarding rights and disputes between different States which affect any scheme for the conservation and utilization and any matter that may be referred to the Commission in connection with river valley development;

o advise the Government of India and the concerned State Governments on the basin-wise development of water resources;

o advise the Government of India with regard to all matters relating to the Inter-State water disputes;

o collect, coordinate the collection of, publish and analyse the data relating to tidal rivers, rainfall, runoff and temperature, silting of reservoirs, behaviour of hydraulic structures,


environmental aspects etc. and to act as the Central Bureau of Information in respect of these matters;

o collect, maintain and publish statistical data relating to water resources and its utilization including quality of water throughout India and to act as the Central Bureau of Information relating to water resources;

o initiate schemes and arrange for the training of Indian Engineers in India and abroad in all aspects of river valley development;

o standardize instruments, methods of observation and record, materials for construction, design and operation of irrigation projects;

o initiate studies on socio-agro-economic and ecological aspects of irrigation projects for the sustained development of irrigation;

o conduct and coordinate research on the various aspects of river valley development schemes such as flood management, irrigation, navigation, water power development etc., and the connected structural and design features;

o promote modern data collection techniques such as remote sensing technology for water resources development and river forecasting and development of computer softwares;

o conduct studies on dam safety aspects for the existing and future dams and standardize the instruments for dam safety measures;

o initiate morphological studies to visualise river behaviour, bank erosion/coastal erosion problems and advise the Central and State Governments on all such matters;

o conduct experiments, research and to carry out such other activities as will promote economic and optimum utilization of water resources; and

o promote and create mass awareness in the progress and achievement made by the country in the water resources development, use and conservation.

e. CWC Functionary Units and Programmes

245. The National Committee on Dam Safety (NCDS) was constituted by the Government of India in October 1987. The National Committee now include the States/ agencies, having significant number of dams. This Committee oversees dam safety activities in various States/ Organisations and suggests improvements to bring these in line with the latest state-of-the-art consistent with the Indian conditions. It acts as a forum for exchange of views on techniques adopted for remedial measures to old dams in distress. Strategies to incorporate projected flood flows under climate change will be area to be examined under the S_NWM study.

246. River Management Wing of Central Water Commission is entrusted with the responsibility of collection of hydrological, hydro-meteorological, silt and water quality data in all major river basins of India and formulation and issue of stage forecast and inflow forecast in all the flood prone river basins and reservoirs. Other activities of this wing include technical matters relating to river morphology, flood management, techno-economical examination and acceptance of flood management schemes, investigations and appraisal of medium project/ schemes and monitoring of major and medium projects, including monitoring of implementation of the Command Area Development.

247. Hydrological Data Collection; currently the field units of CWC are maintaining a network of 907 hydrological data collection stations. Various entities of data collection at these stations include gauge, discharge, rainfall, silt and water quality data. All the data collected at these stations is processed at various levels and authenticated data is transmitted to the central data bank of the Central Water Commission for storage, processing and retrieval for use at the request of various user agencies. The hardware and software for storage and retrieval of data are being augmented/ updated continuously incorporating the requirement of user agencies and to keep update with the modern technology available in the field of data storage and retrieval. Gauge and discharge data is also published basinwise in the Water Year Books. An important project namely, Hydrology Project is under implementation in the peninsular river basins of India since 1994 with the World Bank assistance. The objective of the project is to develop a comprehensive, easily accessible and user friendly database covering all aspects of hydrological cycle, including surface water, ground water in terms of quantity and quality and climatic measurements particularly of rainfall. To achieve this objective the project aims at improvement of institutional and organisational arrangements, technical capabilities and physical facilities for creation, processing and dissemination of hydrological and hydrometeorological data from fully functional Hydrological Information System. Central agencies


participating in the implementation of the project are Central Water Commission (CWC), Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), National Institute of Hydrology (NIH), Central Water and Power Research Station (CWPRS) and India Meteorological Department (IMD). Peninsular states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are also participating in the implementation of the project. Duration of the second phase of the project is for six years with World Bank assistance amounting to IDASDR 90.1 million (US $ 142.0 million equivalent) and with CWC contribution component of Rs. 721 million.

248. Water Quality Monitoring CWC is also collecting water quality data in all major river basins of the country and three-tier laboratory system is maintained to analyse these water quality data. Water samples are collected at 350 stations regularly and tested.

249. Flood Management An area of about 14.37 million ha. has been provided with reasonable degree of flood protection through various structural flood management works. Rashtriya Barh Ayog assessed an area of about 40 million ha. which is prone to floods in the country out of which 32 million ha. can be provided with protection. To protect the remaining area from flood importance is now being given to non-structural measures such as flood plain zoning, flood proofing and flood forecasting techniques etc. Flood Plain Zoning: A model bill regarding the need for adopting non-structural measures like regulation of economic and human activities in the flood plains was circulated to all the states in 1975 for enacting legislation. Much has not happened on this and only Manipur Government has enacted legislation for flood plain zoning.

250. Flood Forecasting is another non-structural measure to control/ minimizing loss of lives and damage to property due to floods. CWC is maintaining a network of 157 flood-forecasting stations on various river basins in the country. During the flood season of 1999 in all 7055 flood forecasts were issued, including inflow forecast, which were found very useful for taking timely action to prevent loss of lives and damage to property due to floods. Modernisation/ improvement of flood forecasting techniques and development of mathematical models for issue of flood forecasts and inflow forecasts are continued under various schemes/ projects.

251. Coastal Protection Works: - A major portion of Indian Coastline is facing constant erosion due to various natural as well as manmade reasons. Initially it was proposed to provide central loan assistance to some maritime States for completing anti erosion works in some critical reaches. The proposal was later discontinued and anti erosion works suffered a serious setback due to paucity of funds. States have compiled their requirements into the National Coastal Protection Projects.

252. Survey and Investigation Central Water Commission has been carrying out detailed survey and investigation including preparation of feasibility reports for development of water resources projects in Sikkim, North Eastern States and neighbouring countries of Nepal and Bhutan.

253. Monitoring of CAD programmes At present field units of RM Wing of CWC are carrying out monitoring work in respect of twenty-two CAD projects being implemented in various States. Recently MoWR has sent a revised list of sixty CAD projects to be monitored by field units of the CWC, which includes fourteen projects from the old list of twenty two and forty six new projects, covering twenty one States of the country.

254. Water Planning and Projects Wing is responsible for overall planning and development of basin wise perspective plans for the development and management of surface water, national perspective plan for the development of water resources in accordance with the National Water Policy, techno-economic appraisal of Water Resources Projects, identification of bottlenecks to achieve the targeted benefits, preparation of projects for international assistance, environmental aspects, allocation of water of interstate basins, construction machinery planning, performance evaluation of irrigation projects, application of remote sensing techniques in W.R. projects etc.

255. Project Appraisal One of the important activities assigned to the CWC is techno-economic appraisal of irrigation, flood control and multipurpose projects proposed by State Governments. This task is performed and coordinated by the Project Appraisal Organization (PAO). After ascertaining the techno-economic feasibility of the projects, the Technical Advisory Committee on Irrigation, Flood Control and Multipurpose Projects headed by the Secretary, MOWR, consider the projects for acceptance and thereafter, recommend the projects for investment clearance by the Planning


Commission. Besides, power projects proposed by the State Electricity Boards/ Private Sector Organizations are also scrutinized by the CWC with respect to hydrology, civil design, inter-state and cost implications for the hydro projects; and, for establishing water availability for cooling and other purposes in the case of the thermal projects. Technical aspects of water supply schemes are also appraised when referred to by the State Governments.

256. A similar function is discharged by the Project Preparation Organization (PPO) with a multi-disciplinary composition covering engineering, agronomy and economic disciplines in respect of Major, Medium Irrigation and Water Resources Consolidation Projects, which are proposed for external assistance.

257. Appraisal of Major and Medium Irrigation Projects Major Irrigation Projects (CCA above 10,000 ha) are examined for various aspects in specialized Directorates in the CWC and in the Ministries of Water Resources, Agriculture, Environment and Forests and Welfare. In the case of multipurpose projects, examination in the Central Electricity Authority is also done for the power components. For this purpose, State Governments are required to prepare detailed project reports as per the existing guidelines after conducting adequate investigation/ surveys and collecting requisite data. For example, during the year 1999-2000, eighty-nine New Major and fifty-six Revised Major Irrigation Projects were under appraisal in the Project Appraisal Organization. For Medium Projects (CCA 2,000 to 10,000 ha), State Governments are required to submit only a proforma report for Appraisal and Monitoring.

258. Appraisal Of Power Projects CWC conducts appraisal of power projects.

259. Monitoring Of Projects Intensive monitoring of selected ongoing major and medium irrigation projects is being carried out by the Central Water Commission to monitor the physical and financial progress of the projects, to identify bottlenecks causing delays in the completion of projects and to suggest remedial measures for creation of the designed potential as per schedule. Annual Reports on status of monitored projects, highlighting critical issues needing attention are prepared and furnished to the Planning Commission and the concerned State Governments. The externally aided/ inter-state/ centrally sponsored major projects are monitored by the Project Monitoring Organisation (PMO) headed by a Chief Engineer stationed at the Headquarters while the regional organisations of the CWC, headed by respective Chief Engineers, take care of monitoring activities of other important major and medium irrigation projects.

260. Environmental Monitoring Committee (EMC) An Environmental Monitoring Committee (EMC) was constituted in February, 1990 for monitoring the implementation of environmental safeguards of irrigation and the multipurpose and flood control projects. The Committee has selected eighty-five projects for monitoring out of which seventeen are being closely monitored.

261. Rehabilitation and Resettlement The Rehabilitation and Resettlement (R&R) aspects of displaced persons of water resources storage projects by the States are monitored by the Rehabilitation & Resettlement Directorate of CWC. In this regard collection and compilation of data regarding R&R measures being taken by the Project Authorities, norms/ Acts/ Policies adopted by the State Governments in respect of major and medium irrigation and multipurpose projects are collected and analysed. CWC is also actively engaged in the preparation of the draft National Policy on Rehabilitation and Resettlement.

262. Application Of Remote Sensing Techniques In Water Resources The MOWR Standing Finance Committee approved a plan scheme "Application of Remote Sensing in Water Resources Development and Management" for the VIII Five Year Plan. The scheme has been continued as a continuing scheme of IX Five Year Plan.

263. Studies On Drainage Problems In Irrigated Areas The adverse effects of lack of drainage in irrigated areas include loss of land due to waterlogging, soil salinity and alkalinity and land degradation. Central Water Commission is presently engaged in the collection and compilation of the data relating to water logging and soil salinity in irrigated commands. Collection of data of individual States is in progress. State-wise status reports on the drainage related problems are being prepared. Draft status report on the drainage related problems in Punjab has been prepared and the report in respect of Maharashtra is in progress. Assessment study and monitoring of waterlogging and salinity/


alkalinity affected areas in Mahanadi Stage-I command area using Remote Sensing Technique under the IX Five Year Plan is in progress in collaboration with the NRSA, Hyderabad.

264. Monitoring Of Reservoir Level And Live Storage Capacity CWC has been monitoring level and storage in respect of important reservoirs in the country on a weekly basis. During the current water year five more reservoirs have been added to the list of reservoirs being monitored making it a total of sixty eight. The total live storage of these reservoirs is about 129.50 BCM.

265. Hydrographic Survey Of Important Reservoirs Ministry of Water Resources have approved for carrying out the capacity survey of important reservoirs in the country during the IXth Plan

C. Central Ground Water Board33

266. The Union Government of India under the Environment (Protection) Act,1986 constituted CGWB as Authority in January,1977 to regulate and control, development and management of ground water resources in the country. It has notified certain areas in the country for purposes of registration of users in overexploited blocks as well as registration of bore-well drilling agencies. Prior to notifying areas as ground water protection areas the Authority is required to notify rules and guidelines governing issuance of such notifications. The CGWA is also required to bring to the notice of public the areas vulnerable to depletion and pollution prior their notification. Besides it is also incumbent on CGWA to model the effects of ground water withdrawals in areas notified as ground water depletion areas, map and model the fate of contaminants through pollution transport models as well and bring out the outcome and results of its data generated through registration of users in ground water over-exploited and notified areas. Also it is desirable for Authority to model wellhead protection and zones of contribution for its aquifers so notified as protected aquifer zones. However, such things are not either done yet nor even seen to have been put on the website of CGWA for legitimate public information and reference. Further the CGWA is not taking compliance from offices and authorized persons to whom it has delegated its powers to regulate and control the development of ground water in its notified areas. .

267. Structure-composition; The Central Ground Water Board is a multi-disciplinary scientific organization consisting of; hydro-geologists, geophysicists, chemists, hydrologists, hydro-meteorologists and engineers and has its headquarters in Delhi, and Faridabad, Haryana. It is headed by the Chairman and has four main wings, namely (i) Sustainable Management & Liaison (SML), (ii) Survey, Assessment & Monitoring (SAM), (iii) Exploratory Drilling & Materials Management (ED&MM) and (iv) Training and Technology Transfer (T&TT). Each wing is headed by a Member. The administrative & financial matters of the Board are being dealt with by the Director (Administration) and Finance & Accounts Officer (FAO) respectively. The Board has 18 Regional offices, each headed by a Regional Director, supported by 17 Engineering Divisions and 11 State Unit Offices for undertaking various field activities. The Rajiv Gandhi National Ground Water Training & Research Institute (RGNGT&RI), which coordinates the capacity building activities of the Board functions from the CGWB headquarters, Faridabad at present. Various activities related to regulation of ground water development in the country are being looked after by the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA), constituted under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986.

268. Functions/tasks: Major activities being taken up by Central Ground Water Board include macro-level ground water management studies, exploratory drilling programme, monitoring of ground water levels and water quality through a network of ground water observation wells comprising both large diameter open wells and purpose-built bore/tube wells (piezometers), implementation of demonstrative schemes for artificial recharge and rainwater harvesting for recharge augmentation.

269. Periodic assessment of replenishable ground water resources of the country is carried out by the CGWB jointly with the concerned State Government agencies. Geophysical studies, remote sensing & GIS studies and ground water modelling studies are taken up to supplement these activities. The Board also takes up special studies on various aspects of ground water sector such as ground water depletion, sea water ingress, ground water contamination, conjunctive use of surface & ground water, water balance etc. It also organizes various capacity building activities for personnel of 33 Source: http://cgwb.gov.in/aboutus.htm


its own as well as Central/State Government organizations engaged in various activities in ground water sector as well as mass awareness campaigns on the importance of water conservation and judicious ground water management.

270. The data generated from various studies taken up by CGWB provide a scientific base for water resource planning by stakeholders. Besides advising states and other user agencies on planning and management of ground water resources, Central Ground Water Board also provides technical know-how on scientific ground water exploration, development and management to various stakeholders.

271. However, notwithstanding the above, given the current status of ground water use and its management in the country, an independent evaluation of institutions and its decentralised activities, programs and policies aimed at improved ground water development & management is suggested

D. Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA)

272. Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) has been constituted under Section 3(3) of Environment (Protection) Act of 1986 vide Ministry of Environment & Forests' notification dated 14.1.1997 and reconstituted under MOEF notification dated 6.11.2000. Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) was constituted under subsection (3) of Section 3 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 for the purposes of regulation and control of ground water development and management in the country.

273. The Authority is engaged in various activities related to regulation of ground water development to ensure its long-term sustainability. The CGWA is regulating withdrawal of ground water by industries/projects in over-exploited, semi-critical and critical blocks/talukas/mandals/districts through clearance of such proposals. The CGWA also conducts mass awareness and water management training programmes throughout the country as proactive measures to create awareness and capacity building in ground water management.

274. It has also initiated action to promote roof top rainwater harvesting in the country. It has also issued directions to Chief Secretaries of all States having over exploited blocks to take all necessary measures to promote/adopt artificial recharge of ground water/rain water harvesting.

275. Various actions initiated by the CGWA for regulation and control of ground water resources in the country include issuance of directions to Group Housing Societies, Institutes, Hotels, Industries, Farm Houses, etc. in the notified areas of Delhi, Faridabad, Gurgaon and Ghaziabad and other areas of NCT Delhi where ground water table is below 8 metres from ground surface, to adopt roof top rain water harvesting system.

276. Decentralization of Powers and Functions of CGWA: As part of streamlining the regulatory function of Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA), District Magistrates have been appointed as authorized officers for grant of permission for extraction of ground water for drinking/domestic uses in 36 out of 43 blocks/talukas notified by CGWA in 10 States for ground water regulation. They have been advised to process the request for grant of permission for extraction of ground water for drinking/domestic purposes in notified areas as per guidelines issued by CGWA

E. Central Water and Power Research Station

277. The Central Water and Power Research Station (CWPRS), Khadakwasla, Pune, is the centre of excellence in hydraulic research at the national level. From its inception in 1916 as an agency dealing with the twin problems of irrigation and drainage, CWPRS is an institution of international standing in hydraulic research.

278. The mandate of the institution encompasses undertaking specific research studies supported by necessary basic research. Comprehensive R&D support is offered to a variety of projects dealing with water resources, power and water-borne transport. Consultancy and advisory services are rendered to a variety of clients of the institution within the sphere of its activities. Disseminating expertise and research findings amongst hydraulic fraternity and promoting hydraulic research activities at other institutions by imparting training to their research manpower are also undertaken. As


the regional laboratory of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) since 1971, CWPRS has contributed in many projects in the neighborhood as well as countries in the Middle East and Africa.

279. The major disciplines/laboratories of CWPRS are: River Engineering, Reservoir and Appurtenant Structures, Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Ship Hydrodynamics, Hydraulic Machinery, Earth Sciences, Mathematical Modeling, Foundation & Structures and Instrumentation & Control Engineering. About 50 Divisions - well equipped with state-of-the-art equipment, software and other high quality infrastructure - are engaged in hydraulic research at the institution within the ambit of the disciplines/laboratories mentioned above. The institution, with an interdisciplinary approach in all its activities, represents unique services available to the country and the ESCAP region.

F. National Water Academy

280. The Central Training Unit (later renamed the National Water Academy) under the Central Water Commission, was set up in May 1988 in the CWPRS Campus in Pune with assistance from the USAID with a view to develop institutional capabilities as the centre for imparting long-term and short-term training to the in-service engineers working in the State and the Central Government organisations. The academy conducts a wide range of training courses including induction training courses, various training programmes under the World Bank aided Hydrology Project, computer skills training, training of trainers (TOT), integrated river basin planning and management, investigation for planning and formulation of hydro power projects and construction management training

G. Strengthening of the Central Water Commission and MoWR Attached Organisations

1. Introduction

281. The National Water Mission identifies the need for internalising climate change within the existing institutional structure; it also recommends the adoption of IWRM and the needs for the water institutions to adjust to the changing functional needs. The NWM also identifies the need to reduce the role of government under IWRM.

282. A wide range of institutional responses have evolved over the years to use and manage the ever-increasing demand for irrigation water in India. The State List (List II) of the Indian Constitution empowers the states to govern the water resources. The regulation and development of interstate rivers is entrusted with the federal government through entry 56 of List I. The core legislation emanating from this constitutional privilege includes River Boards Act 1956 and the Inter-State Water Disputes Act 1956. The effectiveness of these acts are clouded by lack of clarity in terms of institutional objectives, fragmentation of basins by state boundaries, lack of cooperation among states, and intense political lobbying by states.

283. The several attached organisations of the MoWR play and will continue to play a key role to support the Ministry of Water Resources. The key attached organisations under consideration are (i) the Central Water Commission; (ii) the Central Groundwater Board; (iii) the National Institute of Hydrology and the (iv) the Central Water and Power Research Station. The changing requirements of the water resources requires a major consideration of change in how water resources are managed and the most appropriate structure at state, central and basin level.

284. To cope with the new challenges in the Water Resource environment, the Central Water Commission (CWC) needs to make a conscious effort to develop new technical, managerial and behavioural competencies, while deepening the existing competencies in the organization. The new competencies would enable CWC to address the emerging key result areas that call for a enhanced role for CWC in facilitating the development of river basin organizations, inter-state river linking projects and promoting best practices in integrated water resource management.

285. The view of the study is that In view of the changing context, the role transformation within CWC is considered necessary to create an enabling environment in terms of the following


o A stable institutional framework that overcomes fragmentation and overlap of responsibilities, and is supported by strong and comprehensive, but flexible legislation, regulations, decrees, etc.

o A strong "knowledge" base that derives from a good, uniform, and comprehensive data network, data systems and models for analysis, and that allows "knowledgeable" natural resources/water management policies and strategies to be developed and implemented

o Integration across all natural resource issues relating to water and understanding of the multi-sectoral areas of water demand.

o A strong partnership with states to effectively plan and manage water resources at the sub basin and basin.

o Specialist support for sub basin and basin planning and climate change. o Key support for the establishment of autonomous River Basin Organisations

2. ASCI 2007 Study34 and Proposal for Restructuring of CWC

286. A restructuring proposal for the Central Water Commission was commissioned by the Ministry of Water Resources and assigned to the Government of India Administrative Staff College of India Hyderabad (ASCI) in July 2007. The assessment of CWC was prompted to meet the shift in the future allocation of water and increased equity among competing users and the need to work towards a lower demand scenario of water requirements; within and between river basins, as well as among different sections of the population and the end users. Central and state water resources departments have to date been preoccupied with irrigation; there is a now a need is for MoWR and the state WRDs to move towards a more integrated, holistic and inter-disciplinary approach to water resource management.

287. Today, the central government‘s influence over water resources in the country depends entirely on its credibility as a technical umpire and a development coordinator rather than on any constitutional or legal support. In such a situation, the political management of water resources will have to be driven by an increasingly integrated approach balanced by very objective analysis coming from an independent institutional system. Eventually, institutional coordination and integration of regional goals for water resource management must lead to river basin wide developmental initiatives for utilization and sharing of water resources between competing uses, users and surplus and deficit areas.

288. The Central Water Commission (CWC) has been functioning since 1974 as an ‗Attached Office‘ of the ministry responsible for irrigation, now known as the Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR). Over the years, the CWC has developed a body of expertise in various facets of water resources engineering and management of surface water resources and therefore, serves as the apex technical organization in the country responsible for initiating, coordinating and in consultation with the State Governments control, conservation, development and utilization of water resources throughout the country for the purpose of irrigation, flood management, power generation, etc.

289. Strategic Options; the ASCI study finds that despite being the major player, restructuring of CWC is considered necessary to create an enabling environment to allow it to effectively implement the recommendations of the national water policy. The study recommends that the restructuring needs to involve CWC as well as other organisations under the administrative control of MoWR. After considering various models two options were presented.

o Corporatisation option: in India, notwithstanding the public sector reforms the Public Sector Enterprises (PSEs) with their equity contributed wholly or largely by the GOI have been playing a vital role in the economic life of the nation. From the analysis of the organisation‘s strengths and weaknesses it was considered that CWC would be able to address a wide spectrum of business opportunities in the water resources sectors. There are organisations and divisions within CWC that can be converted into Strategic Business Units (SBUs) with

34 Source: Extraction from the Final Report -Restructuring the Central Water Commission : Commissioned by the Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India/ Administrative Staff College of India Hyderabad (ASCI)- July 2007


potential to perform the existing activities on fully or semi commercial lines. Other activities would not lend themselves to corporatisation including the hydrological studies, flood management and river basin management.

o Constitutional option: the ASCIs second and preferred option was to consider the possibility of converting the CWC into an autonomous constitutional body35. Reopening of the constitutional debate was considered very seriously by the ASCI study but the widening gulf of issues of the interstate water resource management is so complex and intangible made this a critical requiremnt. The ASCI proposal is to establish an Interstate River Basin Commission (IRBC) under which all water related subjects under the purview of MoWR and other ministries can be place. The IRBC would form the umbrella organisation for River Basin Organisations RBOs to cover all major river basins in the country. CWC could potentially be elevated to such a position.

290. ASCI identifies that the present advisory role of the CWC leaves the 'centre unable to enact effective laws regarding inter-state rivers, even when it has the powers and legal mandate; effective interstate management has not been implemented. Water is such a politically sensitive issue that the centre has refrained from being pro-active even during the decades of increasing central role in many other sectors.

291. ASCI recognised the difficulties to include ‗Water‘ in the concurrent list‖. The feeling however was that In the context of public policy, there perhaps is no parallel to the confusion and despondency that prevails in the water resource sector. It, therefore, seemed that the way forward was to create a unified, autonomous institutional framework to pave the way for integrated and yet politically independent management of water resources in the country. ASCI felt that this would be best achieved through a constitutional body to regulate, plan, formulate and implement development of water resources projects in the country36'.

292. Towards this objective the ASCI study recommended that an ‗Interstate River Basin Commission‘ (IRBC) be established which all water related subjects currently under the purview of MOWR and other ministries of the Government of India could be placed. Such a body would operate through its own field formations in the form of River Basin Organisations (RBOs) to cover all the major river basins and sub-basins in the country. ASCI identified CWC to have all the ingredients and resources for being elevated to such a status and it is fully equipped to undertake the task of guiding water resources development in the country, given its vast experience spatially spread across the country and neighbouring countries in the region. It was thought also to be necessary to absorb other existing central institutions into the IRBC and ensure adequate representation to the states. The ASCI study made no attempt to validate the proposal or look for alternative models which would have to be guided by the new mandate and mission for the IRBC after adequate public debate.

293. The other main recommendations of the ASCI study include.

o Sharper focus on conjunctive use of water. o Duplication of technological expertise at state and central level is unsustainable. o Need for CWC to focus on basin wide aspects such as basin hydrology, dam safety flood

warning and other aspects not possible by states alone; as well as access to high level specialist support not available in the states;

o Approvals need to be quicker o Design and Research wing to be independent from CWC. o Proposed to establish a National Water Research and Design Standards Organisation

(NWRDSO) independent of CWC. The proposed NWRDSO would incorporate the three main research organisations; the Central Soils and Materials Research (CSMRS), Central Water and Power Research Station (CWPRS) and the National Institute of Hydrology (NIH) as well as the multitude of technical committees. The proposed NWRDSO would have greater

35this would be similar to the functionaries like the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (C &AG) or the

Election Commission (EC) 36 National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development (NCIWRD) pg 203


operational freedom than presently possible as a part of MoWR. The NWRDSO could interface with the MoWR and the RBOs.

o More integrated and participatory approach o CWC to shed off some of the project orientated wings which have lost their relevance and

better managed at the state level including the Central Mechanical Organisation (CMO), the Project Preparation Organisation including Surveys and Investigations

o The environment management organisation (EMO) to be expanded to support EIA requirements.

o A Management Services Organisation (MSO) was proposed to constantly review the management processes. The proposed MSO would include four specialised directorates ; financial analysis and management and Human Resources Management Projects and Contract Management and Public Policy. The MSO would support the management of the RBOs.

o The present River Management Wing (RM) would be organized at the field level covering all the major inter-state river basins. A single wing particularly after strengthening them to address most water development concerns at the river basin level in a decentralized set up would create too large a span for a single Wing to manage. The RM wing should have only three organizations namely (i) the Flood Management Organisation (FMO) as it exists, the new Basin Planning and Development Organisation (BP& DO) and the proposed MSO directly under its control at the headquarters. All the Field Units should have dual reporting to the RM Wing as well as the Water Planning and Project WP&P Wing so that the CWC headquarters has uniform access to all the information and reports from the field and vice-versa.

o The RBO organisation will depend on the geographical and other conditions o The structural changes would leave a leaner organisation with higher use of outsourcing

rather than expansion. RBOs also should not be over staffed 3. Proposed Strategy for CWC

294. The function of the Central Water Commission is to support implementation of planning and policy and provide linkages and liaisons with other central government ministries, and state government. It is essential that CWC moves towards IWRM and as such should incorporate all water resources including surface and groundwater, coastal snow and glacier systems. The key role of the CWC should be maintained to implement water resources policy to be achieved by proactive partnerships with the states. The integration of surface and ground water resources management is essential and the CGWB should be merged as a core part of CWC.

295. The ASCI's study provides a good basis for direction and strategy for CWC as well as the other MoWR attached agencies37. From the current study in the sub basins there is a clear need for strengthened central government support for IWRM planning and management at sub basin and basin level and addressing climate change issues. A move to IWRM is as important at central level as it is at lower levels.

296. The capacity of the states is gradually improving and the key strategy must be build up and stronger state-central government partnerships for surface and groundwater; with CWC playing a key role in strengthening the state governments and building up river basin organisations. How to achieve levels of excellence within the constraints of the government systems is an issue raised by ASCI; the lack of resources within the constraints on recruitment and frequent transfer of staff is major constraint to capacity especially at state level. One approach is allow more flexibilities for government institutes to do commercial or semi commercial work which can stimulate capacities and allow additional revenues which can be used to support non revenue activities.

297. The institutional structure in regard to water development and management in India has developed over a long period of time. Its development is shaped by the history, the laws, the policies, acts, the changing concerns, and the changing role of the State, the NGOs, the private sector, and the individuals in the sectors. Coping with the new challenges posed by climate change impacts on

37 The main relevant MoWR attached organisations are National Institute of Hydrology (NIH), Central Water and

Power Research Station (CWPRS)


various sectors of Indian economy has become inevitable for all key actors of development and an organization like CWC an attached office of MOWR with a mandate to contribute to National Level policy framework, Water resource development, resolution of interstate issues, water resource planning process including investment clearance to water projects, is no exception.

298. Broad Directions: To cope with the new challenges in the Water Resource environment, the Central Water Commission (CWC) needs to make a conscious effort to develop new technical, managerial and behavioural competencies, while a) deepening the existing competencies and b) exploring the new result areas within the organization towards making a shift from a business as usual approach to a more holistic and integrated approach to water resource management thereby, CWC could sustain their comparative and competitive advantage and to become more strategic in the country.

299. The Administrative Staff of College of India in their report on ―Restructuring of CWC‖ has provided directions to make a shift from business as usual approach through identifying new key result areas and new competencies with an understanding of the fact that, in a broader context ―water institution‖ falls in a domain which is intersected by economics, law, and public policy, sociology, environment and is also strongly influenced by factors like resource endowment, demography, and science and technology, where in such a context, the basic approach needs to be inherently inter-disciplinary in orientation and analytical in character and this would enable CWC to address the emerging key result areas that call for a enhanced role for CWC in facilitating the development of river basin organizations, national level planning and development and promotion of RBO s and promoting best IWRM practices in integrated water resource management.

300. In the change in context of development in general and climate change in particular, a kind of a role transformation within CWC is called for. A change process based on its own assessment of competencies within CWC across its organizational structure is below.

301. Stage 1: define functions/roles/tasks of CWC at different levels. The functions need to be assessed at three levels; national Level, state level and basin level

302. Stage 2: undertake a participatory strategic review exercise of the organisation; points that could be included in the review are:

o In general, what products and services does CWC and why? o Based on CWC strengths and weaknesses why does CWC choose to provide these

services? o How do CWC products and services fit in with what other organisations (ie state, private

sector) can or potentially could do. o To provide these services well and into the future, what is required ? o How effective are the CWC services and how do you know? o What needs to be changed about the CWC organization to achieve what is wanted and why? o What key initiatives have most of your attention? Why? o What are the key ―non-negotiable‖ functions of CWC? o What would aspects should be prioritized? o How adaptable/flexible are CWC resources? How obsolescent are they? o What are the staff developmental needs of CWC? o What capacity building activities are you engaged in now? o Are there short term, midterm, long term plans for building or changing CWC organization‘s

performance capacity? o Do you have barriers/issues with capacity building? o What are your performance objectives and how do you measure your progress? o What related data requirements does CWC have and why? o What Quality Assurance methods and processes are in use? o Has organization conducted any gap analysis between existing and required competencies if

so where are the gaps observed? o How does CWC plan to address these gaps? o How do you use the results of gap analysis exercise to a strategic review process when

planned?


H. National Institute for Hydrology (NIH)

303. NIH is the the key R&D institute for Hydrology under MoWR; a climate change cell is also operational at the institute. The institute has carried out various studies on impact of climate change on water resources including snow and glacier studies. NIH is in a position to offer high level support for strengthening and capacity building programs. It is able to develop strong partnership with national, regional and international institutions and organizations working in the areas of climate change. NIH working with MoWR and CWC is able to ensure the highest possible climate projections are prepared and mainstreamed into water resources planning and management

304. The main areas of specialisation of the institute include; Environmental Hydrology, Ground Water Hydrology, Surface Water Hydrology, Water Resources, Hydrology Systems and Hydrological Investigations

I. Related Agricultural Institutions

305. Under the strategy for IWRM it is important that the agricultural organisations are well understood and incorporated into water resources planning and management. Key agriculture institutions include:

1. Marketing Institutions

306. An important structural characteristic of market structure for agricultural commodities is the institutional infrastructure created/promoted by the government for improvement of marketing system. Depending on the objectives and role, the marketing institutions can be grouped into public sector organizations, cooperatives and other formal/informal bodies. Public sector organizations include Food Corporation of India (FCI); Cotton Corporation of India; Jute Corporation of India; Commodity Boards; APEDA; STC; MPEDA; Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices; Directorate of Marketing and Inspection; Departments of Food and Civil Supplies; State Agricultural Marketing Boards; Central and State Warehousing Corporations; and Agricultural Produce Market Committees. The role and functions of each of these differ and include policy formulation, implementation, supervision, facilitation and direct entry in the market.

307. These apart, a large number of farmers‘ cooperative organizations have been promoted for undertaking marketing and processing functions on behalf of the farmers or members of cooperatives. By and large, marketing cooperatives in India is a four-tier structure consisting of primary marketing societies, district or regional cooperatives, state marketing federations and national level marketing cooperatives. The main marketing cooperatives include National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation (NAFED), Tribal Cooperative Marketing Federation (TRIFED), State Cooperative Marketing Federations (general as well as commodity specific), district level cooperatives or unions of cooperatives, and primary agricultural cooperative marketing societies (general as well as commodity specific).

308. In addition, the government has established some public sector organizations to promote cooperatives. These include National Cooperative Development Corporation and National Dairy Development Board. In quite a few commodities and regions, the cooperative organizations have played an important role in improvement in the performance of the marketing system by increasing competition. They have contributed in not only marketing and processing of farm products, but also in supply of inputs, including credit to farmers.

309. NAFED was established in October 1958 as an apex organization of marketing cooperatives. Its primary objective is to strengthen cooperative marketing structure in the country. Specific objectives of establishing NAFED include (a) to coordinate and promote the marketing activities of affiliated cooperative institutions; (b) to promote inter-state and international trade in agricultural and related commodities; (c) to make arrangements for the supply of agricultural inputs required by its member cooperatives; and (d) to act as an agency of the government for purchase, sale, storage and distribution of agricultural products and inputs. To fulfil its objectives, NAFED has been undertaking internal trade, exports and imports, price support and market intervention operations, production and marketing of inputs, promotional activities, developing cooperative marketing of tribal produce, and processing and marketing of fruits, vegetables and other agricultural commodities


310. As the basic objective of NAFED is the promotion of cooperative marketing, the direct intervention in the market by NAFED has been insignificant. However, it has been playing the role of national nodal agency for price support operations for oilseeds and pulses and in the implementation of market intervention scheme for fruits, vegetables, copra and other commodities as and when assigned by the government. By and large, NAFED has effectively worked on its set objectives 38

2. Commission for Agriculture costs and Prices (CACP)

311. The Agricultural Prices Commission was set up in January, 1965 to advise the Government on price policy of major agricultural commodities with a view to evolving a balance and integrated price structure in the perspective of the overall needs of the economy and with due regard to the interests of the producer and the consumer. Since March 1985, the Commission has been known as Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices.

312. The Commission is composed of a Chairman, a Member Secretary, two official members and three non-official members. The non-official members are representatives of the farming community. They are usually persons with long field experience and active association with the farming community.

313. Assurance of a remunerative and stable price environment is considered very important for increasing agricultural production and productivity since the market place for agricultural produce tends to be inherently unstable, which often inflict undue losses on the growers, even when they adopt the best available technology package and produce efficiently. Towards this end, minimum support prices (MSP) for major agricultural products are fixed by the government, each year, after taking into account the recommendations for the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices.( http://dacnet.nic.in/cacp)

3. Food Corporation of India39

314. The Food Corporation of India was set up under the Food Corporation Act 1964 and on 14th January, 2006, FCI completed 41 years of its existence. FCI was set up to secure strategic position in food grains trade and implement the National Policy for Price Support operations, procurement, storage, inter-state movement and distribution operations, in short to operate the Central Pool. Today, FCI is the country leader in food grains management and is fully focused on helping farmers feed the country, better and more efficiently, today and tomorrow.

315. Food constitutes the main requirement of every human being. In a sub-continent like India where millions of mouths depend on Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) and other welfare schemes of Govt. of India, FCI, plays a leading role in making food grains available to the respective State Govts. for its distribution among beneficiaries. To procure, store, preserve and move such a huge quantity of stocks spreading over vast areas with its intricate network is, indeed, a nerve and back-jerking task.

J. State Level Institutions

316. Under state authority, departments of irrigation are responsible for development and maintenance of major, medium, and minor irrigation schemes as well as groundwater development. Most state-level irrigation departments are affected by issues of mismanagement, and inefficient bureaucratic procedures and financial mismanagement. They also suffer from chronic funding deficiencies and often subscribe to top-down and engineering approaches to solving water resources management problems.

38 Source : Agricultural Marketing And Rural Credit: Status, Issues And Reform Agenda By S. S. Acharya Former Chairman of Agricultural Costs and Prices Commission, Honorary Professor and Former Director, Institute of Development Studies, 8B, Jhalana Institutional Area, Jaipur 302 004 and 2 National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research, New Delhi, 3 39 Source: http://www.fcinez.com


317. In addition to state-level departments, Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), which are the local self-governing bodies at the grassroots level, also control various water-related institutions. The main strength of the PRIs is their strong grassroots-level contact and their capacity to offer many opportunities for effective agricultural development, including irrigation under the distributed governance model. However, it appears that a number of ministries of the federal government have not taken substantive steps to integrate PRIs into their strategic planning (Planning Commission, 2001). Put differently, the state governments have not empowered and adequately internalized the subject of PRIs. The political nature of PRIs, low skill level and the inability to deal with multiple tasks without becoming overburdened, can also hinder their effectiveness. Ultimately, this can manifest in lower priority being given to agriculture than is optimal. Moreover, PRIs often lack necessary power and authority as institutions for local governance. Although well interconnected with other informal institutions at the grassroots level, the PRIs lack compliance capacity and adaptiveness. Nevertheless, they may be well placed with appropriate social scale because of their decentralized structure.

318. The administrative control and responsibilities for development and management of water resources within the state limits rest with the water resource departments or organizations as the case may be of the respective state government. Water Resource Departments/Organizations (WRDs) in the respective states generally has the primary task of providing technical services for the development and management of irrigation and they have other tasks to perform namely (i) investigation and planning of major & medium irrigation projects; interstate water disputes; establishing, maintaining, collecting and publishing of hydrological and hydro-meteorological data for the State; hydrological analysis and design of water resources projects; monitoring and evaluation of projects; management of the irrigation projects.

319. The WRDs provides information and negotiations for the water sharing agreements between the states. This responsibility requires it to collate and present information on water availability, development and use for each of the river basins. A summary of the institutional organisations in the three pilot sub basin states are summarised below.

1. Madhya Pradesh40:

320. The apex institution in Madhya Pradesh for development & management of water resources is the Water Resources Department (WRD). The department has extensive expertise in design, construction, operation & maintenance of water resources projects and has offices in all parts of the state. Other water sector line agencies include the Public Health Engineering Department, Panchayat and Rural Development Department, Agricultural Department, Energy Department, Tourism department, Forest Department, Fisheries Department, Urban Development Department, Industries Department, etc., which have vital roles and are operating within the state having functions related to water sector. These functions include water harnessing, water supply, control of water pollution, generation of hydropower, etc. Other institutions that have a stake in the present project are those related to the physical and social environment. The hierarchy of such institutions and their related functions are presented in Table 10 below.

40 Source: Madhya Pradesh water sector restructuring Project [MPWSRP]- Environment & Social Assessment Report.


Table 10 Hierarchy of Institutions Madhya Pradesh

Sl.No Institutions Responsibilities A State Level

Departments/organizations

1

Water Resource Department (WRD)

Development and distribution of surface and ground water in the state (except Narmada basin) Construction and maintenance of irrigation schemes

2 Narmada Valley Development Agency (NVDA)

Development and distribution of surface and ground water in Narmada basin

3 State water Center Computerization and management of surface and ground water data in MP

4 Public Health Engineering Department

Construction of drinking and industrial water schemes in Rural and urban areas

5 Urban Administration & Development through municipal and Local bodies

Construction of drinking and industrial water schemes in urban areas Construction of Roof top water harvesting

6 Panchayat & Rural Development Department

Watershed Development Rural Drinking water supply Construction of Roof top water harvesting

7 Rural Engineering Services Construction of Check dams and ponds for Irrigation and Household consumption purpose

8 Agriculture and Horticulture Department

Drip and sprinkler irrigation Construction of farm ponds

9 Fisheries Department Construction & Rehabilitation of water bodies for fisheries 10 Forest Department Small check dams for wild life and tree plantation schemes 11 Energy Department Construction and Maintenance of Hydropower projects 12 State Pollution Control Board Monitoring of surface, ground water and domestic and industrial

effluents at the state level 13 Environmental Planning and

Coordination organization Development works related to water quality improvement in rivers

14 Tribal Welfare department Various programs related to development and protection of tribal

Women and Child Welfare Department

Various programs related to health and supporting women‘s organization

B State Committees State water Utilization Committee Promotion of coordination between various departments in

respect of water resource utilization at state level Division and District Water Utilization

Committee Promotion of coordination between various departments in respect of water resource utilization at division and district levels

Inter State Boards for Water Management

management of issues related to inter state waters/power benefits and construction of joint projects

C Water Users Association Maintenance of canal and service delivery as per Participatory Irrigation Management Act 1999

321. Training Institutions in MP within MP that impart relevant training to the Water Resource Department (the primary body for water management) are:

RCVP Noronha Academy of Administration Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal The main functions of the institute are to: o offer training to officers of various Departments selected through MP Public Service

Commission; o impart training in various subjects as per needs of Departments of GoMP; o give consultancy to various Training Institutions for development; and o play the role of a Consultant for policy formulation. Water and Land Management (WALMI), Bhopal WALMI conducts different courses for the development of human resources related to water and land management. The main training courses that are being conducted by the institute are: o Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM),


o Management for Mandi (Market), o Crop management, o Information and Technology, o Agricultural Forestry, o Capacity Building Programme o Rajiv Gandhi Watershed Management and other programmes.

2. Tamil Nadu

322. Development and management of water resources in Tamil Nadu has been a critical challenge evolving various responses including the institutional one over time. To overcome this challenge, an expert committee constituted as per GO Ms No 332PW (R1) Department dated 6.7.2000 recommended among others the IWRM and convergence of various departments for development and management of water resources in Tamil Nadu and it followed a hub and spoke model approach towards this endeavour. Multi Department Project Unit (MDPU) constituted the hub and other departments like WRD, Agricultural Engineering Department, Agriculture department, Horticulture and Plantation crop department, Tamil Nadu Agriculture university, Agriculture marketing department, Fisheries department and Animal Husbandry department constituted its spokes and in brief, institutional response to various problems associated with the development and management of water resources was through a single window approach. Capacity building activities for all the departments however is entrusted to Irrigation Management Training Institute (IMTI) based at Trichy and other experienced training institutes are involved as and when considered necessary. The unit of planning for development and management of water resources is at sub-basin level.

323. Unlike, in Madhya Pradesh, in Tamil Nadu, in order to make coordination task simpler between the concerned departments, common activities of all departments are defined at different stages namely pre-planning, planning, implementation and post implementation of the project cycle. The common activities are shown in Table 11.

Table 11 Project Cycle Activities

Nr Stages Activities

1 Pre-Planning Official communication for appropriate institutional arrangements at sub-basin level Acquaintance with inter departmental officers & Preliminary stakeholders meeting

2 Planning Improve awareness of the stakeholders on water resource & development issues Merging technical analysis and stakeholders views Consulting the sub-basin committees Develop sub-basin plan consistent with the project objectives, design and responsive to the field consultation Preparation of Detailed Project Report and cost estimates Presentation to the district coordination committee Presentation to the DPMU followed by the approval by the steering committee Draft MOU with the stakeholders Preparation of procurement, annual and training plan Partnering with other institutions

3 Implementation Implementation as per agreed plans and design Quality management Monitoring Documentation Establishing and maintaining information system

4 Post-Implementation

Revision of sub-basin atlas Adequate training on O & M for all WUA Ensure sustainability of project activities

324. Further, in Tamil Nadu, creation of a Water Resources Organization (WRO) from the PWD; initiation of the separation of cadres between water resources management and buildings;


strengthening of the Institute for water studies and the State Surface and Groundwater Data Center and preparation of detailed spatial knowledge base for water management; setting up of a Reforms Task Force and the initial efforts to implement its recommendations such as right sizing through Voluntary Retirement Schemes; creation of a multi-sectoral Water Resources Control and Review Council (WRCRC) chaired by the Chief Minister with seven thematic sub-committees which is a precursor for unbundling resource management from service delivery; creation of operational environmental cells in WRO; decentralization of operational Chief Engineers in a basin/cluster of basins framework, and formation of water users associations have become part of enabling environment to initiate reform process in water sector including the formation of a regulatory authority.

325. State Water Resource Management Agency and State Water Regulatory Authority (SWaRMA): The Government of Tamil Nadu established SWARMA in April 2009 to; (i) improve the Institutional arrangements and capacity for sustainable water resources management in the state and (ii) to develop and manage the water resources of the state in a holistic way in river basin framework. This agency is chaired by the Honourable minister of Water Resources and is headed by a Director for effective implementataion of SWaRMA as well as engaging specialists /consultants of various disciplines as part of the executive wing to carry out the tasks of SWaRMA

3. Punjab

326. In Punjab Water Resources Organization is primarily entrusted with Research and development activities relating to ground water surface water and various watersheds. The main objective of Water Resources Organization is to carry out the ground water and surface water studies for formulations of various schemes and policy matters for the judicious use of Water Resources in Punjab State. It came into existence in the year 1970 when a directorate was set up for carrying out explorations for Water Resources. Various activities being undertaken since then are presented in Table 12 .

Table 12 Water Departments Punjab

Sl.No Institutions Responsibilities 1 Water Resource

Department (WRD)

Ground Water related activities Ground Water monitoring Collection of rainfall data Collection of ground water & soil quality data Preparation of various maps such as ground water depth maps, long term rise and fall of water level fluctuation maps Carrying out hydrological, hydro-geological, hydro-chemical, geophysical, mathematical, statistical, agronomical, remote sensing and other studies. Deep ground water investigations to identify aquifer parameters Dynamic Ground Water Estimation depicting the stage of development of ground water resources. Maintaining data base for ground water Framing of policy matters like ground water legislations and State Water Policy Surface Water related activities: Up gradation of hydro meteorological network in Punjab State Up gradation of discharge observation sites Maintaining data base for surface water Planning and Design Directorate located at Chandigarh undertakes all these activities. Plus also undertakes watershed activities in select areas of Punjab


2 Punjab State Tube well corporation Ltd

Sinking and installation of direct Irrigation and augmentation Tube wells. To undertaken installation and construction of Tube well and other connected works on behalf of private individuals/bodies/Govt. institutions, Companies. To engage processing manufacture and sale of Tube well equipment, accessories, Spare parts machinery, plants or any other commercial or industrial products connected therewith To set up and maintain laboratory/workshop to provide technical guidance repair facilities, sale of stores, concerned Tube well Irrigation Projects To provide tube well equipment or plant land machinery on rental basis to any individual/body or Govt. Department To carry out all kinds of ground water exploration business to quantify the ground water resource in different areas .

6 Panchayat & Rural Development Department

Construction, repair and maintenance of community assets like sanitation and drains; wells, water-pumps, springs, ponds and tanks for the supply of water for drinking, washing and bathing; ponds for animals, supply of water for domestic use and for cattle; Promotion and development of Agriculture and horticulture; Promotion and development of fisheries in the village. Planting and preservation of trees on the sides of roads and other public lands under its control; Fuel plantations and fodder development.

8 Agriculture Department

Monitoring the supply and quality of Agricultural inputs like seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation water and machinery & equipments etc.. Promotion of Resource Conservation Technologies (RCT) for NRM To promote judicious use of irrigation water through better on farm water management and to monitor the water level behavior and its quality.

12 State Pollution Control Board

to scrutinize applications for consent under the Water Act, 1974 and the Air Act, 1981 as received from the industrial units and local bodies to scrutinize applications for the authorization under the Hazardous Wastes To scrutinize applications for no objection certificates from pollution angle to the new industrial units. To vet the designs of effluent treatment plants and air pollution control proposals received from the industries. To co-ordinate with other cells within the Board for laboratory back up and monitoring of treatment plant performance. to scrutinize the proposals received from the Regional Offices of the Board for launching prosecutions against the defaulting industrial units and the local bodies both under the Water Act, 1974 and Air Act, 1981 and other Rules framed under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. To prepare cases for initiating legal action under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

13 Department of Environment

Environment Education Training & Information Institutional Support & Public Participation Research and Development Protection & Conservation of Resources

14 Department of Soil & Water Conservation

Conservation of Irrigation Water Increasing Water Application Efficiency In-situ Moisture conservation Ground Water Recharge Micro Water Resource Development Consumptive Use of brackish water & sweet water Micro Irrigation- Drip, Micro-sprinkler, Sprinkler Irrigation Reclamation of degraded soils Human Resource Development Training & Extension

4. Specific Functions of the Water Resource Departments

327. Specific functions of WRD in the three sub basin states can be broadly classified as:


Planning and Development Functions o Preliminary and detailed project planning o Project preparation including Investigation and project design o R&D and pilot studies Field Functions: o These include functions related with Operations, Maintenance and Construction and the

involvement of WUA and private partners to promote PIM and PPP. The activities related with Construction and other activities need to be also seen in the context of the skills needed for specific functions. The skills required for Construction and O&M functions differ in that while the construction related activities are predominantly engineering, whereas those related with Operation and Maintenance may need a more holistic approach that focuses on enhancing the productivity of water through its optimum utilization for agriculture, aquaculture and other uses.

Operation Functions: o Operating the irrigation systems, including dams, canals, distributaries, minors, outlets, tube-wells and other appurtenant systems o Rehabilitation work to bring the system up to the designed level of performance o Drainage and flood control works o Scheduling water distribution along with WUAs and the instructions of the water utilization committees, and monitoring water release, ensuring equitable allocation between head and tail farmers o Determining water services provided and computing cost of water delivery o Interfacing with WUA, NGO/CBO, and private parties to manage and maintain distribution

system at designated levels, and in the case of WUAs to assist in providing engineering support in activities like land levelling, alignment of watercourses, construction of small structures, use of simple water measuring devices, and drainage channels etc.

o Generating awareness at the grass root level through WUAs and NGO/CBO on the use of new technologies like underground water distribution system, sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation etc. for effective utilization and conservation of water o Facilitating an improved public image of I&DD through regular interface and regular public grievance handling Maintenance functions o Drawing up planned preventive maintenance schedules and scheduling requirements for repairs and maintenance o Estimating funds for maintenance o Implementing planned preventive maintenance and as-required maintenance of the physical irrigation systems till the point where WUAs take over

5. Assessment of Existing State Water Management Institutions

328. Over the past decade or many states have considered consolidating their institutional responsibilities for water management, clarify roles, eliminate overlapping functions, and establish mechanisms to coordinate across water-related sectors such as energy, agriculture, planning, and environment. These efforts have certainly not resolved the institutional problems, which remain daunting, but do represent an improvement on the previous situation.

329. What one could infer from a quick review of policies, acts and functions of various departments is the lack of coherence between water laws, policies41 and water administration 41 National Water Policy 2002 document contains many references to water use efficiency and integrated

watershed development but no reference to climate change and adaptation.


processes and procedures for ensuring good water governance as an enabling environment for adopting IWRM in a select basin as a tool for adaptation?

330. IWRM principles and practices necessitate the need for role transformation within the existing departments. But what is obvious to us from an institutional mapping exercise in the three states is the sectoral approach to water resource development with little or no emphasis on water management. The functions carried out by various departments do not necessarily indicate institutional readiness to plan & manage the adaptation response to climate change impacts requiring strong and well coordinated planning and management.

331. The current functions (Planning & Operations) of Water Resource Departments in the selected basin states, in its present form do not provide in our considered view the operational basis42 for implementing IWRM; the key requirements are:

i) Water resource planning and management is structured according to hydrologic boundaries (river basins, sub-basins and smaller areas within which all water flows to a common outlet).

ii) The institutional framework avoids fragmentation and overlap of responsibilities, and is supported by strong and comprehensive, but flexible legislation, regulations, decrees, etc. and is lead by an ―apex‖ body.

iii) A strong "knowledge" base derived from a good, uniform, and comprehensive data network, data systems and models, is used to prepare and implement "knowledgeable" natural resources/water management policies and strategies. Data sharing between the various sector departments.

iv) Planning and management of natural resources is integrated, development impacts and improvements are assessed for all natural resources.

v) A strong community awareness and participation program. vi) An effective environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process linked to river basin planning,

considering both individual and cumulative assessments, and for an international watercourse, the impact of development on neighbouring states.

vii) A planning Decision Support System (DSS) to assess the impact of projects or programs on the quantity and quality of flows at an agreed set of locations within the basin. Planning should address long term assessments of water demands to ensure sustainability and future conflict of water resources. The DSS should also allow some assessment of the economic, environmental and social impact that the projects or programs will have neighbouring states..

viii) An agreed benchmark for each basin, representing the economic, environmental and social status existing when development commenced or at some other agreed stage.

ix) A vision or set of objectives for water and related resources management within each river basin. Management judgment can then be exercised on the performance of a program in relation to the vision and the benchmark.

332. What is emerging from the discussion with various officials during the field visit (except possibly in Tamil Nadu, given the constitution of Multi Disciplinary Unit of WRD) is the fact that there is fairly a minimal level of integrated or coordinated strategies and planning. In most of the departments, catchment planning and integrated water resources is conspicuously absent which is critical to sustainable and water resource management especially when new challenges like sharply increasing demand on water resources from various users (industries, domestic, environmental and fish culture) in conjunction with growing quality problem associated with water.

333. Unfortunately sectoral /departmental, isolated, unplanned approach restrain the potentials to explore answer to some of the critical questions challenging the institutional changes/ role transformation within the sectoral departments in general and water resource departments in particular and especially the questions like a) which are the key factors that motivate these institutional changes? b) what are the nature and direction of these changes? c) How adequate are these changes for addressing both the existing and emerging water sector challenges? And d) what do they ultimately mean for overall water sector performance? Are they yet to be responded to.

42 Source: (ADB TA NO. 7418-IND): Integrated Water Resource Management and Sustainable Water Service delivery in Karnataka- COMPONENT 1 report on Institutional Analysis and Proposed Reforms for IWRM-2010


334. Sectoral/departmental, isolated, unplanned approach and current functions of the departments yet to recognize the fact that adaptation and coping measures are scale-dependent and may vary from individual households to local communities to catchments, as well as from national to international scales.

335. For an effective coordinated approach, the cooperation from all the concerned departments is needed. The areas of the co-operation framework might help in understanding the areas co-operation are summarised in Table 13.

Table 13 Possible Cooperation Framework at State Level

LEVEL OF COOPERATION OBJECTIVE 1 Information Sharing A comprehensive, trustworthy, basin-wide and well organised suite

of water resources planning and monitoring data accessible by all water planners, managers and regulators in the selected basins

2 Joint activities on issues of regional interest

Win-win situations resulting from clear and mutually agreeable procedures for international cooperation on a project by project basis

3 Dialogue Transparent, participatory water resources planning and management in the selected basins

4 Creation of a regional professional body (for water managers and associated technocrats)

Technical consensus between basin water managers

5 Creation of regional institutions for regulation and monitoring

Equitable and productive use of water in the basin as a result of well enforced, transparent and harmonised regulations and monitoring procedures

6 Creation of regional institutions for investments

Reduced transaction costs; streamlined fund management and increased development partner support and riparian cost sharing

7 Harmonisation of the policy and regulatory framework

Compatible and mutually reinforcing national and regional policy and regulatory frameworks for water resources, agriculture and power development throughout the basin

8 Creation of regional institutions for operation and management

Sustainable and productive ―basin-level43‖ water management

infrastructure performing as per specification 9 Joint investment projects Economies of scale and win-win situations resulting from equitable

cost and benefit sharing with respect to ―basin-level‖ infrastructure

6. Constraints in implementation of PIM 44

336. Lack of legal back up and policy changes: in many States in general and in the selected sub basin states (MP,TN and Punjab) there is no or very little legal back up and clear-cut policy decision at the Government level to take up PIM, which is a big impediment in implementation of PIM. For the actual irrigation management transfer and operation of PIM in an irrigation project, policy changes and legal back up are essential. This is important for distributing required quantity of water at minor / distributary take off points, taking up correction of system deficiency, claim to get the maintenance funds proportionate to its portion transferred to associations, collection of water charges and retaining some portion of it for WUAs functioning, fixation of water rates, incentives to farmers, resolution of conflicts etc. Clarity on legislation is also required in certain States.

337. System deficiency: In older projects, there are many problems like deterioration of old control and measuring structures, leakages and seepage at various places, erosion of banks and beds, siltation and weed infestation. These are serious problems, hindering farmers to take over the system management on technical and financial considerations.

338. Groundwater and PIM; there is limited consideration of how groundwater management can be incorporated into PIM; In Punjab the development of PIM is very low largely due to the rigid

44 Source: An abstract from SOPECOM study on the status of participatory irrigation management (PIM) in India -Policy initiatives taken and emerging issues


Warabandi distribution system which has limited role for community participation as well as the dominance of groundwater; which supplies about 75% of the water. In the Kshipra basin Madhya Pradesh the areas is 95% supplied by groundwater and as such there is no development of PIM. Groundwater management requires mechanisms for community interactions and community led management initiatives.

339. Uncertainty of water availability: This is another important aspect, as farmers will understandably be reluctant to take on the responsibility for managing the system unless deliveries of water are made reliable, flexible, practical transparent and responsive to need. The engineers on their part may not be confident about ensuring supply of the requisite quantity of water to the WUAs, as would be obligatory in terms of the MOU signed between Irrigation Agency and WUA. Further, the farmers who have their holdings at the head of the canal tend to appropriate more water than required, whereas the farmers at the tail end often fail to get their apportioned share of water. Head-enders, therefore, have vested interest in continuing the existing arrangements. The tail-enders may not be keen to form WUAs as water supply in such areas remains inadequate and erratic and they remain apprehensive that the situation will not be materially altered if an association is formed. These differences in perceptions and conflicts of interests inhibit the coming together of head end and tail end farmers.

o Fear of financial viability: maintenance and operation of the system demands huge finances. Farmers have got the apprehension that in absence of surety of finance, it would be difficult for them to fulfil the requirement of funds for operation and maintenance. They feel that when Government is not able to handle the system with huge money available with them, how farmers would be able to do justice?

o Lack of technical knowledge: apart from the financial uncertainty, lack of technical input is one of the inhibiting factors to take over the system. When Government, having such qualified and senior Engineers, finds it difficult to manage the system, how untrained and uneducated farmers would be able to take up such a highly technical operation and maintenance work of big irrigation systems.

o Lack of leadership: on account of limited exposure of the farmers to the rest of the world and PIM in particular, potent leadership is lacking, rather on account of limiting knowledge. At times so called local leaders give the negative or unclear version before other farmers which further create misunderstanding among the farmers bringing them sometimes into a fix.

o Lack of publicity and training: seeing is believing; and knowledge brings confidence in people. This aspect is lacking and there is a constraint to adoption of PIM.

o Demographic diversity: due to variation in economic, ethnic, education levels etc. diversity of farmers, the development of PIM is extremely slow. To handle this aspect deep study, analysis and solution need be found out. A fairly radical rethink in approaches is likely to be required.

o Mega irrigation projects: there are indications that PIM is more successful for smaller projects in the countries of the world, where irrigation project transfer has taken care for PIM. In India, there are many large projects having very large distribution system and culturable command area sometimes more than 2.000,000 hectares. Larger the project, complex would be its maintenance, operation and management aspects and so the formation and functioning of farmers associations for different necessary activities.

o WUAs v/s Panchayats: In many of the areas, where WUAs have been formed, there is a clash of interest among Panchayats and WUAs as to the ownership the system, particularly when watershed schemes are being handed over to the Panchayats.

o PIM in efficient systems: Some of the northern States have raised apprehensions that when their systems are running very efficiently, why not PIM should form an integral part of the system of distribution already in operation.


7. Overview of Weakness45 of State Water Departments

340. Ineffective institutional mechanism for state-level planning and management of water resources could be attributed to the following in all the states though it is more specific to the WRD in the state of Madhya Pradesh.

o Lack of reliable data base and information sharing o Lack of conjunctive planning and regulation of surface and ground water o Absence of diverse water resources infrastructure for flood control, power generation, irrigation, bulk water supply etc. o Poor watershed management (no coordinated system to protect and rehabilitate catchment

areas and upstream watershed) o Lack of effective planning for disaster (flood) management o Revenue recovery mechanism is not effective o Post project performance evaluation (outcome & impact) is not being carried out o Flow and discharge measuring installations are inadequate o Water course and field channel facilities beyond outlet are inadequate o Work quality not monitored adequately o Inadequate allocation of financial resources for O&M, equity etc. o Large number of work charge/daily wage employees o Lack of training on use of advanced technologies (AutoCAD,GIS etc) o WRDs neither have a Training Policy of its own nor follow the State Training policy o No scientific methods adopted to conduct Training Need Analysis as well as to evaluate training programmes and also the effectiveness of external training agencies besides lack of documentation and data maintenance pertaining to Training and Development activities o Lack of computerized Management Information System o Lack of accountability due to poor monitoring and lack of key performance indicators (KPIs)

for positions and functions o Shortage of Computer trained manpower o Cadre management and planning is not done objectively combined with legal hurdles o Improper/inappropriate deployment of human resources due to lack of transfer policy o Employee morale is very low, poor employee motivation o Goal & target setting not done in a participatory manner o Staff are frequently rotated which allows limited development of skills.

8. An assessment of the challenges / or potential threats

o Political pressures and interventions to subsidize service (unwillingness to charge) o Political & bureaucratic resistance to dilute their authority o Need for high capital investments for the repair/maintenance and up-gradation of dilapidated

infrastructure o Poor interest to mobilization of private sector to support gaps in investment and management o Inadequate & poor state of support infrastructure might slowdown reform process o Lack of public awareness on various issues pertaining to water resource management o Difficulties in bringing about mutual trust and understanding amongst various stakeholders (cross sectoral integration) o Difficulties in the smooth working of stakeholder committees due to diverse interest and views

of members o Strengthening the capabilities of stakeholders at the local and grass root levels to effectively mobilize them o Growth in population, increased economic activities and improved standards of living lead to

increased competition and conflicts over the limited water resource o Inadequate disclosure and consultation by the Govt. on large investment proposals with the

civil society o Political pressures against running the department on commercial lines o Stake holders unwillingness to pay for the inefficiency and high establishment cost of the

department.

45 Source: Water Resource Department-Bhopal


9. Water and Land Management Institutes (WALMIs)

341. With the objective of management of natural resources in a holistic manner, a number of WALMIs/Irrigation Management Training Institutes (IMTI) had been established in the states since eighties. A number of other institutes under Central/State Ministries and other organizations are also engaged in these activities. The specific objectives of these institutes had been to:

o promote advancement of science and acquisition of scientific knowledge in development of land and water for increasing agricultural production;

o provide in-service training of multi-disciplinary nature to staff and farmers engaged in irrigation management;

o undertake action research/adaptive research on live irrigation system related to water and land management;

o undertake activities which will promote optimal use of water and land resource; o conduct workshops, seminars, farmers‘ meet and publication of magazines, periodicals; and o provide consultancy services in water management and land development for irrigated

agriculture.

342. These institutes undertake training, professional and educational development, action research, participatory irrigation management and transfer of technology in the field of natural resource management and are responsible for implementing software activities on farm management under the CADWM programme as well as implementing World Bank (WB) assisted programmes in states. Some of these institutes have been very effective in transferring technology from laboratory to the fields.

K. Template for Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) at State and District

343. Rationale: In the context of increased pressure on water resources, lack of potentials for additional water resources and climate change, there is a need for improved and integrated water resources planning, management, governance and regulation.

344. A modern, successful water management organization must reflect the concepts of good IWRM but cannot be all things rolled into one. The roles of regulator, standard setter, resource manager and operator should ideally be separated. In the Indian situation it is not easy to completely separate these functions; most of the water department and agencies combine the function of 'resource managers' together with an 'operating/development' role.

345. There are a number of institutional options for water management organisations to be able to fulfil the need for separate disaggregated functions. The preferred model depends very much on the local institutional needs and conditions. The proposed organisational structure for IWRM at State and District is to build as far as possible on the existing institutional structures and keep IWRM very much within the mainstream water planning and management processes. The proposed arrangement is presented in Figure 8 below.


Figure 8 Proposed Arrangement for IWRM for States

346. Independent Water Regulatory Authority (WRA) will provide an institutional mechanism to regulate the allocation, management and utilization of limited water resources through a participatory approach. The 13th Finance Commission report of 2009 has recommended the establishment of state water regulators to address major problems associated with the management of water resources. Among these are: injudicious inter-sectoral and intra-sectoral distribution of water amongst various categories of water users, low water use efficiency, fragmented approach to water resources planning and development, low water user charges and meagre cost recovery. The Water Regulatory Authority in each state would include the functions to: (i) establish and regulate the water tariff system and charges for surface and sub-surface water used for domestic, agriculture, industrial and other purposes; (ii) determine and regulate the distribution of entitlement for various categories of uses as well as within each category of use; (iii) periodically review and monitor the water sector costs and revenues; and (iv) water audits.

347. The regulator would be an autonomous, professional, inter-disciplinary body, with managerial, professional, mediatory and adjudicatory capabilities built in. The regulator must not be one more government department. It must be truly consultative and participatory in its composition and functioning, with representatives of civil society associated with it at all levels.

348. The establishment of an effective and independent Water Regulatory Authority is a complex process and requires consultation and support. Understanding of the benefits, and support to establish a WRA at the state level is critical.

PROPOSED TEMPLATE FOR INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

STATE LEVELGOVERNMENT

WATER REGULATORY AUTHORITY

Chief secretary

WATER RESOURCES STEERING COMMITTEE Principal Secretaries from Water Departments Chaired by Chief Secretary

Regional Representatives of CWC and CGWB

STATE LEVEL

WATER

RESOURCES

AGRICULTURE &

HORTICULTURE

ENVIRONMENT &

FORESTS

INDUSTRY

PANCHAYAT & RURAL

DEVELOPMENT

URBAN DEVELOP

MENT

OPERATIONAL ARM

IWRM Unit (C)

DISTRICT LEVEL WATER

RE-SOURCES

AGRICULTURE &

HORTICULTURE

ENVIRONEMENT &

FORESTS INDUSTRY

PANACHAYAT

RURAL DEVELOP

MENT

URBAN DEVELOP

MENT/ PUBLIC HEALTH

ENG.

NEWLY PROPOSED STRUCTURES ARE

REGULATORY AUTHORITY STATE LEVEL STEERING COMMITTEEIWRM UNIT WITHIN WRD __________________________

EXISTING LINE DEPARTMENTS WILL REMAIN AS IT IS BUT WORK IN A MORE COORDINATED & HOLISTIC MANNER FROM IWRM PERSPECTIVE __________________________

RIVER BASIN AUTHORITY AND CWC TO SUPPORT TRANSPOUNDARY ISSUES

DISTRICT PLANNING

COMMITTEE

VILLAGE LEVEL

BLOCK

PANCHAYAT

BLOCK DEVELOP

MENT OFFICER

WATER USER ASSPCIATION VILLAGE

COOPERATIVE

SECTOR DEPARTMENTS AT PANCHAYAT

LEVEL

CWC AND CGWB

INTERSTATE RIVER BASIN AUTHORITY

STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATIVE

GROUP

OTHER VILLAGE

ORGANISATION

WALMI


Proposed IWRM Institutions

(i). State Water Resources Steering Committee (WRSC) should be established at State Level to drive IWRM planning and management. The WRSC must include the various authorities and institutions involved in decision making in the water sectors, along with other key civil society stakeholders. The constitution of the WRSC must be carefully balanced and requires long-term commitment from the outset from all participating department and entities (government, the private sector and civil society etc). The regional officers of CWC and CGWB would be part of the steering committee to support wider basin coordination opportunities and issues.

(ii). IWRM Unit within Water Resources Departments: The present planning, data

management and hydrology sections within the WRDs would be combined, expanded and strengthened with a new mandate and skills to become an ―IWRM Unit‖. The present operational functions would be separated of the WRDs. The new 'water resources management unit' would include a role in water resource planning including providing guidance to the water regulator about water issues including advising on water licences and permits. The new IWRM management unit would encompass water resource aspects of climate change and would liaise with the Proposed Climate Change Centres being developed by DEST. Staff from the different sectors department would be seconded to work. The CWC and CWGB would provide support and guidance and monitoring support to the IWRM unit.

(iii). Stakeholder Consultative Groups: a lower level consultation process is required to support the basin planning. To allow for a collective consultation at the sub-basin level; it is proposed that a 'sub-basin level consultative group' is formed, the group representatives would be nominated by the various Panchayat Raj within the sub-basin with representation from the various stakeholders and civil society. The consultative group would also have a role to advise and inform the Water Regulatory Authority on water issues in the sub basin. Stakeholder Consultative Groups would at the district level, linkages would however be formed to enable lower level consultations at Panchayat level. For the sub basin level mechanisms would be established of a sub basin forum, comprising of representatives of the various consultative groups at district level.

(iv). IWRM at District Level: Planning and implementation of water programmes would be

through the state and districts. IWRM at the district level is mainly established with close liaison between sectors and the Deputy Commissioners. Water programmes within the districts would be mainstreamed through District Planning Committees (DPCs). Implementation of programmes and works, with the exception of major projects would be through districts. Block development officers (BDOs) would take on a more major role in coordinating programmes and ensuring effective participation.

(v). Water Users Association (WUA): WUA structure varies from area to area and is linked

primarily to the surface water systems. In strong ground water areas it is apparent there is total absence or very limited establishment of WUA and in such cases other institutional arrangements need to be explored. However, the requirement for location specific studies to assess the appropriate WUA is important. It is important that the rationale for promoting community managed water institutions like WUA is based on full empowerment.

(vi). Village cooperatives are designed to help farming communities access to a package of

basic support services, the village cooperative societies either at village level or for cluster of villages are able to provide information, guidance, and training, marketing support, support for self-help Groups and banking structures for agricultural credit support, sale of agricultural inputs and rental of agricultural equipment. Village cooperatives can play an important role in supporting water efficiencies and support for diversification and marketing. In areas where there is no WUA (groundwater predominant areas) the village cooperative can potentially play a key role in supporting the implementation of water resources conservation.

(vii). Other Formal and Informal Organisations at the Village Level are important and should be incorporated into the water planning and management processes.


L. River Basin Organisations

349. River basin organizations (RBO) vary in function and purpose depending on the mandates and legal arrangements used for their establishment. RBOs are just one of a wide range of tools available for implementing IWRM and should be used only when necessary. Setting up an RBO is not an end in itself it is important to be very clear of the objectives and benefits of an RBOs; some issues include;

o RBOs require ongoing funding and support in order to be sustainable; o Their establishment can create tensions between the state/provincial water agencies and the

RBO; o The RBO does not guarantee an improved level of management over the existing

state/provincial agencies; o The RBO's can be isolated from the day to day planning and decision making of the water

sector departments o It is difficult to get full sector participation in an RBO-many RBOs are no more than an arm of

the WRDs. o RBOs do in themselves simplify or support better water planning and stakeholder

participation.

350. It is proposed that for river management within the state that IWRM and sub basin planning and management is maintained within the existing water departments.

351. It is proposed that the focus and priority for the establishment of an RBO is directed at interstate RBOs if considered necessary. At the simplest level interstate coordination can be managed through the CWC regional offices without need for an RBO.

1. Basic Forms of RBOs

352. Examining such existing entities around the world, there are three basic forms of river basin organizations based on function exist;

(i) Stakeholder Advisory Committees provide advice to the government on water and land management issues.

(ii) Monitoring, investigating and coordinating river committees (iii) Planning and management commissions such as the Murray-Darling Basin and the Mekong

River Commission (iv) Development and regulation authorities such as the Tennessee Valley Authority

353. Thus, they range from a lesser to a greater degree of power in the basin entity relative to the state water authorities. Most of the interstate RBOs in India fall under category (i), they monitor and oversee the water allocations as agreed by the tribunals but do not undertake proactive planning or management initiatives.

354. There is no one "right" model that suits all circumstances. The rationale for RBOs is fundamentally the same at either the international and national levels; the political/administrative jurisdictional boundaries are inconsistent with hydrologic boundaries of the surface or groundwater basins, leading to differences of legitimate and defensible rights and interests, that in most cases, finds their resolution in the law, or delegation of authority to a third party Most often, it is territorial integrity that leads to various jurisdictions with seemingly interdependent interests to adopt inconsistent laws, policies, and programs. Of course, differences in geo-hydrologic characteristics among riparians, potentials and stage of development, and socio-political variations contribute to the complexity of water development and management.

2. Global Classification of RBOs

355. Within this context, three broad global classifications of river basin organizations can be considered in their ascending order of scope and authority:


(i) Coordinating Water Resources Council this usually consists of a council of department heads covering the natural resources management and consumptive uses (e.g., agriculture) agencies as well as planning, etc. Such a council would meet irregularly to endorse policy, new initiatives, etc. It would have a small supporting staff and would not intrude on the active functions of existing agencies. Its role is essentially coordinating, recommending policy, supporting, compilation of data, auditing, and reporting, and would have no real management and control functions.

(ii) River Basin Commission; this is a more powerful model than the coordinating council and involves an agency with a larger staff (depending upon the size and complexity of the basin) rather than relying on other agencies to carry out some of their analysis and report writing. It would concentrate on developing: good data systems and predictive hydrologic models; establishing base-line water use and environmental conservation measures in the basin; developing policies and strategies to guide water planning and development, and environmental (aquatic-ecosystem) rehabilitation and management; and, a systematic process of monitoring and reporting on the "behaviour and health" of the basin and uses within it.

(iii) River Basin Authority; this form of organization is larger, more powerful, and complex in comparison to the other RBOs, and normally is always a national or even state/provincial level organization. It is usually a multi-disciplinary, full-functioning organization covering all aspects of natural resources planning and management, and with regulatory powers. Its jurisdiction is the hydrologic boundaries of the basin, but often is involved in regional (out-side the basin or inter-basin) activities for optimum resource use and equitable accounting of benefits and costs. When established or reformed, it may "absorb" the operation and management role, personnel and facilities of some existing organizations.

3. RBOs in India

356. The legal framework for constituting an Inter-State River Basin Organization is contained within the Constitution which in turn has vested powers on the Parliament of India for the ―Regulation and development of Inter-State rivers and river valleys to the extent to which such regulation and development under the control of Union is declared by the Parliament by law to be expedient in the public interest‖ (Entry No. 56, List I, Seventh Schedule to Article 246). The parliament of India within six years of adopting the Constitution of independent India, enacted a specific law for the constitution of the River Basin Authority, namely the River Boards Act, 1956 (Act 49 of 1956).

357. Despite the legal provisions, not a single River Board has been constituted under this Act (Iyer, 1994; Naqvi, 2006). None of the state governments has so far made any such ―request‖ to establish River Basin Organisations46. In such circumstances, the co-existence of a River Board and a Water Tribunal seems questionable. Even if a River Board would have been set up it cannot be said that the riparian states would have waived their rights under the Inter-States Water Disputes Act of seeking the constitution of a Water Tribunal for the settlement of any disputes with respect to the very same inter-state river for which the Board is operating. Therefore, an element of ―dispute‖ seems to be the primary reason for the government to act and not the ―regulation and development of the river‖. The origin of River Basin Boards in India can be seen from two perspectives: a) functions vested upon the board by certain policies, b) legal considerations for its formation.

358. River Basin Organizations in India are typically either headed by the Ministry of Water Resources or Power or a Chairman appointed by the GOI (who may be a chief engineer of that particular basin or in certain cases may be the Chairman of the Central Water Commission). The structure of the RBOs is generally highly bureaucratic, with no participation of the stakeholders. A few water users or water-using sector are generally represented on these boards. Over the past 50 years several River Basin Authorities have been constituted. A few noteworthy RBOs are; the Damodar 46 Another reason for the failure of this Act might be the Inter-State Water Disputes Act, which was also enacted

in 1956 (Act 36 of 1956). Under the Inter-State Disputes Act the Central Government is bound to constitute a Water Tribunal when there is a complaint even by any one of the riparian states, whereas in case of the River Boards Act there should be a collective request for the constitution of an inter-State River Board


Valley Corporation, the Tungabhadra Board, Bhakra-Beas Management Board, Cauvery river authority, Ganga Flood Control Board, Brahmaputra Board, etc. Despite this, the National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan admits in one of its reports submitted in 1999 that India does not have a successful model of RBO and it is in this report it recommended for a model RBO. Till date such a model RBO has not yet been constituted. There is a need to promote a few pilot RBOs as models to refine and replicate later. These RBOs can also embark on IWRM in the process.

359. There are impediments to the formation of River Basin Organizations based on formal rules, laws and procedures. Leaving those aside there are also other impediments originating from the political, economic, and institutional environment.

o Political Impediments: political reasons might have led to the enactment of the River Boards Act in 1956, but might also have stopped the Central Government in constituting any River Boards for the inter-state rivers. The political compulsions may be due to multi-party political structure of the country where there may not be the same political party ruling at the Centre and the State simultaneously. This prevents the Central Government from imposing upon a State, a decision, which a state is unwilling to accept.

o Economic Impediments:- Insufficient funds for the large projects may also be one of the reasons not to create River Boards and Organizations.

o Institutional Impediments:- Over the past 50 years several River Basin Authorities have been constituted. Despite this, the National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan admits in one of its reports submitted in 1999 that India does not have a successful model of RBO and it is in this report it recommended a model RBO. Till date such a model RBO has not yet been constituted.

4. Proposed Approach for Enabled Interstate RBOs.

360. The National Water Mission places emphasis on the creation of enabled river basin organisations. It is proposed that the focus should be primarily on interstate RBOs. It is felt that the functions of RBOs within states can be adequately managed by the state WRDs and improved coordination of the line agencies. The establishment or enabling of existing RBOs should be bottom up, with a prerequisite to establish water planning systems at the sub basin level prior to moving towards basin level planning.

361. It is important to define what is an 'enabled RBO' and criteria for various stage of enabling will require to be developed; a preliminary definition on an fully enabled interstate RBO might include:

o A functional secretariat that can implement basin planning and management. This requirement can be initially supported by CWC regional office and/ or outsourcing to specialist consultants

o Full support for the RBO from each of the member states. o An IWRM unit to be established in each state. o An agreed and representative RBO board including membership by government and

stakeholders including representatives from civil society. o An agreement with member states to share water, climate and other data o Data and information needs available and supplied by the states and from CWC o Completed sub basin strategic framework plans for each sub basin in the basin o A water resource model set up showing present and future water demands including

projected impacts of climate change o A basin strategic plan endorsed by the RBO board o Funds and mechanisms to update planning every five years o An agreed basin plan developed from the strategic plan and agreed by the RBO

board. The basin plan should include water allocations under conditions of low and flood flows.

o Agreed mechanisms for disputes established o A basin level stakeholder consultative group formally established, the stakeholder

group would comprise of representative stakeholder groups from each sub basin. o Meetings of the RBO board scheduled to be held at least 4 times per year


o Meetings of the stakeholder representative group scheduled at least twice per year o Routine monthly meetings for discussions on water allocations and optimisation of

the water use within the terms of the water tribunal and the basin plan. o Access to adequate funds

362. Establishing enabled RBO should be taken in stages; at each step state level support and endorsement should be obtained. RBOs should only be considered for very complex river systems or interstate rivers. There would appear to limited value of creating an RBO for issues within the state as most aspects can be better managed by the sector agencies. The proposed stages to establish the RBO are summarised below. For existing RBOs the requirement would be similar but with the emphasis on how to develop a fully functional and enabled RBO. The stages to establish a RBO are summarised in Table 14 below.

Table 14 Stages to Establish an RBO

Stage Activities and Benchmarks 1 Discussions with states and stakeholders to identify the need and role of an enabled

RBO. MoU from the member states and MoWR on the proposed establishment of the RBO.

The MoU would outline the objectives of the RBO and the necessary steps for the establishment. The empowerment of the RBO will likely require to be developed in stages; the first stage may not fulfil all the functions of a fully enabled RBO but would move the process forward. Open information sharing is seen as one of the key requirements for the first stage.

The MoU would include the proposed time frame and funding arrangements 2 Establishment of state level planning and sub basin planning systems. These would

include the establishment of a Water Resources Steering Committee, Independent Water Regulator and an IWRM unit The proposals for the state level organisations are described in Focal Area 9.

3 Preparation of sub basin strategic framework plans and compilation of the sub basin plans into basin plans

4 Establishment of RBO Secretariat, Board and Stakeholder Consultative Group. 5 Endorsement of the sub basin plans by the Interim Board. Initiation of regular interaction

and information exchange. 6 Establishment of a fully enabled and functional RBO .


VI. INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING AND CAPACITY BUILDING

A. Concepts

363. The concept of Institutional strengthening is anchored in the institutional policy objectives including ; (i) making learning one of the fundamental values of the Central and State Government Water Organisations; (ii) ensuring value addition through training to the overall business process; (iii) institutionalize learning opportunities that supplement work experience; (iv) integrate organizational and individual developmental needs; (v) enabling employees to keep abreast with the latest knowledge and skills and enable them to undertake current and future responsibilities in a more effective manner; (vi) providing linkages of training activity with overall HR Function; and (vii) making performance improvement in every sphere of work.

364. Central to the notion of institutional strengthening, is the building of capacity. Capacity development and enhancement is a means to achieve an end objective of Institutional development. As a pre-requisite to Institutional strengthening, there is a need to identify the challenges affecting the Institutional strengthening process.

365. Knowledge and human capacity47 are critical to implementing successful water resource development and management initiatives within the framework of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). New skills and capacities within water management institutions are critically important—at a time when various forces are supposedly weakening governments‘ capacities to attract and hold people with this expertise. While capacity development focuses on actors (individuals and institutions) but includes their environments (systems) that affect their capacity; Capacity development should not be conceived as necessarily involving formal projects or activities with specific capacity development objectives. Capacity development also takes place through learning by doing, participation, observation, comparison of experiences, and a host of other informal activities.

366. The scope of capacity development extends across a range from individual, through organizations to systems. Within each grouping separation can be made into capacity development in areas of self, social (interactions between individuals) and methodological. However, the underlying assumption is that the capacity building initiative shall help towards new and stronger institutional capacity for management, service delivery, resource generation and management.

367. The key to removing any confusion between roles is really about clearly defining the boundary conditions between various levels players. That is, where do the functions of one finish and the other starts. Certainly there must be clear mandates or legal agreements, acts or decrees that specify what each ‗player‘ in resource management should do? Integrated water resources management, if it is to be done successfully, must focus on transparent mechanisms for a) sharing b) protecting and c) supplying the scarce water resources, through:

o Clear, non-overlapping institutional arrangements, o A strong knowledge of natural resources issues, o Integration across institutions, policies, strategies.

368. For all aspects of natural resources, strong community participation and with a clear separation of the roles of (i) Regulator, standard setter and auditor; (ii) Resource manager and (iii) Operator and service provider to enable an assessment to be done of the present level or performance of integrated river basin management in the selected pilot sub-basin areas. It is stressed that this is a listing of principles and they have to be assessed for any particular circumstance and developed into the appropriate institutional response suitable for that circumstance.

369. Institutional Strengthening are required to come important activities in current development activities. As local capacity building is expected to become even more important in the near future, success of development activities will rely on properly planned and implemented IS interventions. A

47 Capacity is the ability of actors (individuals, institutions, and societies) to perform functions effectively,

efficiently and sustainably. Capacity is the power of something (person, institution, system) to perform or produce.


participatory approach is a prerequisite for such an intervention. The combination with practical methods and instruments that assist in analyzing and designing IS interventions, will be essential in this respect.

370. Institutional strengthening has to incorporate strengthening of existing training institutions and or support establishment of new training institutions at all levels (basin/regional or central). There are training institutions for managing surface water but needs similar training institutions for effective and efficient ground water management in the country and before establishing such an institution, an in depth study of the dysfunctional training institutions for ground water management if any needs to be undertaken.

B. Awareness public information, awareness and training

371. It is now recognised that enhanced public information, awareness and training can support better informed decisions and enlightened choices concerning water resources management and climate change adaptation at all levels -- from macro level resource managers to individual level resource users.

1. Broader Climate Change and Awareness Context

372. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) stresses the value of ―improving awareness and understanding of Climate Change, and creating solutions to facilitate access to information on a changing climate‖ for winning public support for climate related policies. The UNFCCC, through its Article 6, and its Kyoto Protocol, through Article 10 (e), call on governments ―to educate, empower and engage all stakeholders and major groups on policies relating to climate change‖.

48

373. Ultimately, this involves behaviour change -- a process that happens slowly and incrementally in both individuals and institutions/systems. Such behaviour change requires the sustained engagement of multiple stakeholders, and interventions at different levels:

awareness raising and advocacy; updating and deepening of existing knowledge; clarifying prevailing misconceptions; and training and capacity building.

It also requires the development of institutional systems and capacity.

2. India and IWRM context

374. The strategic framework to sustainably manage India‘s water resources for climate change adaptation is based on the concept of integrated water resources management (IWRM), which takes a holistic look at water resources as an integral component of the ecosystem. It treats water both as a natural resource and a social and economic good.

375. The draft recommendations place heavy emphasis on more efficient use of both surface water and groundwater. Considerable gains could be made through better coordination and by adopting more water-thrifty crop patterns. The study also advocates Conjunctive Water Management -- where the use of surface water and groundwater resources is well coordinated, so that together they produce better results than either could on its own.

376. Implementing IWRM requires institutional reorientation, capacity development and building of stakeholder consensus through enhanced awareness and understanding of its benefits in the short and long terms. A crucial first step in pursuing IWRM is conceptual clarity, so individuals and institutions take the ‗bigger picture‘ view, and understand how and where their actions fit in and impact the inter-connected water resources management process. For example, it would be

48 http://unfccc.int/cooperation_and_support/education_and_outreach/items/2529.php

http://unfccc.int/cooperation_and_support/education_and_outreach/items/2529.php


necessary to arrive at a common definition of ‗irrigation water use efficiency‘ as this could mean very different things to a farmer, irrigation manager or a river basin authority.

377. Clear thinking also needs to be accompanied by changes in water use behaviour. In an era of increasing water stresses and climate variability, business as usual cannot continue. For example, agriculture sector will have to produce the same – or even more – yields with less than their current lion‘s share of water (70 – 80 per cent). The government has set the target of increasing water use efficiency by a minimum of 20 per cent by 2017.49 New knowledge, attitudes and skills are urgently required for these improvements to be accomplished.

3. Enhancing awareness and understanding for IWRM

378. The first steps towards this new paradigm of water use are enhanced awareness and understanding among water users in all sectors and levels. Along with policy, regulatory and market arrangements, increased flow of information and raised awareness through appropriate communication activities can help in mainstreaming IWRM in India.

379. Field surveys carried out in the three sub-basins -- through focused group discussions, stakeholder consultations and progressive farmer interviews -- have indicated a high level of perception among ground-level water users that precipitation, temperature (and in the case of the coastal state, sea levels) are changing beyond normal variations. This provides a useful entry point to advocate that the better use of land and water resources could increase community resilience to withstand increased climate variability. In the short term, communication and awareness could also help resolve conflicting demands for water and currently unsustainable practices of surface and groundwater use.

4. Improved information sharing

380. CWC and the state governments could formulate effective communication strategies in relation to climate adaptation in the water sector. A first step in this direction is improving the sharing and flow of water related information. This could be supported by measures such as these:

o Build upon the various information bases available at community level, codifying them where necessary.

o Improve the dissemination and sharing of water related information at all levels, increasing access to real time data in formats and languages easily understood by local people.

o Increase opportunities and platforms for multi-stakeholder dialogues on water use at state and district levels, carefully mediated by trained facilitators.

o Strengthen partnerships with relevant academic, civil society and media organisations for enhanced information sharing and communication activities.

o Conduct regular public perception surveys, and participatory rural appraisals to assess water users‘ awareness and concerns.

o Improve coordination and information sharing between officials whose work concerns different types of water use: irrigation, drinking water, sanitation, pollution monitoring, etc. 5. Audience segmentation for awareness and engagement

381. Given the complexity and diversity of water uses and users across India, there is no single approach to awareness raising and communication. It would be helpful to define and differentiate the various stakeholder groups and engage them as primary or secondary audiences for raising awareness and understanding on IWRM for Climate Change Adaptation in the water sector.

49 The National Water Mission aims at the ―conservation of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring its more equitable distribution both across and within states through integrated water resources development and management‖.


382. Primary audiences are those who need to be engaged on a priority basis at central and state levels, whose attitudes and practices are critical for successful IWRM as shown in Table 15

Table 15 Primary Audience Categories

Target Audience category Key stakeholders (not an exhaustive list) Legislative and policy communities Members of Parliament (MP)

Members of Legislative Assemblies (MLA) Policy-makers in water, power, agriculture at central and state levels

Natural resource planners and managers

National Planners and National Physical Planners Human Settlement Planners Infrastructure Planners Renewable Energy Developers Biodiversity conservators (of state agencies mandated to protect forests and wildlife) Tourism developers Livestock developers Water supply service providers Water Resource managers Coastal and Fishery sector developers

Local level governance and service delivery bodies

Panchayat Raj State and district level bodies concerned with rural Development

Water resource user groups

Farmer associations, cooperatives and networks Fisher associations, cooperatives and networks Urban dwellers groups

383. Secondary audiences are those whose engagement is also important for advocacy and promotion of IWRM for Climate Change Adaptation in the water sector. Their involvement is equally important for the long-term community acceptance and sustainability of the various CCA measures as Table 16.

Table 16 Secondary Audience Categories

Target Audience category Key stakeholders (not an exhaustive list) Message ‗Multipliers‘ who can help spread the message to others through their networks

Mass media (print, broadcast and web-based) Advertising and social marketing professionals Educators (primary, secondary, tertiary levels)

Scientific and research communities

Universities Research institutes Think tanks and policy analyst groups

Advocacy and activist groups

Environmental NGOs Civil society groups involved in water supply & sanitation Groups active in land use, agriculture and rural development

C. Capacity development

1. Objectives and purpose

384. Water related adaptation interventions within the framework of IWRM can be effectively carried out if individuals and organisations fulfil new roles in managing local water resources. To do this, they need to possess the necessary competencies, including task-specific skills, a cultivation of general attitudes, awareness, values, knowledge and abilities through instruments like training and development programs whose principal objective is to make sure the availability of a skilled and willing workforce to an organization.


385. The concept of institutional strengthening and capacity building should be anchored in the institutional policy objectives. Capacity development should not be conceived as necessarily involving formal projects or activities with specific capacity development objectives. Capacity development also takes place through learning by doing, participation, observation, comparison of experiences, and other informal activities.

386. Knowledge and human capacity50 are pre-requisites to implementing successful water resource development and management initiatives within the framework of IWRM as well as Climate Change. New skills and capacities within water management institutions are critically important to meet the new challenges of systematic planning and management of water resources.

387. The potential areas for capacity development extend across a range from individual, through organisations to systems. Within each grouping, separation can be made into capacity development in areas of self, social (interactions between individuals) and methodological. However, the underlying assumption is that the capacity building initiative shall help towards new and stronger institutional capacity for management, service delivery, resource generation and management.

2. Stages and Methodologies

388. Critical Stages: An effective capacity building strategy is one in which these stages in the capacity building cycle are incorporated:

o preparatory stage; o needs analysis; o planning; o implementation; and o evaluation

389. Capacity development strategies, processes and methodologies include:

Strategies o Use existing training institutions in diverse sectors o Develop training modules relevant for each sector o Create critical mass of trainers in all sectors at village, block, district and state levels o Impart strategic inputs of varying duration to a wide range of govt. functionaries by add on

modules o Reach the un-reached functionaries at the cutting edge level- Village accountant, village

heath worker, etc o Enhance coping capacity of communities at risk through appropriate training and

technical information o Use ICT to have maximum outreach of the training programme

Process o Identifying training needs through a process of dialogue and consultation with various

stakeholders of the organization o Preparing training proposals/ modules consisting of training objective, session topics,

sequence and timing, training methods and expected outcome of each session. o Finalizing the training module in consultation with client organization o Arrange the training venue and make other training arrangements o Conduct the training o On going assessment through recap of learning, seeking feedback about training and

trainers, and concluding with a written assessment of the training.

Methodology o The training methodology adopted for the trainings is participatory based on the

principles of adult learning. Trainings build on participants‘ knowledge and try to provide

50 Capacity is the ability of actors (individuals, institutions, and societies) to perform functions effectively,

efficiently and sustainably. Capacity is the power of a person, institution or system to perform or produce.


practical solutions as they are based in the participants‘ context and milieu. The participatory methods include:

o Role plays o Group discussions o Case studies o Practical exercises o Experiential exercises o Participatory feedback sessions

390. Engaging in local communities: Building capacity at all levels is vital at different levels within government institutions, as also within the local communities, in order to improve the provision and maintenance of service delivery. These capacities do not only relate (as is commonly understood) to technical issues, but more importantly to a range of social, managerial and institutional issues such as:

o organising effective community participation; o creating a shared vision and a sense of purpose within communities; o starting and running efficient community-based organisations; o dealing with government procedures and legal requirements; and o resolving conflicts within the community (in conformity with the IWRM principles).

391. Even after capacities have been enhanced, there is a need to develop institutional space and mechanisms for governments and local communities to interact effectively. For example, during official consultations with local communities, a choice needs to be made between full participation and participation by representation, using the formal or informal community organisations. Explicit mechanisms have to be drafted into government rules and regulations, explained to concerned officials, and ‗back-stopped‘ by a capable body till it becomes accepted practice.

3. Using New Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)

392. The recent proliferation of new ICTs, especially mobile phones and Internet-connected computers and other portable access devices, has opened up new potential for using some of these technologies and services for improved natural resource management.

393. There is growing awareness about ICT-enabled solutions for IWRM.51 These solutions involve, as their key building blocks, the following:

o innovative demand management systems o decision support systems o data management technologies

394. Although sophisticated IT-enabled systems have been used in some water management operations for a long time, these were both complex and expensive. The newer ICTs are more user-friendly, affordable and enable large scale deployment. Such ICT applications in the water sector offer a multitude of benefits to improve efficiency and nurture greater co-operation among stakeholders52. For example, they enable:

o real-time (or close to real-time) gathering and sharing of data across distances; o better measurement and monitoring (e.g. intelligent water meters) that support ‗live‘

decision-making and conservation in complex water management systems; o visualisation of water use data through GIS and other software; and

51 See discussion in:

http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/activities/sustainable_growth/docs/water_cons/discussion%20_paper.pdf

52 M S Swaminathan Research Foundation implemented Information Village project and both its outputs and outcomes could serve as an example to understand the power of ICT-enabled tools in water resources development and management.




o quantification and transparency of water availability and use by different users.

395. Two examples at the ‗high end‘ of ICT applications in the water sector:

o Water Evaluation and Planning (WEAP) system developed by the Stockholm Environment Institute – a computer based tool that supports IWRM. It has been described as ―a virtual laboratory for examining alternative water development and management strategies‖. 53

o The Digital Yellow River Project in China has been using GIS and Internet for a decade to improve decision making. GIS simulates the river's behavior, while the Digital Yellow River users can edit and query data, visualise scenarios, and print topographic and thematic maps. Users can also share the information by uploading or downloading files via the Internet.54

396. At the community level, there is a growing number of examples using different ICT applications that help gather, process and share information for better awareness and decision-making at the grassroots. Among them:

o Jal Chitra is a free software developed by the Ajit Foundation in Jaipur that creates an interactive water map of a village. It enables the community to keep records of the amount of water available from each water source, can record water quality testing, lists maintenance work done and required, estimates water demand, generates future monthly water budgets (based on past records), and shows the amount of community need met through rainwater harvesting systems.55

o Neerjaal is an ICT-enabled water resource management system for grassroots communities that helps collation of groundwater related information and management of water resources with the available information. The Neerjaal software facilitates generating, storing and making public the water related information in a village.56

o Water Canary, an inexpensive water-testing device that makes it possible to collect real-time water quality data from the field. With the push of a button, anyone can measure water quality and share their information with the world.57

4. Change Management

397. Many of the requirements for adaptation to climate change involve significant change in management approaches and more participative and devolved systems of management. Efficiencies and sustainability of water use are core themes. To achieve the changes requires a step by step process which usually require a considerable length of time; skipping some steps creates an illusion of speed and never creates a satisfactory result58.

398. Key issues and actions59 involved in change management are summarised in Table 17.

Table 17 Change Issues and Actions Issue Explanation and Actions to be Taken Resistance to change

o Self interest and/or desire not to lose something of value o Desire not to lose or change long standing work activities o Misunderstanding and lack of trust of change and the implications o Low tolerance of change o Fear of consequences of the change/fear of the unknown and uncertain

Overcoming Resistance to

o Training, communication and awareness o Participation and involvement leading to commitment not just compliance

53 http://sei-international.org/weap-the-water-evaluation-and-planning-system 54 http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/spring10articles/the-digital-yellow.html 55 http://www.irc.nl/page/13322 56 http://www.defindia.net/section_full_story.asp?id=427 57 http://www.watercanary.com/Technology.html 58 Kotter JP (1995) Leading Change why Transformation Efforts Fail Harvard Business Review 59 Irrigation Management Principles and Practices Martin Burton 2010

http://sei-international.org/weap-the-water-evaluation-and-planning-system

http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/spring10articles/the-digital-yellow.html

http://www.irc.nl/page/13322

http://www.defindia.net/section_full_story.asp?id=427

http://www.watercanary.com/Technology.html


Issue Explanation and Actions to be Taken Change o Facilitation and support to address fear and anxiety

o Negotiation and provision of incentives for those likely to lost out from change o Efforts to influence key stakeholders o Use of a mix of approaches not just one o Avoid moving or forcing change too quickly o Avoid involving too many people, target key stakeholders.

Change Management Processes

o Conduct an organisational analysis to clearly identify the current situation o Conduct an analysis of the factors influencing the change process o Prepare a detailed change strategy o Monitor the change programme and address problems early

Components of Change Management

o Leadership and clear action planning o Ability to learn from mistakes; adjust the programme according to monitoring and

feed back o Develop awareness for the need to change o Develop a convincing and credible case for change o Change can feel chaotic and uncertain as people strive to come to terms with

new understandings, tasks and functions o Attention must be given to broadening and mobilising support for change o Crystallise the vision and and focus on the organisation-initially start broad and

then focus in as the emerging strategy is identified o Recognise that focus is on people and the processes of change o Understand that the pace of change varies, sometimes it can be very slow other

time less slow. o Change and renewal may require destruction of valued but outdated practices o Emerging structures and processes are a product of multiplicity of factors and

constraints o Change is a natural process of development

Ingredients for Successful Change Management

o Provide clear evidence that change is both desirable and feasible o Develop clear strategic aims and identifiable objectives o Gain support at the highest level o Understand the role and culture of government and community politics in the

main stakeholder organisations o Make senior managers responsibe for change but allow contributions from others o Make appropriate changes as necessary in the power structure o Plan and manage implementation carefully o Communicate effectively to avoid rumour mongering o Gain ownership by key stakeholders of the outcomes and processes. o Where possible seek compatibility with existing systems, procedures, cultures

and traditions o Plan the pace of change o Build in systems to reward worthy suppport o Create success early in the programme and provide positive feedback to build

confidence o Provide examples of role modelling o Initiate appropriate flexible training and support o Monitor and evaluate the process and make timely adjustments as required o Appreciate that managing change is a learning process for all o Empower key stakeholders and make them aware, capable and included in the

planning and decision making.

Cycles of Change Management

Thinking o Diagnosis o Feasibility Studies o Brainstorming o Communication of

Concerns o Problem Recognition o Establish steering

group

Addressing o Task forces o Training

Buying in new skills o Building support o Building coalitions o Pilot trials

Doing o Creating change o Champions for change o Proposals for Change o New structures and

skills o Team Building o Rewards and

recognition o Sell change o Publicise success


5. Different Approaches and Methodologies for Raising Awareness

Approach to stakeholders awareness raising include: o One-to-one exchange using telephone, email and fax services, and exchanges during social

experiences, conferences, symposia and professional meetings; o Text material such as newsletters (paper and electronic), printed manuals, newspaper and

electronic media reports, bulletin boards, and email chat about IWRM experiences; o Interactive web-based watershed information systems; o Interactive Geographical Information Systems built for use within agencies or for targeted partners

in a water management context; o Field days, farm demonstrations and workshops; o Professional workshops to exchange experiences in state-of-the art-tools for IWRM; o Radio broadcasts and video presentations; o Open houses; o Village level capacity building through discussion with farmers and village leaders; o National and regional technical and study tours. o Through establishment of village knowledge centre

Approaches to general public awareness raising include: o Water campaigns can use a number of communication methods including; the direct use of

conventional media (printed media, TV, radio) and/or non-conventional media (messages on water bills, games, transport tickets, comic books, etc)

o Organization of large events and the endorsement of celebrities (generating media attention) o Use of existing networks (religious networks, social movements, NGO networks, business

associations) o Use of logos (eg. a water drop) to give identity to the campaign.

D. Training Processes and Responsibilities

1. Introduction

399. In the context of climate change, an understanding of the implications of climate change on development as well as specific sectors like water for agriculture is critical. There is also a need to mainstream climate adaptation into the institutional landscape. The key needs include; (i) identify best practices for mainstreaming climate adaptation into development policies at national, sectoral and project levels and in urban and also rural contexts; and (ii) identify practical ways for supporting agencies in their efforts to reduce their vulnerability to climate variability and climate change. The mainstreaming tasks requires identification of appropriate entry points. Institutional strengthening is one such entry point to analyze, comprehend and provide solutions to the problems of adaptive response to climate change impacts. Central to the notion of institutional strengthening, therefore, is the development and enhancement of capacities through training and awareness rising.

400. All central and state departments are working towards reducing the barriers associated with bureaucracy and increasing the flexibility of employees and work teams to accomplish the department‘s mission. As a result, there is a need for well-trained, responsive workforce capable of meeting tomorrow‘s challenges: improving the quality of work and service to the public at large.

401. Reasons for emphasizing the growth and development of human resources include

o Creating a pool of readily available and adequate replacements for personnel who may leave or move up in the organization.

o Enhancing the institution‘s ability to adopt and use advances in technology because of a sufficiently knowledgeable staff.

o Building a more efficient, effective and highly motivated team, which enhances the company's competitive position and improves employee morale.

o Ensuring adequate human resources for expansion into new programs.


2. Training Process and Options

402. Process: A customized training programs is based on the needs and expectations of client organizations and training participants. The standard processes of conducting training include:

o Identifying training needs through a process of dialogue and consultation with various stakeholders of the organization.

o Preparing training proposals/ modules consisting of training objective, session topics, sequence and timing, training methods and expected outcome of each session.

o Finalizing the training module in consultation with client organization. o Arrange the training venue and make other training arrangements, if ASK is made responsible

for the same. o Conduct the training. o On going assessment through recap of learning, seeking feedback about training and

trainers, and concluding with a written assessment of the training. 403. A systematic and periodic review of current and foreseeable organizational training needs links training to real world results and goals. It provides a realistic basis upon which to plan, budget, direct, and evaluate an effective training program.

3. Training Needs Assessment

404. Training Needs Assessment (TNA) takes cognizance of the need to develop competent, resourceful and responsible personnel in the government to steer the tasks of nation building. It seeks to strengthen the capacity for effectiveness of public service at all levels of government through the delivery of continuous, competency-based, responsive and demand-driven training. The TNA has the following stages

405. The purpose of a training needs assessment is to identify performance requirements or needs within an organization in order to help direct resources to the areas of greatest need, those that closely relate to fulfilling the organizational goals and objectives, improving productivity and providing quality products and services. The needs assessment is the first step in the establishment of a training and development Program. It is used as the foundation for determining instructional objectives, the selection and design of instructional programs, the implementation of the programs and the evaluation of the training provided. These processes form a continuous cycle which always begins with a needs assessment.

406. Step 1 in designing a training and development program is to conduct a needs assessment. The assessment begins with a "need" which can be identified in several ways but is generally described as a gap between what is currently in place and what is needed, now and in the future. Gaps can include discrepancies/differences between:

o What the organization expects to happen and what actually happens. o Current and desired job performance. o Existing and desired competencies and skills.

Needs assessment can also be used to assist with:

o Competencies and performance of work teams. o Problem solving or productivity issues. o The need to prepare for and respond to future changes in the organization or job duties.

407. The results of the needs assessment allows the training manager to set the training objectives by answering two very basic questions: who, if anyone, needs training and what training is needed. Sometimes training is not the solution. Some performance gaps can be reduced or eliminated through other management solutions such as communicating expectations, providing a supportive work environment, arranging consequences, removing obstacles and checking job fit. Once the needs assessment is completed and training objectives are clearly identified, the design phase of the training and development process is initiated


408. Step 2: Developing Training Programs and Manuals This step establishes the development of current job descriptions and standards and procedures. Job descriptions should be clear and concise and may serve as a major training tool for the identification of guidelines. Once the job description is completed, a complete list of standards and procedures should be established from each responsibility outlined in the job description. This will standardize the necessary guidelines for any future training.

409. Step 3: involves delivery of the training program This step is responsible for the instruction and delivery of the training program. Once we have designated the trainers, the training technique must be decided. One-on-one training, on-the-job training, group training, seminars, and workshops, web-based, exposure visits (including International study tours) teleconference are the some of the methods. For a training program to be successful, the trainer should be conscious of several essential elements, including a controlled environment, good planning, the use of various training methods, good and good communication skills, and trainee participation.

410. Step 4 is the Evaluation. The logical conclusion of the training and development program is an evaluation of the effectiveness of the training program to determine whether the training objectives were met. The reason for an evaluation system is simple. The evaluation of training programs is without a doubt the most important step in the training process. It is this step that will indicate the effectiveness of both the training as well as the trainer.

411. There are several obvious benefits for evaluating a training program. First, evaluations will provide feedback on the trainer's performance, allowing them to improve themselves for future programs. Second, evaluations will indicate its cost-effectiveness. Third, evaluations are an efficient way to determine the overall effectiveness of the training program for the employees as well as the organization. The importance of the evaluation process after the training is critical. Without it, the trainer does not have a true indication of the effectiveness of the training. The evaluation process covers among others the determination of participant reaction to the training program, how much participants learned and how well the participants transfer the training back on the job. The information gathered from the training evaluation is then included in the next cycle of training needs assessment. It is important to note that the training needs assessment, training objectives, design, and implementation and evaluation process is a continual process for the organization. Evaluation can be outsourced to a competent organisation specialised in Human Resource Development and behavioural sciences.

E. Institutional Arrangements for Training

412. National Level: The Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) and the. Central Water Commission (CWC) is at the core of water resource development and management in India and is constantly revisiting its organizational capabilities to respond to emerging challenges including climate change impacts. Human Resource Management wing of MoWR is entrusted with the responsibility of training newly recruited and in-service CWC officers. The suggested institutional responsibilities are shown in Figure 9


Figure 9 Institutional Responsibilities

Central MoWR

Basin

HRM unit of I W R M cell of

Water Resources Department

Other Training Institutions

CWC

NWA

HRM Unit Director Training

State Level

Water centric Training Institutions

NIH IIT s

HRM wing is headed by a Chief Engineer

and is assisted among others by the Director (Training)

Shall be responsible for overall co-ordination of training

I W R M cell of WRD at the state level shall

Co-ordinate Training activities in collaboration with

Other training institutions in the state and district level

Like National Water Academy, National Institute

of Hydrology and Agricultural Universities

Basin /District level institutions in collaboration

With I W R M cell at the state level

Design and implement training activities WALMI IMTI NEERI:

RGWTI

Others

Institutional Responsibilities for Coordination and Implementation of Training Programs

Explanatory Note

HRM: Human Resource Management

NWA: National water Academy

NIH: National Institute of Hydrology

IIT: Indian Institute of Technology

RGWTI: Rajiv Gandhi Ground Water Technology Institute

WALMI: Water and Land Management Training Institute

IMTI: Irrigation Management Training Institute

NEERI: National Environment Engineering Research Institute

Responsibility

413. National Water Academy (NWA) as an affiliate of MoWR, was established in 1988, to impart training to the in-service engineers of the various central/state organizations involved in the Development & Management of Water Resources. The NWA is headed by a Chief Engineer who directly reports to the Chairman CWC. The core faculty comprises of CWES (Central Water Engineering Services) officers who have long practical experience in Water Resources Development and Management. The guest faculty comprises of academicians and scientists of eminence from premier Research Centers and Universities in India, as well as practicing professionals and specialists drawn from other organizations and agencies. NWA is envisaged to function as a `Centre of Excellence‘ in training water resources personnel. It is addressing the wider training needs of water resources engineers of States and Central Agencies in the fields of planning, design, evaluation, construction, operation, and management and monitoring of water resources projects. In its national role, NWA is concentrating on conducting training courses for all water sector personnel, in the specialized and emerging areas, for which State water resources departments or other institutes are not adequately equipped to meet the needs. Apart from this, it is conducting induction and refresher courses in all relevant areas of the water sector for CWC, State and other central organizations.

414. Rajiv Gandhi Ground Water Training Institute (RGI): Central Ground Water Board conducts training courses for officers and staff of CGWB, central and state government organizations, universities and institutes etc. RGI imparts training at the induction, mid-career, and senior management levels in all relevant aspects of hydrogeological investigations, exploration, assessment, development and management of ground water and a few courses on administrative matters and management aspects. The faculty is generally drawn from CGWB, and institutes and ground water experts in relevant fields. The emphasis during the course remains on field and hands on training so that the trainees get maximum exposure and can handle the problems on their own.

415. National Institute of Hydrology (NIH) is the key research institute for hydrology and water resources and is well qualified to provide training and strengthening for climate change adaptation.


416. State Level Training: It is proposed to establish a new training wing within the new IWRM unit within the WRD. Training would be under the guidance of a Human Resource Manager who would initiate recruitment of of an external consultant/institution as a nodal agency for managing all training activities, as per the procedure being approved by the Chief Engineer-of WRD. The training wing has the option to directly identify-network- coordinate and engage with other prestigious training institutions or opt for outsourcing the training activities in case of expertise being absent within.

417. Outsourcing of training activities The external consultant/institution is mandated on the basis of the training management capabilities, sector knowledge and liaison experiences of the national institutions. One disadvantage of using outside training specialists is their limited knowledge of the institutions or project providing products, technologies and service and stakeholder needs. Although external trainers might lack general knowledge of stakeholder‘s needs; in many cases, however the outside trainer can develop this knowledge quickly by immersing himself or herself in local context prior to training. A disadvantage of using outside trainers is the relatively high cost compared to in-house training, although the higher cost may be offset by the increased effectiveness of the training. External trainers may have specialist knowledge skills not available with in house trainers. It is however, most desirable and to have a good government staff with aptitude to train people which is also cost effective; a mix of training backgrounds is recommended.

F. Training Content

418. Water resources are extremely diverse and the needs for management are complex and defining the real training needs requires a training needs assessment depending on the type of training and the target audience. The focus of this study is the training needs for climate change adaptation, it is however not possible to totally separate climate change adaptation training needs from the wider training in water resources. A preliminary summary of the training is shown in Table 18 below.

Table 18 Summary of Training Areas

Course 1 Institutional /Policy 1.1 Water Policy and approaches to implementing policy 1.2 River management legal mandate, institutional approaches 1.3 Agricultural Support Policies to meet needs of water conservation 1.4 Sustainable groundwater management 1.5 Charging systems for surface and ground water 1.6 Establishment of IWRM 1.7 Institutional requirements for mainstreaming climate change adaptation 1.8 Participatory irrigation and water users 1.9 Planning Processes for Climate Change Adaptation 1.10 Role of private sector to support climate change adaptation 2 Management Tools 2.1 Application of GIS and Remote Sensing Tools 2.2 Data bases management for water resources 2.3 Web portals for data and information sharing 3 Climate Change 3.1 Disaster management under climate change 3.2 Safety of dams and hydraulic structures under climate change 3.3 Specific technical training according to identified issues in sub basins 3.4 Impacts of temperature increases on cropping systems, 3.5 Land use planning for climate change adaptation and sustainability 4 Specialist Water Resource 4.1 Understanding of climate change projections 4.2 Numerical Modelling of Surface and Ground Water Systems 4,3 Modelling of Water Supply and Demand (WEAP or other models) 4.4 Decision Support Systems to Support Climate Change Adaptation 4.5 Hydrodynamic Modelling of coastal water system 4.6 Incorporation of climate resilience into planning and design


5 Water Resource Management 5.1 Water Resource Conservation 5.2 Artificial Recharge For Groundwater 5.3 Water use efficiency including conjunctive water use 5.4 Improving efficiencies Water supply and sanitation; water reuse 5.5 Saline water management 5.6 Natural coastal protection/shoreline management planning 5.7 Catchment management to support groundwater recharge 5.8 Micro irrigation 5.9 Irrigation Management Transfer and Development of Water User Associations 6 Agriculture Productivity and Water Use Conservation 6.1 Cropping systems to reduce water use 6.2 Crop production management 6.3 Agricultural Marketing 6.4 Post harvest technologies 6.5 Agriculture options in saline, flood prone areas including aquaculture 6.6 Agriculture systems to reduce water demand SRI, direct seeding mulching etc

G. Training Institutes/Organisations

419. A list of potential list of training institutes includes:

o NIH: National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee o KVK: Krishi Vighyan Kendra o PAU: Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana o DOA (Extension): Department of Agriculture o ICRISAT: International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics, Hyderabad o MANAGE: Hyderbad o WALMI: Water and Land Management Institute o AFPRO: Action for Food Production, New Delhi o TNAU: Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore o IMTI: Irrigation Management Training Institute, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu o ASCI: Administrative Staff College of India, Hyderabad o UAA: Uttaranchal Academy of Administration, Nainital, Uttarakhannd o CGG: Centre for Good Governance, Hyderabad o ESCI: Hyderabad Engineering Staff College of India, Hyderabad o IITR: Roorkee: Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee o IMG: Institute of Management in Government, Thiruvananthapuram o IMTI: Irrigation Management & Training Institute, Kota, Rajasthan o ISTM: Institute of Secretariat Training and Management, Delhi o MAIT: Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, o MPCOS: Madhya Pradesh Council of Science and Technology, Bhopal o NAARM: National Academy of Agriculture Research Management, Hyderabad o NEERI: National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur o NIFM: National Institute of Financial Management, Faridabad, Harayana o NWA: National Water Academy, Khadakwasla, Pune o RCVPNAA: Noronha Academy of Administration, Bhopal o SATI: Samarat Ashok Technological Institute, Vidisha o SFRI: Jabalpur: State Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur


VII. WATER USE EFFICIENCY

A. Introduction

1. National Water Mission

420. Increasing water use efficiency can provide a significant buffer to meeting the potential impacts of changing rainfall patterns. The National Water Mission (NWM) targets increasing irrigation efficiency from its present level by 20%. The NWM document identifies the following generic steps to achieve the targeted water use efficiency.

o To take into account the provisions of the National Water Policy and develop a framework to optimize water use to increase efficiency by 20%.

o To implement mandatory water assessments and audits, as well as proper industrial water disposal

o Promote artificial recharging of ground water for augmenting and enhancing sustainability of depleting ground water resources.

421. The above issues of water use efficiency were deliberated in detail by a sub-committee constituted for the purpose. Based on the recommendations of the committee the following strategic action plan was formulated by NWM.-

o Review of National Water Policy-which is now ongoing o Review of State Water Policies o Guidelines for different uses of water e.g, irrigation, drinking, industrial etc particularly in

context of basin wise situations o Planning on the principles of integrated water resource development and management o Inter-basin integration particularly for augmenting water converting surplus flood water into

utilizable water. 422. The NWM gave following specific recommendations for action plan on water use efficiency:

o Encourage water harvesting, o Encourage non-agricultural developments of the type where not much water is required o Piped surface water for clusters of villages with ground water quality problems o Careful use of dual pipe supply systems to conserve water with due consideration to

simultaneous planning for sewerage lines in urban areas to ensure prevention of pollution of water sources

o Encouraging leakage control programmes o Consideration of desalination as an option for supply to urban coastal communities o Regulation for in-house water withdrawals of industries through royalties and licenses o Extending subsidies and incentives for recycling and recovery o Revise water tariff based on cost recovery principle o Option of programme based Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in industrial and

domestic wastewater exploring bilateral joint ventures for funding CDM projects o Promotion of water efficient fixtures o Incentivisation for recycling waste water.

423. Based on the recommendations of of the sub-committee Ministry of Water Resources prepared a draft outline on the Action Plan for Achieving the Goal of Increasing Water Use Efficiency by 20% under NWM.

424. Irrigation efficiency affects the economics of irrigation, the amount of water needed to irrigate a specific land area, the spatial uniformity of the crop and its yield, the amount of water that might percolate beneath the crop root zone, the amount of water that can return to surface sources for downstream uses or to groundwater aquifers that might supply other water uses, and the amount of water lost to unrecoverable zones. On-going efficiency studies are based on project and surface water assessments without consideration of water reuse from groundwater or drains..


2. Central Water Commission Water Efficiency Guideline for Irrigation Projects

425. Central Water Commission prepared a comprehensive guideline for evaluation of efficiencies of irrigation projects --‗Handbook for computing the water use efficiency of an Irrigation project‘. CWC also carried out studies for evaluation of surface water efficiencies of about 30 irrigation projects in the country. Results show that irrigation efficiency of some projects is as low as only 13% (Naggal Lift Scheme, Andhra Pradesh) and as high as 58% in Tungabhadra project in Karnataka. On an average, irrigation efficiency of irrigation project in India is considered to be in the range of 30 to 35% and this is also seen in the CWC study of 30 projects.

426. The CWC recommends that such studies should be conducted for most of the major and medium projects in the country and should be synchronized with sub-basin or basin level planning. Diagnostic studies have to be conducted at project/sub-basin/basin level to determine the management practices and strategies in each case.

427. The guideline identifies the need to adopt measures for ensuring high water uses efficiencies and economies on water use in existing water systems. Although, no project ever functions exactly as assumed at the design stage, yet its evaluation of performance after a reasonable period and taking measures to improve its performance could result in improved agriculture productivity. It is also useful to determine causes of low performance so that further deterioration of existing system could be stopped. Performance evaluation, benchmarking and water audit are some of the important tools which can be employed for these purposes. Some of the usual reasons for low water use efficiency include

o Wastage of Water: The water wastage in the canal systems are due to seepage losses, evaporation losses, leakages and overtopping of canals etc.

o Excessive Use of Water: In some crops like paddy, sugarcane and banana, farmers over irrigate the crops. Such over irrigation not only results into water wastage but also leads to soil degradation

o Unreliable Water Supply: In canal command areas, water supply is often not reliable. Therefore farmers do not want to take any risk and go for ground water withdrawals if feasible.

o Non-Uniformity of Water Application: It is observed that in canal irrigated areas farmers having their fields at tail end do not get water in time. This results into social injustice and therefore can lead to conflicts and results into non functioning of the project smoothly as well as lower WUE

o Rotational Water Supply: Due to mismanaged rotational water supply, sometimes crop suffers stressed conditions which results into lower yields and poor efficiencies.

428. One of key issues related to engineering infrastructure (reservoirs, irrigation and drainage canals, hydraulic structures, water supply network etc.) is poor operation and maintenance (O&M), including failures in maintaining necessary operational regimes ; their repair, up-gradation and, if necessary, reconstruction. In the diagnostic study of project/sub-basin/basin quality of O&M should be assessed by such indicators as cost (financial and material), cost recovery, efficiency and operational life of the infrastructure.

429. The impact of climate change on the water resources including irrigation infrastructure vary in type and severity. Thus there is immediate need of managing the water resources at sub-basin/basin level so that efficient system may be developed for increasing crop area, reducing poverty and providing food and fibre to ever growing population.

3. Summary of the NWM Proposals for Water Use Efficiency

430. One of the most important goals of National Water Mission 2008 proposal is to “increase water use efficiency by 20%”. The objective is presently being assessed through joint efforts by various stakeholders through several Departments in the States and various Ministries / Departments at the Centre. The draft Mission Document of National Water Mission envisages that nodal responsibility would be of Secretary of Ministry of Water Resources and the Committee for this purpose would have representatives from Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Urban Development, Ministry Power, Department of Drinking Water & Sanitation and Department of Industrial Policy and


Promotion as members. The Committee would also include representatives from States and Industries. At State level, the Committee would be chaired by the Secretary, Water Resources of the State with similar composition.

431. The timeline for action would be to increase water use efficiency by 20% by the year 2017. Additionally, the present level of gap of about 15% between the irrigation potential created and the irrigation potential utilized would also be reduced by half by the year 2017.

432. Various strategies identified in the Mission Document of ―National Water Mission‖ for achieving the goal of ―increasing water use efficiency by 20%‖ include (i) research in area of increasing water use efficiency and maintaining its quality; (ii) incentivize recycling of water including wastewater; (iii) development of eco-friendly sanitation systems; (iv) improve efficiency of urban water supply system; (v) efficiency labelling of water appliances and fixtures; (vi) promotion of water efficient techniques and technologies; (vii) undertake pilot projects for improvement in water use efficiency in collaboration with states; (viii) promote Water Regulatory Authorities for ensuring equitable water distribution and rational charges for water facilities; (ix) promote mandatory water audit including those for drinking water purposes; (x) adequate provision for operation and maintenance of water resources projects; (xi) incentive through award for water conservation and efficient use of water; and Incentivize use of efficient irrigation practices and fully utilize the created facilities.

433. At present, there is a gap of about 15% in the irrigation potential created and utilized. Full utilization of the created facilities has been identified as an important strategy. This has also been duly highlighted in the report of the Mid-Term Appraisal of the XI Plan; key points include (i) command area development should occur in parallel with the creation of infrastructure. Command area development must carefully integrate traditional water harvesting systems already existing in the command. 10% of the command area of the projects covered under Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme must mandatorily be provided with water saving micro-irrigation techniques. (ii) an agricultural improvement programme focused on improving water use efficiency and agricultural productivity must be dovetailed in to the Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme. Revision of water charges is an important instrument for promoting water use efficiency; (iii) for command area development to be effective, the participation of farmers as stakeholders in the process must occur right from the planning and implementation to monitoring and maintenance stage. For this, Water Users‘ Associations need to be set up within the framework of PRIs and provided with autonomy, incentives and powers.

4. Action Plan for Improvement of Irrigation Water Use Efficiency

434. A study for ―Preparation of Action Plan for Improvement of Irrigation Water Use Efficiency‖ is presently in progress at Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee. A summary and review of the proposals is given below.

435. The action plan study identifies the wide variations in use of water in quantitative terms for different purposes. The total withdrawal/utilization for all uses has been estimated by National Commission on Integrated Water Resources Development (NCIWRD) (1999) for 2010, as 694 Billion Cubic Meter (BCM) under low projection scenario and 710 BCM for high projection scenarios. Out of the total water estimated to be utilized in the country by the year 2010, irrigation accounts for nearly 78% followed by drinking and municipal use (6%), industries (5%), power development (3%), and other activities claim about 8% including evaporation losses, environment and navigational requirements. No estimates of water reuse are provided. Estimated levels of efficiency are summarised in Table 19

Table 19 Surface Water Efficiencies for Various Facilities

Sl. No.

Water Use and methods Efficiency (in percent)

a Irrigation efficiencies Conveyance -through unlined canal for surface water -through lined canal for surface water Application for both surface and ground water

: :

55-60* 70-75*


Sl. No.

Water Use and methods Efficiency (in percent)

Application – flood irrigation Application – furrow irrigation Application – sprinkler Application – Drip Overall efficiency for surface water system Overall efficiency for ground water system

: : : : : :

65 80 85 90 30-65 65-75

Urban water supply : 50-60 c Rural water supply : 60-70 d Water for industrial use : 80 *The conveyance efficiency of the canal depends on many factors such as length of the canal, type of soil, material used for lining etc.

. 436. The action plan points out that the canal efficiency is not the same as the overall efficiency and notes that although seepages are considered as losses for estimating the efficiency of the canal system but for the purpose of overall water utilization it would not be appropriate to consider such seepages as losses. In such cases, the efficiency of water use would be more than that of the efficiency of the specific facilities created for utilization of water. It is however unfortunate that this important and fundamental point is not addressed further.

437. The study assesses the quantum of water being utilized for different uses and what might be saved by initiating various efficiency measures. The assessments do not however specifically consider water reuse and focuses on canal system efficiencies.

5. Status of Various Water Efficiency Studies

438. The mission document of NWM identified the need for follow on studies and initiatives to improve water use efficiency. The status of the follow on water efficiencies studies and action plan towards meeting the goal of increasing water use efficiency by 20% are summarized in Table 20.

Table 20 Present Status of Water Efficiency Programmes Nr Identified

Strategies Present Status

a Research in area of increasing water use efficiency and maintaining its quality in agriculture, industry and domestic sector

Studied have been un dertaken in respect of evaluation of water use efficiencies for 43 major and medium projects through various Water and Land Management Institutes (WALMIs) throughout the country. The studies also include identification of measures for improving the water use efficiencies. Thirty projects have now been completed. It is planned to cover more such projects. Various research and academic institutions are encouraged to take up research under the scheme ―Research and Development‖ of the Ministry of Water Resources. A study for ―Preparation of Action Plan for Improvement of Irrigation Water Use Efficiency‖ is presently in progress at Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee.

b Incentivize recycling of water including wastewater

Necessary measures in respect of incentivizing recycling of water including wastewater are undertaken by Ministry of Urban Development.

c Development of eco-friendly sanitation system

Necessary measures in respect of development of eco-friendly sanitation system are undertaken by the Department of Drinking Water Supply, Ministry of Rural Development.

d Improve efficiency of urban water supply system

Necessary measures in respect of improving the efficiency of urban water supply system are undertaken by Ministry of Urban Development.

e Efficiency labelling of water appliances and fixtures

Necessary measures in respect of efficiency labelling of water appliances and fixtures are undertaken by Ministry of Urban Development.

f Promotion of water efficient techniques and technologies

A very important measure towards ―promotion of water efficient techniques and technologies‖ is the approval of National Mission on Micro Irrigation under the Ministry of Agriculture and cooperation. Further actions in respect of transfer of water efficient techniques and technologies at the field level have been undertaken by the Ministry of Water Resources


Nr Identified Strategies

Present Status

through ―Farmers‘ Participatory Action Research Programme‖. g Undertake Pilot

projects for improvement in water use efficiency in collaboration with States

A study has been initiated by the Ministry of Water Resources in collaboration with the Asian Development Bank which envisages preparation of Action Plan for addressing the climate change issues in respect of three sub-basins namely Sutlej, Chambal, and Cauvery Delta in the States of Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu respectively. The studies inter-alia include identification of measures for improvement in the water use efficiency. Pilot projects would be taken up in consultation with the States.

h Promote Water Regulatory Authorities for ensuring equitable water distribution and rational charges for water facilities

Ministry of Water Resources promotes establishment of Water Regulatory Authority in the states. So far, Water Regulatory Authorities have been established in the States of Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh. Necessary legislation has also been passed in Andhra Pradesh and the Regulatory Authority is likely to be established soon in Andhra Pradesh also. Further, the 13th Finance Commission has also recommended establishment of water regulatory authorities as pre-condition for utilization of water management fund for undertaking repair and maintenance of water resources system.

i Promote mandatory water audit including those for drinking water purposes

Central Water Commission and Central Ground Water Board have prepared general guidelines for water audit and water conservation. These guidelines have been circulated to all the State Governments for formulating their own region specific, project specific system specific or service specific guidelines. Necessary action in respect of promoting mandatory water audit would be taken up separately.

j Adequate provision for Operation and Maintenance.

13th Finance Commission has recommended special ―Water management‖ fund of Rs 5,000 crores in this regard.

k Incentive through award for water conservation and efficient use of water

Ministry of Water Resources has initiated awards for encouraging water conservation and efficient use of water.

l Incentivize use of efficient irrigation practices and fully utilize the created facilities

Necessary measures are promoted under the scheme ―Command Area Development and Water Management‖. The scheme is proposed to be further expanded.

6. Action Plan

439. The action plan identifies that to meet the quantified target of increasing the present level of overall water use efficiency by about 20%, focused attention and concerted effort would be required in respect of specific strategies. Such strategies have to be identified from the view point of (i) present level of efficiency for various facilities for water utilization, (ii) scope of further improvement in the level of efficiency, (iii) impact of implementation of such activities on overall increase in water use efficiency for the country as a whole and (iv) the capabilities of the implementing agencies in completing the identified tasks in a time bound manner. The broad recommendations of the Action Plan are to:

i) Increase in the efficiency of conveyance system through selective lining and other measures for modernization etc.

ii) Increase in the efficiency of water application through (i) on-farm development by expanding the scheme for ―Command Area Development and Water Management‖, and (ii) implementation of the micro irrigation practices.

iii) Implementing measures identified under the under the special Water Management Fund approved by the 13th Finance Commission.

iv) Improvement in water use efficiency through repair, renovation and restoration of water bodies and minor irrigation issues

v) Improvement in efficiency of urban water supply system vi) Improvement in efficiency in respect of rural water supply vii) Improvement in efficiency of industrial water use


viii) Improvement in management through better operation and maintenance, improved system of distribution and encouragement to participatory approach in water management.

440. The Plan recommends the following to reduce conveyance losses in the canals; (i) proper operation and maintenance (O&M) of irrigation systems; (ii) lining of canals; (iii) construction / selective lining of field channels; (iv) correction of system deficiencies; (v) provision of measuring devices and control structures; and (v) distribution through pipes

7. Command Area Development Water Management (CADWM)

441. The implementation of the CADWM Programme is to ensure equitable distribution of water to each farm holding in the command and promote efficient on-farm water management and agricultural practices for optimizing agricultural production and productivity. In order to achieve this, the programme envisages a number of activities like construction / lining of field channels for smooth supply of water from canal to the field, warabandi (fixation of farmers‘ turn) for equitable distribution of water, construction of drains for drainage of surplus water, reclamation of waterlogged areas, participatory irrigation management (PIM), training to functionaries and farmers, laying out of adaptive trials and demonstrations etc. A brief description of the activities that contribute to water use efficiency is as under:

i) Land levelling and shaping ii) Enforcement of warabandi for equitable distribution of water iii) Lining of field channels/water courses iv) Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM).

442. Water management at the farm levels has been inefficient in most of the canal commands due to a variety of reasons like lack of on-farm developmental works, lack of proper enforcement of warabandi system (rotational supply of irrigation water), inadequate knowledge of farmers about improved irrigation practices etc. Following measures are recommended for improving water management at farm level; (i) volumetric supply of irrigation water; (ii) rationalization of water rates (iii) promotion of efficient irrigation may include (iii) irrigation at critical stages of crop growth; (iv) laser leveling; (v) improved cultivation methods-check basins, boarder strip, areobic rice etc; (vi) promotion of water use efficient cropping sequences and application of optimum depth of irrigation; (vii) demonstrations on water saving techniques on farmers fields; and (viii) reliable communication network.

443. It has been estimated that through CADWM works, there could be an improvement in field application efficiency by about 15%, which would result in an increase of about 11% in overall project efficiency. The number of major/medium project in which CADWM works can be taken are 1648 including Projects under AIBP having CCA of about 27.4 Mha. Considering 140% irrigation intensity the potential created becomes about 38.4 Mha. The coverage of about 38.4 Mha of irrigation potential would therefore contribute to about 3.9% [(38.4 x 11) / 108.2 = 3.9] in the increase in efficiency in overall perspective of the country. It has been estimated by CAD&WM wing of MoWR that about 48,000 crore would be required to cover about 27.4 Mha of CCA.

444. The action plan identified the institutional capabilities of the State Governments for taking up CADWM works, it is proposed to include only about 50% of the command area i.e. 13.7 Mha or about 19.2 Mha of created irrigation potential during XII Plan period for the purpose of implementation of command area works at the estimated cost of about Rs.24,000 crore. This would result in overall increase of 1.95% [(19.2 x 11) / 108.2 = 1.95] for the country as a whole.

445. Sprinkler and drip irrigation systems are the most commonly used micro irrigation systems in the country. It has been reported that under sprinkler irrigation, the water saving in various crops ranges from 16-69% and under drip irrigation, this saving is from 5-68%. An average improvement in efficiency may be taken as 50% (a component of field application efficiency) by adopting drip/sprinkler system both pressurized and non-pressurized systems, which in turn would have impact of about 10% in overall system efficiency.


446. The draft ―National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)‖ of Ministry of Agriculture has envisaged coverage of about 12.5 Mha through minor irrigation at estimated cost of about 37,500 crore. Therefore, during the Mission period i.e. 2017 an area of 12.5 Mha would be covered which could lead to an overall increase of about [(12.5 / 108.2) x 10%] 1.15% for the country as a whole.

447. Ministry of Water Resources has already taken up the programme for Repair, Renovation and Restoration (RRR) of water bodies in 10th plan, on pilot basis, and upscaled in 11th plan. This programme is likely to cover about 1 Mha area under irrigation by the end of the Mission and by a rough estimate would make about 0.15% of 710 BCM (i.e. 1.1 BCM) additional water available for various other purposes. An amount of about Rs.1,000 crore may be considered for the RRR of water bodies.

448. Drinking water efficiency is very important with a view to address the serious problem of water shortages in cities and to provide immediate relief to the people even though the relative weight for drinking water sector is only 0.07 for both urban and rural areas. Considering high level of peoples‘ intervention, mass communication and awareness programmes required for the purpose, it may be practicably considered that the efficiency in drinking water sector can be improved by 10% by the year 2017 i.e. in urban areas efficiency can be increased up to 70% and in rural areas up to 80%. Considering coverage of about 50% of the country, the overall increase in efficiency would be about [0.5 (coverage) x 0.07 (weight) x 10% = 0.35] 0.35% which can be approximately segregated between urban water supply and rural water supply in 33:10 (as per their estimated utilization) as 0.25% and 0.10% respectively.

449. Industrial sector the efficiency can also be improved by 10% i.e. upto 90% considering a better control over industries and high economic incentive to them being high water rates for industrial purpose, in general. This increase would result in estimated saving of 5.6 BCM [10% of 56] and again taking coverage of 50% the saving of water would be about 2.8 BCM which would be approximately 0.4% of 710 BCM of country‘s estimated utilization.

450. Water User Association and PIM; though it is practically not possible to quantify the efficiency improvement by taking up administrative and managerial measures including formation of Water Users‘ Associations, implementation of Participatory Irrigation Management, implementation of warabandi system, rationalization of water rates, bench marking and base-line surveys, upscaling of specific programmes like FPARP can go a long way in contributing to the efficiency improvement.

8. Research input towards Enhancing Water Use Efficiency(WUE)

451. Various research and input towards water use efficiency have been identified by the Punjab Agricultural University (PAU)

o Rice Irrigation: PAU suggests that 16 irrigations are optimum against 24 currently under practice in the state thereby saving water equivalent to 8 irrigations as shown in the Table 21.

Table 21 Water Applications and Effects on Water Use and Yield

Treatment No of irrigations Irrigation water depth(cm)

Paddy yield(t/ha) Mean IWUE

Continuous flooding 24 190 5.51 29 1-day drainage 18 145 5.44 38 2-day drainage 16 125 5.53 44 4-day drainage 14 113 5.51 45

o Adapting Late Transplantation:-early transplanting in May results in wastage of water

equivalent to ten irrigations. Savings are primarily non beneficial evaporative losses. o Irrigating Rice Crop accurate applications based on tensiometers; -saves 46 cm irrigation

water without causing loss in paddy yield production. o Irrigating Wheat Crop in small plots:-smaller plots of 250sq m. size save 4.2cm irrigation water

as against bigger size plot of 1,000sq.m dimension. PAU recommends that 8/16 plots per acre in fine and coarse textured soils can enhance wue.


o Saving water through mulching effects of straw mulching on irrigation water savings are shown in Table 22 below:

o Irrigating Cotton: Recommendations include applications of water to alternate furrows for cotton irrigation rather applying to each furrow. Conjunctive use of brackish and freshwater on cotton are shown in Table 23 below.

Table 22 Irrigation Savings Through Mulching

Crop Irrigation water saved(cm) Increase in yield(%) Reduction in soil temp.0C

Maize-fodder 15 26 1.1-7.9 Maize-grain - 20 1.4-6.8 Sugar Cane 40 13 1.0-9.5 Potato 12 15 1.0-5.7

Table 23.Effect of Conjunctive Use of Brackish/ Fresh canal water on Crop Yield(ton/ha)

Irrigation water Paddy Wheat Brackish water 4.25 3.25 1/3 canal+2/3brackish 5.87 5.00 1/2canal+1/2 brackish 6.50 5.37 Canal water 7.00 5.00

B. Modernisation and Optimisation of Irrigation Systems

1. Recognising the Linkages of Surface and Groundwater resources

452. Recognising that surface water and groundwater resources in a catchment are fundamentally linked is one of the key current water management issues. This coordinated management is very different from the present approach of surface water management and the classical approaches to Water Use Efficiencies. The integrated management of surface and ground water is called conjunctive water management. The approach requires understanding surface water-groundwater interactions and incorporating this understanding into management policy and practice. It can also mean identification and investment in on-ground works which allow the different and complementary characteristics of surface water and groundwater systems to be combined to advantage; as opposed to benefit only to the surface water systems Taking a conjunctive approach can improve how issues such as water security, water use efficiency, dependent ecosystems, stream salinity or nutrient loads are dealt with. In this context, surface water resources in the catchment also encompass such components of the water budget as rainfall, storm water and recycled water, as well as surface water features like rivers, lakes, reservoirs, oceans, estuaries and wetlands.

453. Conjunctive management allows water to be stored in the aquifer for use during droughts by increasing recharge during times of above-average water availability. As such, an aquifer can be a water source during dry periods, and a storage reservoir during wet periods. At times when surface water availability is comparatively plentiful (in winter months and during wet years) the direct use of surface supplies is encouraged. Pumping of aquifers should be comparatively less during these wet periods, allowing them to refill naturally or through deliberate replenishment efforts such as Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR) schemes. When stream flows are less and need to be conserved for ecosystem requirements, stored groundwater can be tapped to meet irrigation or urban demand. Thus, in a given location, the same water uses may be met at some times with surface water and at other times with groundwater, as part of a deliberate management effort that operates the two resources conjunctively.

2. The India Perspective

454. Major investment in surface water since 1980 has resulted in quite limited expansion of the surface water irrigation, but a significant expansion of groundwater irrigation60 has occurred as shown in Figure 10. The critical linkage of the surface and groundwater systems is evident; about 30% to 50% of groundwater recharge is from surface water irrigation. This dual role of surface water 60 Tushaar Shah Irrigation Reform for Improving Water and Food Security in South Asia


irrigation to supply irrigation water directly and indirectly through groundwater is critical in the understanding of water use efficiency.

Figure 10 Trends in Expenditure and Irrigated Area in India

455. Irrigation efficiency depends on whether water reuse (recapture) is included or not. If water reuse is not considered then lower measures of efficiency are obtained. If, on the other hand, these losses are accounted for in recapture then higher measurements of efficiency are found. Not all the Indian water systems incorporate significant recapture of water but the majority do. Unfortunately in India the potential benefits of the conjunctive water management is in many parts not sustainable due to over exploitation of the groundwater.

456. Increases in efficiency at the project level may not lead to increases in efficiency at the basin level. This is because measurement of efficiency at the basin level takes into account the use of return flows from seepage, percolation, and surface runoff traditionally counted as ―losses‖ at farm and system level. It thus takes into account both on-site and off-site impacts. As water resources are exploited over time, river basins become ―closed‖ during all or part of the year. That is to say, no more water of usable quality is flowing to the sea. It is important to assess whether a basin is ―open‖ or ―closed‖. The closing of a basin marks the beginning of water scarcity and all that this implies for basin management. The focus on basin level water resource efficiency draws attention to the competition for water among sectors and the need understand the interrelationship between surface and ground water. The canal system is often a major source of groundwater recharge, but overexploitation of groundwater and falling ground water tables is becoming an all too common problem.

3. Examples

457. Example 1: The application efficiency of a conventional gravity irrigation system is typically only 45% while high-efficiency systems (such as piped systems with sprinkler or drip systems) attain application efficiencies of 70% to 90%. It is commonly inferred from these facts that large amounts of water could be saved and transferred to other uses by converting wasteful gravity systems to high-efficiency systems. In some cases this inference is valid, but in others it is false. In a system with high reuse of water; the efficiency for the surface part of 45% would be increased by reuse of the 55% lost,

Trends of public expenditure in major and medium irrigation and net irrigated area under different sources in India

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Exp

endi

ture

(billi

on U

S$,

in 2

000

pric

es)

0

6

12

18

24

30

36

42

Net

irrig

ated

are

a (m

illio

n ha

)

Expenditure Tanks Canals Groundwater


at the same level of efficiency would be 45%x55%=25% giving a total efficiency of 70%. Not much different from the sprinkler system.

458. Example 2: Rice is frequently decried as an over consuming crop and alternative lower consuming cropping must be put in place. Most of the paddy (rice) irrigation systems in the world depend on field-to-field irrigation by drainage water. If the upstream farmer uses water more efficiently, the outflow from his fields will be reduced, and the downstream farmer will suffer water shortage. The actual consumptive use by rice is however not so dissimilar to other crops as shown in Table 24.The main water requirement for rice is to maintain the ponded water; in a conjunctive system much of this loss can be potentially be recovered and can form a key source of water to recharge the aquifers for use in the Rabi season. Water saving benefits in conjunctive systems are through reducing the evaporative losses; shorter duration crops either fast maturation rice or other short duration crops; delayed planting to avoid the very high evapotranspiration period prior to onset of the monsoon.

Table 24 Typical Crop Coefficients

4. Role of Surface Water Irrigation to Support Ground Water Recharge

459. The huge expansion of groundwater irrigation has been largely a direct result of the expansion of surface water irrigation and the large increases in recharge from irrigation. This symbiosis of surface and groundwater irrigation systems is now a critical requirement of irrigation management. The groundwater systems rely heavily on the recharge from the surface water irrigation. Cut or

damage this link and groundwater irrigation will further deplete the already unsustainable abstractions from the aquifers.

460. There are few practical alternatives to artificially recharging aquifers except by irrigation. Large percolation ponds require enormous amounts of highly scarce agricultural land, and they cause high rates of evaporation loss. Injection systems need to inject water of potable quality to avoid polluting the aquifers, upon which most drinking water supplies depend, infiltration wells are prone to blockage and check dams silt up. Estimates are that 30% to 50% of the aquifer recharge is from irrigation. Irrigation especially paddy rice offers low cost opportunities for aquifer recharge, avoiding puddling of the fields can increase infiltration rates. How to optimise the role of irrigation to support aquifer recharge without compromising irrigation performance is a key requirements. Water spreading from irrigation to support recharge should be maximised during periods of water surplus or low irrigation demand.

461. Irrigation canals are a major source of recharge61, a fully lined canal can reduce the recharge by 80%. Canal lining improves the efficiency of the surface water system at some cost of recharge. In the Punjab a compromise was to line the sides but leave the bottom part unlined. Improved maintenance of unlined canals can help support canal efficiency but support the recharge functions.

5. Benefits and issues of conjunctive irrigation system

462. Conjunctive irrigation already has providing huge benefits and offers a major buffer against climate uncertainty. The aquifers offer major storages that can if properly managed can be used to support significant dry season irrigation.

463. The benefits of a conjunctive approach include:

61 CGWB estimates 15-30ham/day/million m2 of wetted area depending on the soil type

Crop Kc initial kc mid kc-end Rice 1.05 1.2 0.90-0.60 Small vegetable 0.7 1.05 0.95 Vegetables 0.6 1.15 0.8 Roots tubers 0.5 1.1 0.95 Legumes beans 0.4 1.15 0.55 Chick pea

1 0.35

Perennial vegetables 0.5 1 Cotton 1.15-1.20 0.70-0.50

Spring Wheat 1.15 0.25-0.4 Fodder 0.4 0.85-1.05 0.85 Citrus 0.80 0.8 0.8 Sugar Cane 0.4 1.25 0.75


o Improved security of water and opportunities to buffer against drought and inadequacies of supply from surface water.

o Provides storage of excess water during the Kharif season to be used in the Rabi season. o Greater flexibility for producers seeking to ensure access to resources, by allowing switching

between more than one water source according to relative availability. o Greater average annual water yields through capture and conservation of surplus water

supplies during the monsoon and use in the dry season. o Groundwater offers water on demand and can achieve higher yields than the less dependable

surface water systems,

464. Issues include:

o higher investment in the dual system o the levels of carbon emissions from pumping o the costs of pumping on the state revenues (the cost of pumping is estimated at around

80billion KWh of power valued at US$7.6 billion62) o overexploitation of the groundwater systems and lack of sustainability

465. For most of the existing systems in India the conjunctive use is already in place to some degree and the management requirements are how optimise the conjunctive systems and ensure sustainability.

6. Performance Assessment

466. The classical Water User Efficiency is based on assessment of the efficiencies of the reservoir or dam, conveyance and farm application efficiencies. Measuring irrigation efficiency is difficult and time consuming, covering the amount of net or gross inflows into the system, seepage, mean intake flows and a representative rainfall figure; losses in the distribution system and at the field level; the amount of water consumed by the crop (crop evapotranspiration); and the amount of water returned to its source river. These measurements need to capture different scenarios such as wet and dry seasons and wet and dry years, during which the crop water requirement, irrigation need, command area and efficiency all change. The CWC and the WALMI have recently completed an assessment of thirty irrigation systems which have largely been based on field measurements. For most studies however the parameters used for determining efficiency are rarely measured most often generalised figures from the literature.

467. Water Productivity is a broader concept and is directed at the benefits of water (income, jobs, crop production) as a ratio of water used. Secondly, is the recognition that since water is reused sequentially in a river basin, these benefits should be expressed against a volume of water that moves from user to user. Therefore, it is less necessary to express benefits as a ratio of net water used in any one particular area of the basin (e.g. a field or irrigation system), and instead it is expressed as a proportion of the total water depleted from the whole basin. With increasing scarcity of water, measuring the productivity of water resources is arguably one of the most important indicators of performance; the emphasis on crop productivity or crop output per unit of water

468. Productivity is of importance for decision-makers at the basin scale when comparing between sectors or major water system types or basins. Yet efficiency is more relevant for the managers of water at the irrigation system level. Another pertinent point here is that if a river basin is dominated by irrigation, then the efficiency of water management becomes critical in ascribing the productivity of that basin or in defining how much water might be available to other users by making savings within irrigation. Thus, irrigation efficiency remains a meaningful part of the discussion on water productivity, allocation and distribution.

7. Water Accounting

469. Conjunctive efficiency assessments requires the application of surface and groundwater accounting ; efficiency assessments must include the assessment of water reuse. This conjunctive 62 Tushaar Shah IWMI Presentation to ADB Manila 211


accounting allows for assessment of basing efficiencies which should replace traditional concepts of project efficiency63 The concept of water accounting developed by Molden (1997) and Molden and Sakthivadivel (1999) is simple and based on a water balance approach, where the sum of inflows must equal the sum of outflows plus any change in storage. Water accounting classifies water balance components into water use categories and productivity of water uses. Inflows, outflows and water depletion into a domain are classified into various categories. Water accounting indicators are the output of this concept to describe the use, availability and productivity of water resources

470. The use of a water balance approach considering the combined surface and groundwater systems allows for assessment of the real savings of various water saving initiatives at the project or farm-level as well as at the basin level efficiency.

8. Experiences in the pilot sub basins

471. It is useful to look at the experiences to date in the three pilot sub basins as described below.

o Sutlej Punjab: surface water is providing about 25% of the irrigation supply with groundwater providing about 75%. Much of the groundwater recharge is however from the surface water irrigation. Potentials for expansion of surface water resources do not exist and potential to increase groundwater recharge are limited. Groundwater extraction is about 45% above the sustainable yield There is limited understanding of the overall conjunctive use. Various options are being applied to increase irrigation efficiency including lining, laser levelling, delayed planting of rice and more efficient cultivation systems. Impressive water savings are quoted but these mainly relate to reduction in water applications not the conjunctive water savings. Water balance assessments show benefits can be achieved through reduction of the evaporative losses; shorter duration crops, delayed planting, mulching etc. The recommendation of the study is to develop effective conjunctive water management strategies towards a long term sustainable solution for surface and groundwater..

o Kshipra Madhya Pradesh: groundwater forms over 90% of the water availability; potentials to improve surface water availability are quite limited. There is quite serious over abstraction of groundwater. The Government is promoting micro irrigation, drip and sprinkler with high levels of subsidy. Government and community are developing small farm level tanks. This integrated approach appears to offer good potentials with farm tanks providing a supplementary source and some recharge; the tubewells presently the principal water source if used in conjunction with the tanks could reduce abstraction levels, the tubewells could provide backup supply during periods of drought. The use of drip and sprinkler improve efficiencies and pumping-some loss of recharge needs to be factored into the strategy. Conjunctive surface and groundwater use forms a key part of the adaptation plan.

o Cauvery Delta Tamil Nadu: low freshwater availabilities, flood and salinity are major issues in the delta. The surface water canals also function as drains and there is quite limited potentials to reduce losses. Salinity is an issue and it is likely that salinity control and management will form a key part of the adaptation. Storage of flood water in tanks and flood alleviation zones can provide supplementary irrigation sources, reduce pressure on groundwater and support groundwater recharge. Surface water provides recharge for irrigation in some parts; in other areas the groundwater is unusable due to salinity.

C. Management Approaches

472. Appropriate management approaches are required to be developed for each sub basin. The options are to consider (i) only surface water management systems and ignore any form of water reuse; or (ii) bring in conjunctive water management approaches incorporating water reuse as a critical parameter in the water efficiency assessments for the sub basin; or (iii) a hybrid approach.

63 Linking Water Accounting Analysis to Institutions: Synthesis of Studies in Five Countries IWMI 1999 R. Sakthivadivel and David Molden1


473. For a sub basin, losses have to differentiated into (i) non beneficial losses evaporation and unrecovered losses to sinks or deep groundwater and (ii) recovered seepage losses. If the recovered losses are significant in relation to the quantity of surface water supplied then 'defacto' conjunctive water management approaches need to be applied. In such a situation the water reuse systems are well established and water management strategies must be directed towards optimisation and building on the combined surface and groundwater systems.

474. Where groundwater or water reuse is poorly established and with potentially limited role, then surface water management strategies maybe considered more appropriate. Surface water management approach is to maximise the efficiency of the canal systems with the intention to minimise losses (both the non beneficial and reusable losses). The impacts reduced levels of reused water would be assessed in the economic analysis. For example, the economic assessment of lining works would require to factor in the loss of groundwater recharge and resultant loss of groundwater irrigation. If the resultant economic loss of groundwater irrigation is significant then a conjunctive management approach might be more appropriate.

475. A quick way to assess the importance and proportion of recovered losses is to evaluate the ratio of the groundwater draft to the surface water irrigation supply; systems with greater than more than 50% groundwater use should be considered 'established conjunctive use systems' and conjunctive management approaches should be applied incorporating integrated surface and ground water management. Strategies are should be directed to optimise benefits of groundwater (additional storage, security, improved yields and flexibility) but minimise the issues (over exploitation costs and carbon emissions from pumping).

476. Conjunctive management of surface and groundwater incorporates two separate and different management situations, both are relevant;

o Saline and Water Logged Areas; management of saline groundwater and water logged areas. The National Water Mission Report of Sub Committee on Groundwater Management identifies the crucial role the conjunctive management of surface and groundwater. will play for adaptation to climate change. The main recommendations of the committee are; (i) to evolve a suitable plan for controlling the problem of rising water levels by adopting conjunctive use of surface and ground water, and proper drainage (ii) to prepare sector/ block-wise plans for development of ground water resource in conjunction with surface water based on mathematical modelling results; (iii) to test the sustainability of the present irrigation pattern with respect to conjunctive use of water resources and suggest improvement for future and to evaluate the economic aspect of groundwater development plan with respect to cost benefit ratio, internal rate of return and pay back period etc.

o Freshwater Aquifer Areas; conjunctive management of rain, surface water, and groundwater is the big hitherto underexploited opportunity for supply side management. Massive investments being planned for rehabilitating, modernizing, and extending gravity-flow irrigation from large and small reservoirs need a major rethink. The opportunities of the 300 km3 of groundwater storage if properly managed offer an very important facility to provide water in the right place at the right time. The conjunctive role of surface irrigation to supply irrigation but with back up groundwater systems is attractive. The contribution of the irrigation canals to support aquifer recharge must be considered.

477. Conjunctive Water Management(CWM) against Surface Water Management(SWM) requires a shift in the strategies to increasing water efficiencies, some of the differences are summarised in Table 25 below.

Table 25 Comparison of Surface and Conjunctive Water Management Parameter /Intervention Project level-

surface water irrigation (SWM)

Conjunctive Water Management (CWM)-basin level

Notes

Parameter Indicative levels of efficiency

<50% >70% Less scope to increase efficiencies under (CWM)

Power demand Higher SW Higher Higher efficiencies of CWM


Parameter /Intervention Project level-surface water irrigation (SWM)

Conjunctive Water Management (CWM)-basin level

Notes

efficiencies can reduce power demand.

incur pumping costs

Interventions Increase storage-on farm ponds tanks

benefit benefit Higher benefit in CWM systems due to higher efficiencies

Reduce rice area and substitute other crops

Significant reduction in demand

Less significant benefit in demand. The contribution of rice to GW recharge is an issue under CWM.

Canal lining Improves efficiencies

Less significant impacts-reduces infiltration and reuse potential

Cost benefits of canal lining need to assessed, including the impacts of loss of recharge.

More equitable water allocations

benefit Over irrigation at top end can support recharge

Over irrigation and water reuse has implications on power use

Improving efficiencies of groundwater irrigation

GW not normally considered under SWE

Water savings not significant except for drip systems.

Reduces the power requirement

Charging for pumping NA Charging by power consumed can reduce losses and major impact on power consumption.

More regular and stable power can improve yields and productivity. These could offset cost of charging

Land levelling Can improve application efficiencies (AE)

Benefit less than SWM but can reduce evaporative losses

Valid for SWM and CWM

Furrow irrigation Improves AE Reduces evaporative losses from soil


On farm water management

Benefit Less benefit in water use but can reduce power consumption

Improved canal maintenance

Benefit Benefit-can be considered an option to canal lining and would increase SW efficiency but allow recharge


Direct seeded rice Benefit Small benefit .

D. Conclusions

478. The studies in the three sub basins are only a small sample but they do illustrate the complexity of the efficiency issues; the critical linkages of surface and groundwater and the need to move towards conjunctive water efficiency management are critical issues.

479. Currently the main focus of government; targets are directed to improve surface water efficiencies without consideration of water reuse. Ongoing water efficiency studies identify various options to address surface water efficiencies with targets towards meeting a 20% increase in efficiency.

480. Current planning, however does not address conjunctive surface and groundwater efficiencies, which are critical in many of the sub basins in India. No figures are presented for the benefits of groundwater and other reuse systems and the likely impacts of reduction of water reuse if surface water efficiencies are taken up . Conjunctive efficiencies are significantly higher than surface water efficiencies leaving less scope and benefits from water use efficiency programmes. There are however potentials to improve conjunctive water efficiencies, but the likely benefits are lower and the necessary actions are more complex and will be significantly less than the 20% targets.


VIII. MANAGEMENT OPTIONS TO IMPROVE SERVICE DELIVERY AND EFFICIENCIES

A. Role of Subsidies To Increase Efficiencies and Sustainabilities

1. Introduction

481. There are growing disparities between the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors and deterioration in the quality of public services in rural India. Governments view is that growth of manufacturing and services sector will pull agriculture out of its present crisis. Indebtedness, low levels of investment and import liberalization are not the only causes of present crisis. Lack of technological support by the government and awareness among the farmers are the hindrances to the growth of agriculture. Recognizing water as a critical centrality to livelihood the vast majority of governments have adopted some form of water subsidy for expanding coverage and making services available to the poor. A cross-country examination of water subsidies by the World Bank revealed that that consumption-based subsidies were starkly regressive. Poor households capture only half as much value of the subsidy in most water programs studied, the poorest 40% of the population received only 5-20% of subsidy benefits64.

2. Some Observations on Irrigation and Subsidies65

o The major share of subsidies goes to fertilisers (central government) and irrigation (state government).

o Canal irrigation involves huge investments and incurs huge recurring expenditures for maintenance; tariffs hardly cover the costs of collection.

o Tariffs and tariff collection are the responsibility of the revenue department. the. lack of coordination between revenue and irrigation department has contributed to the non recovery of user charges.

o Water Users Associations though successful in some states in to collect revenue through user charges has resulted in some improvement of the facilities and reduction of leakage but has not resulted in increase of cropped area or changing the cropping pattern.

o Water users associations have not been successful in some states due to social and economic factors. The Warabandi water allocations system is a top down method of allocation with limited role for the WUA.

o Fertiliser subsidies are indirect and benefits accrue more to the manufacturers and large farmers than small and marginal farmers.

o Share of fertilizers cost in total cost of inputs in agriculture is so high that only large farmers get benefited from fertilizer subsidy. Many studies reveal that fertilizer use is mainly with large and medium farmers.

o The combination of contents of fertilizers available is common for entire India and does not vary with soil texture, crop intensity ore climate. 3. Issues on Irrigation Subsidies

482. Irrigation accounts for 70% to 90% of total water use in India. The significance of irrigation in increasing agricultural production and in meeting the food-grain requirements of India has been well recognized. In addition to helping support agricultural productivity and production, irrigation has also been credited with helping increase the incomes of farmers, in tackling problems of rural poverty and in keeping prices of food lower than they would otherwise be.

483. Typically, irrigation water users are charged only a fraction of the cost of supplying water to them. In many cases, these charges fail to even cover collection costs at best a very minimal part of the operation and maintenance (O&M) costs. Subsidies for irrigation have and will continue to discourage more efficient use of available water. Most large-scale irrigation projects are multi-purpose in nature, and have been built over several decades. While most large projects have been built and

64 Komives, et al. ―Water, Electricity, and the Poor: Who Benefits from Utility Subsidies?‖ World Bank, 2005. Bonbright, James. Principles of Public Utility Rates. Columbia University Press, 1961. 65 Amar Nath H K, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, New Delhi


are being operated and maintained by governments or their agencies; small groundwater-based systems are typically owned, operated and maintained by individual farmers. Groundwater for irrigation (inside the irrigation commands) has developed based on; (i) highly subsidised or free power for pumping; (ii) large recharge from the surface water irrigation; (iii) reduced costs of submersible pumps; (iv) top end production of paddy rice and lower end deficits; (iv) potentials of the aquifers to balance water surplus in the monsoon and shortages in the dry seasons.

484. This dualities of government owned and operated surface water irrigation and farmer owned and operated groundwater irrigation creates issues of appropriate and effective management. The lack of cost recovery for power is in line with policies for effectively free of charge water for surface irrigation.

485. The low levels of irrigation service delivery and poor cost recovery of surface water irrigation are a cycle resulting in poor performance and efficiency and lack of support and incentive for any form of water conservation. A hundred years ago the irrigation schemes were financially independent and major sources of revenue. The decline of key financial indicators66 1901 to 2001 is shown in Table 26.

Table 26 Financial Ratios for Irrigation 1901 to 2001 Some Key Financial ratios for Government Canal Irrigation Projects

1901 Burton-Buckley 1905

2001 Central Water

Commission 2006 Irrigation charges collected/year as % of capital investment

>10 0.2

Value of crops irrigated/year as % of capital investment 87 18.3 Water fees collected as % of value of crops irrigated 11 1.2 Water fee collected as % of working expenses 280 7.9 Maintenance expenditure/year as % of capital investment 2.9 0.95

486. The provision and use of irrigation water are associated with a number of externalities—both economic and environmental—whose costs have to be borne by governments or society. Irrigation water use is also associated with significant opportunity costs, as other potential users are being deprived of the water being used for irrigation.

4. Factors and Issues of Government Subsides Towards Sustainable Use of Water

487. Government subsidies for irrigation investment, operational costs as well as agricultural support have significant impact on the direction of water resources investment and outputs. Moving towards long term and sustainable water systems will not work unless parallel and complementary subsidy systems are put in place .

488. An analysis67 of groundwater management and ownership in India has identified issues with subsidy programs for contributing to rapidly falling water tables in many areas of the country. Landholders are free to extract without limit the water that runs below their property; provision of free or highly subsidised power is exacerbating the problem. Power supply is not metered and a flat tariff is charged depending on the horsepower of the pump. As a result the marginal cost of power is zero and provides farmers with no incentive to use power or water more efficiently; it is common for farmers to leave pump switches permanently on. These government subsidies and lack of control are resulting in falling water tables which impacts most on the rural poor and marginal farmers who lack the means to deepen their wells and install more powerful pumps. Low income farmers often buy water from neighbouring and wealthier farmers. Politically it will be difficult for states to raise tariffs on power for agricultural users. While withdrawing subsidized power altogether may be politically unpalatable, compromise solutions are required.

489. In the sub-basins there was a significant level of discussion by farmers on the Minimum Support Price (MSP) for crops and the lack of MSP support for alternative crops other than rice and

66 Tushaar Shah Irrigation Reform for Improving Water and Food Security Comparing South Asia and China 67 The Report of the Expert Group on Ground Water Management and Ownership Planning Commission


wheat. The MSP for rice and wheat is encouraging high water use crops and discouraging diversification to other crops with lower water use, more appropriate to local conditions or preferred by resource poor farmers. A reassessment of the Support Price Policy with a clear focus on outcomes is proposed.

490. It is suggested that the MSP should be selectively applied for crops and appropriateness to the regions. In water deficit areas lower water consumption crops should be supported and provision of incentives for farmers to diversify away from high water consuming crops such as rice and wheat should be supported. MSPs also can provide an important way to gain acceptance of water resource conservation technologies, that might not be taken up without a financial incentive. Targeted support for water conservation mechanisms should be factored into the MSPs. In Punjab the use of fast shorter duration rice varieties offer significant opportunities to reduce water demand; these varieties are however not presently accepted by the Government procurement system under the MSP.

491. Apart from the direct effects on water use resulting from Government pricing policies; the increased demand for irrigation water also has inter-sectoral and environmental implications. The agricultural sector is provided with an economic advantage through provisions of subsidies68 and priorities for water access in relation to the industrial sector. Rice producers with more land and access to water gain over those with less land and water; increased pesticide and fertilizer use are likely to affect water quality in no less a scale than industry.

492. Irrigation is becoming more costly, in terms of energy expenditures for pumping (annual subsidies for groundwater pumping are of the order of 20% of the annual capital investment for irrigation). Policy changes and subsidies for agriculture and irrigation require to be directed towards increase water use efficiency and conservation. Irrigation technologies that make efficient use of water for crop production must be encouraged. In general, more effective use of water in agricultural production could be achieved by providing farmers incentives to conserve water and soil resources.

493. Groundwater irrigation has significantly expanded the agricultural production capacity of the farmers in most parts of India but higher crop yields came with an environmental cost. Indiscriminate pumping of groundwater to support agriculture has led to severely depleted aquifer levels. Application of electricity tariffs based on consumption can reduce water inefficiencies; however parallel incentives for refunds for smaller farmers and guaranteed supply of regular power can be provided to offset the resistance to metered power and ensure farmer acceptability.

494. Water as a market commodity; groundwater irrigation is now moving towards water as commodity, albeit subsidised. The market for sale of water is established in some parts, with tubewell owners selling water to other farmers. Evidence shows however that poor farmers are willing to pay for a stable and reliable supply of water69. Government continues to support free and high level of subsidies for water against the back drop of emerging water markets. Despite the good will of politicians and government these public sector interventions or non-market approaches may not lead to the socially optimum or sustainable solutions.

5. Conclusions

495. It is clear that subsidies and support for irrigated agriculture will continue. The heavy dependence by farmers on government is of concern. Climate change will create a spectrum of issues and resilience to climate change requires farmers to be able to more self sufficient with reduced dependency on government. Government does not have the resources or capacities to fully support the impacts of sustainability and adaptation to climate change especially climate variabilities, uncertainties and unforeseen impacts. Private sector has a role to play to fill the gap including

68 A subsidy is a form of support to public/private institution /group/individuals (receivers) which increases the net returns by providing a goods or service below the market price, and which aims at inducing the receiver to acquire it and/or adopt a specific means / strategy of production.

69 Rogers, et al. ―Water is an economic good: How to use prices to promote equity, efficiency, and sustainability.‖ Water Policy. Vol 4, pp 1-17. December 2001.


support for awareness, extension services, insurance. Partnerships to increase the access to improved markets and financial returns but to help buffer against the risk will be important.

496. In some areas government subsidies presently appear to be working against the needs of long term sustainability of water resources; these include MSPs for high water consuming crops, lack of MSPs to support crop diversification, free power for pumping, negligible water charges and lack of finance for effective management of existing schemes. High levels of finance are provided for new schemes or scheme expansion; with very limited funding availability for maintenance and addressing operational issues.

497. With the advent of the World Trade Organization (WTO), issues relating to subsidies have come to more prominence and efforts to define, measure and analyze subsidies in various sectors have gained momentum. The potential recipient of subsidies generally tends to adjust their strategies to the objectives of maximizing funds from subsidies. This in turn may lead to negative side effects and inefficiencies. Scarce resources may be used where less expensive ones could be tested /used. Subsidies can be wasteful when a better policy or alternative approaches could achieve the desired objectives

498. In the long run, subsidies have tendencies to propagate a very costly systems. Even when they have outlived the original purpose for which they were created, subsidies are often difficult to discontinue. Subsidy systems tend to be inflated and unnecessarily prolonged because of the interests of all actors in the society who benefit directly or indirectly from them and who are better organised than those who pay for subsidies-usually tax payers or society as a whole. Some subsidies may not only be inefficient but also environmentally undesirable. For instance, it may become profitable to use chemical fertiliser instead of organic manure if subsidized fertilisers are offered especially where high water consumptive crops are in practice

499. There is a need to provide a methodological framework to plan and develop appropriate strategies for subsidies in relation to meet desired outputs of increasing agricultural production together with the needs of sustainable water resources. The parallel role of subsidies and regulation need to be better researched; meeting the needs of water sustainability will require to be met from a mix of subsidy and regulation.

B. Alternative Service Delivery Systems

1. Introduction

500. The levels of service delivery of water resources in general and the pilot basins in particular public services are often delivered through an unorthodox organizational arrangements that cannot simply be dismissed as relics of ‗traditional‘ institutions, or as incomplete ―modern organizations‖ with sophisticated management capabilities to deliver services.

501. There is some evidence of recently emerging institutional adaptations to specific political and logistical circumstances which appear to work; others work to some extent and others do not work.

502. The water sector delivery systems have gradually become more receptive in adjusting the specific constraints resulting from the resource conditions of the area. Sensitivity to key issues such as the relationships among members of a community and risk parameters involved in a technology/best practice has increased. This in a way resulted in a ―dual way traffic‖ in the knowledge flow while developing and disseminating technologies for effective delivery mechanism. Government has a key role to play in the search and support for achieving improvements of service delivery.

2. Alternative Service Delivery Examples

o Decline in quality in governance capacity at local or national level. Government no longer provides certain services very effectively, and as a result, organized groups of citizens with something at stake move in to help meet the management gap.. The case in point is the subsidized technological inputs services like seed and fertilizer

o Some services cannot effectively be delivered to the ultimate recipients by state agencies for reasons that are more ‗natural‘: because the environment is too complex or variable, and the


costs of interacting with very large numbers of poor households is too great, especially in rural areas of the basin. In such cases, users become either involved in an organized way at local level or suffer loss in the absence of service delivery by the agencies. Case in point is the loss of crops due to frost and pest.

o In poor districts of the basin the irrigation sector services appears in general to have been plagued by mismanagement and poor organizational performance. At the same time, high levels of organizational achievement have been observed in many smaller-scale irrigation systems like watershed project/tank irrigation where service delivery concerning inputs are well managed. The growth of groundwater is some basins is in part as a response to the lack of service delivery of surface water irrigation.

o Farmers‘ organizations (WUA) or representatives have some discretion in the final distribution of water towards the end point of the delivery chain, that is, among farms and fields, as opposed to among villages or districts.

o There are institutionalized mechanisms through which farmers can have some influence on the local-level policies and operations of the irrigation agency – organizing routine maintenance or emergency repairs, planning irrigation schedules to fit cropping patterns, agreeing rotation schedules to cope with water scarcity, etc. These mechanisms may be formal or informal, ‗democratic‘ or ‗authoritative‘.

o The social and geographical origins of irrigation agency employees, the locations of their offices or official quarters, or their prescribed work schedules are not well designed to ensure empathy and informal social interaction with their clients (farmers).

o There is the issue of trying to deal with large numbers of clients. Small farmers are numerous and it is difficult for any formal irrigation management agency to interact with them individually, to assess needs, respond to problems etc. The costs of any interactions are high in relation to the average small farm economy. In such a situations Informal communications that piggyback on existing local networks should be developed.

o There is a major issue of diversity of operational situations, which has several dimensions. Individual farmers may have very different cropping patterns and planting schedules, and thus have very different water and drainage needs at any moment. Irrigation delivery infrastructure is not standardized integrated into the local physical environment and subject to rapid changes over time as physical structures erode, break or silt up, and some parts are maintained much better than others.

o This diversity of operational situations means that it is very difficult for an organization pursuing formal or office-based procedures to obtain and process the information on client circumstances that is needed to respond adequately. And response sometimes has to be very fast. A break in a channel may need fast repair if it is not to enlarge rapidly and lead to flood damage. Additional, non-bureaucratic means of obtaining relevant, rapid information on local operational situations offer advantages to all parties.

o Following from the previous two points, formal provider organizations, acting alone, will in these kinds of circumstances tend to lack the resources needed to deliver services effectively, whether resources take the form of: (i) information on local client needs and situations; (ii) equipment; (iii) personnel, especially in numbers and locations adequate to deal with emergencies, such as floods; or (iv) the authority to command help from members of the public.

3. Public Community Partnerships

503. Alternative mechanisms for effective service delivery and management need to be explored. One approach is for communities to work more closely together with public services. This enables the provision of public services; through a regular long-term relationship between state agencies and organized groups of citizens, where both make substantial resource contributions. This mechanism is expected to help; (i) the basin meet its goals of transforming the way services are delivered to basin habitation; (ii) maintaining or enhancing service levels; (iii) reducing costs, increasing revenue, or maximizing cost avoidance in delivering services; (iii) supporting general economic development and growth of the basin and (iv) explore the potential to enhance private sector involvement in the delivery of services which allows Government to focus on its core businesses.

o Institutionalized public/community management is potentially an effective means of mobilizing the resources needed to cope with the kinds of logistical challenges as mentioned earlier.


o Institutionalized public community partnerships are not peculiar to irrigation. They are in fact widespread in situations that pose similar logistical challenges to comprehensive service delivery through state agencies. Perhaps the most visible examples from the recent development literature are of Joint Forest Management, where Forest Departments and local communities cooperate to plant and protect forests, and share the eventual proceeds

o As in the case of irrigation, effective management virtually requires the active collaboration of both parties. Other kinds of similar arrangements are found in primary health care, agricultural extension, urban sewerage and the provision of micro-credit.

o In situations of governance crisis, the service delivery partnerships covering the provision of public services- through a regular long-term relationship between state agencies and organized groups of citizens, where both make substantial resource contributions, can be politically attractive. States can provide services at reduced costs and resources, and gain political support in exchange for some loss of control and power

o However, given the socio-cultural context, the application of public community partnerships may constitute the best available alternatives, especially in environments where public authority is unusually weak. The state level workshops recently held as part of this project illustrate the interest and strength of communities which can offer very high potential if properly harnessed to support water resources management.

C. Private Sector Participation

1. Introduction

504. The scale and rate of change required for water resources to meet the needs of growth, sustainability and effective service delivery as well as adaptation to climate change requires consideration of how Government alone can meet all these requirements. There are estimates that it would take four five year plans meet the gap in irrigation potential and even longer to bridge the gap between the irrigation potential created and the irrigation potential utilised as well as meeting the needs of sustainability and effective service delivery.

505. How this magnitude of change can be developed and effectively managed requires to be assessed. It is clear there is a significant gap of government capacity with requirements. Evaluation is required as to how to fill the gap.

506. In India private sector is already actively in investing and managing on-farm agriculture and water management through a mix of different scale commercial enterprises ranging from privately owned and operated boreholes to medium sized agribusinesses. To date most of the public and private investment has been focussed on the water supply and sanitation sector. Most of the interventions in WSS are service contracts where a private organisation is contracted to manage a WSS project or projects; rather than a full partnerships and investment. There are many examples of small local investment in irrigation where local traders and entrepreneurs support farm production and marketing. Viable models for the irrigation sector need to be explored, what works for WSS may not work for irrigated agriculture.

507. Since independence the irrigation sector has gone through various phases. Finding workable and effective models for irrigation management over the last 30 years have largely been through government extension support, CADA development and development of WUA. In recent years there has been a gradual shift towards consideration of private sector as a means to fill the gaps and lack of effectiveness of government and WUA management systems.

508. Governments‘ desire to reduce fiscal and administrative burden and the belief that users being land owners would be able to maintain and utilize the developed assets and irrigation systems properly and more effectively led to the preparation of specific programs for irrigation management transfer (IMT). It was also felt that users are more likely to pay for Operations & Maintenance (O&M) of assets over which they have some measure of control. Since many transferred systems were very large indeed, split transfers was often devised whereby the irrigation service provider would keep the head-works and main system and delegating responsibility for the secondary or tertiary level systems to the farmers. The IMT is generally considered not to have met the expectations. The first decade of the 21st century saw emergence of private sector in irrigation in a modest way, with various non-


governmental and semi commercial organizational models for managing irrigation systems being tried; however progress is slow. The progressive efforts by Government70 are shown in Figure 11

Figure 11 Changing Approaches of Government

2. Issues and Constraints

509. There are many key issues and constraints for the private sector in the irrigated agriculture sector; the key areas are summarized below:

o Insufficient scope for the private sector to generate revenues and recover its expenses; o Absence of availability of revenue augmentation avenues o Low level of collection efficiency of user charges (irrigation water charges); o Lack of political will to increase the water rates and enforcement of payment; and 510. With the high level of capital investments and limited sources of revenues, the risk borne by the private developer in the irrigation remains very high; especially risk of social resistance, demand risk for the sale of any surplus water and risk of financial recovery. In WSS these issues to a lesser extent exist and for this reason most WSS private sector projects are in many case service contracts.

3. Water Sector Performance Agreements

511. To promote private sector it is required that an enabling environment is provided to the private sector with sufficient scope of generating revenues. This could be achieved in the initial stages by guaranteeing income based on a service contract arrangement but with some scope for the private sector operator to obtain improved revenue through results through form of performance bonuses if targets are met; these could provided by government or the beneficiaries, or both. Efficiencies in water resources management can be intrinsically linked to water services performance. Identification and establishment of effective water services can lead the way forward to increased water use efficiencies, sustainability and effective delivery to meet the targeted investment objectives.

512. Performance agreements can provide a means to implement service delivery improvements in a public service situation. Performance agreements can be applied to operationalize performance through the utilization of private sector management principles, with a more commercial orientation towards achieving effective service delivery but maintaining the social and environmental requirements of the Governmnt. Performance agreements are gradua lly being developed in water and sanitation but as yet largely untried in irrigation

513. Water Supply/Sanitation. Water services performance agreements are presently being demonstrated in a number of projects. In these a private sector service provider is employed to operate the system based on a performance based management contract for a defined period after scheme completion. Consumer and Government response to these pilot schemes is good and

70 ibid


ongoing discussions are presently directed at the upscaling and a possible expanded role of the private sector services provider.

514. Irrigation Sector There are presently no private sector operations outside the design and construction activities. Government corporations have been established for the construction of the major irrigation works but their role is primarily to support the financing of the facilities, with no involvement in the management of operations. It would appear that there would be significant scope in the irrigation sector to apply fairly similar initiatives currently being tried quite successfully in the water supply sector. A cautious approach is desirable; poorly managed and controlled private sector can lead to inequity, loss of decision making autonomy of farmers, marginalization of lower income groups and politicization of issues

4. Possible Models for Private Sector

515. Some possible models for Private Sector Participation in Irrigation as presented in Table 27.

Table 27 Possible Models for Private Sector Participation

Cen

tral

G

over

nmen

t

CWC Parts of CWC could be given semi autonomous/ commercial status. Work could be contracted by Government based on performance based contracts, or on private sector or donor funded contracts. Core parts of CWC would remain within Government to maintain the necessary control and regulatory functions.

CWPRS, NIH, IITM

Semi commercial status would allow recruitment and upgrading of facilities. Institutes could work on Government and private studies and bid for international contracts Complex data management, basin planning and climate change work could taken up through performance based management contracts

Stat

e G

over

nmen

t

Leasing of Irrigation Schemes

Effective irrigation management might be based on leasing (at a nominal rent) an irrigation scheme or part of a scheme to a a semi autonomous government corporation, private corporation to act as an ‗Interim Operator‘ through a ‗Performance Based Management Contract‘; payment would be based on results. The interim operator could be contracted to the State or possibly to the ‗Federation of Water User Associations‘. The Interim Operator would take on management responsibilities for the assigned scheme for a period of around 6 years with tasks including ; (i) firm establishment of semi autonomous management procedures on the main system; (ii) development of WUA capacities to manage the farmer systems including collection of water rates; (iii) rehabilitation of the system to meet the requirements of effective and sustainable irrigation; (iv) support the upgrading of agriculture through inward investment through the interim operator or other private sector initiatives;(iv) support the handover back to the WUA, the Irrigation Department, an irrigation Board or other agreed long term arrangement after a period of about 6 years

Performance Based Contracts for WUA

WUA or Federation of WUA could be given service based contracts for management of schemes or parts of schemes. Part of the revenues would be from farmers, revenue creation enterprises and Government support. WUA could take over a lease of schemes once basic operation mechanisms have been established.

State Institutes and WALMIS

State institutes could upgrade their capacities and resources by opening some flexibilities to undertake commercial work and studies. These could include basin planning and irrigation management.

Micro irrigation suppliers to provide support initiatives

This is already happening to some extent, the scope however could be widened to include credit, technical, extension and marketing support

Cen

tral

an

d St

ate

Precipitation and/or flow data.

Precipitation, flow and groundwater monitoring could be assigned to private sector. A possible role that could also be managed by the communities or community associations. Payment would be made per reading.


IX. FRAMEWORKS FOR CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION FOR THE INDIA WATER SYSTEMS

A. Introduction

516. Climate modelling and research is now able to give sub basin projections of future climate trends; at this point of time, some of the projections are more robust than others. In general climate change projections remain inadequate to make concrete planning decisions, they are however able to give guidance in the decision making.

517. There are a very wide range of existing water issues and future climate impacts will likely create additional challenges. The National Water Mission of the NAPCC has presented a very comprehensive over view of the issues and possible initiatives to adapt to climate change. Within the scope of the study it is not possible to address all the issues and it is proposed at this stage to focus on key areas that have been identified under the work carried out to date. Key areas identified to date are described in this section.

518. A summary of the key issues identified during the study are summarised in Table 28.

Table 28 Summary of Key Issues

WATER RESOURCES 1 Water Resources

Planning Processes Without well established planning and decision making processes climate change information and adaptation mechanisms will be of limited value. Currently there is very limited capacity and resources both at state and central government.

2 Climate Projections There are many projects looking at climate change in different agencies. Coordination and information sharing is lacking resulting in wastages, duplication and multiple and varied recommendations. IITM and MoWR/CWC to partner and develop and disseminate climate projections.

3 Sub basin planning Integrated strategies for MoWR/CWC and state WRDs are required to implement climate change recommendations- the approach has to be based on integrated and conjunctive use involving surface water, groundwater and agriculture.

4 Lack of basin planning

Very limited basin planning, sub basin planning to be compiled and integrated into basin plans

5 Data Management Poor data management and lack of data sharing is a major constraint. Data sharing agreements to be established in stages.

6 Water Efficiencies Water efficiency assessments do not consider conjunctive efficiencies of surface and groundwater. Measure to improve water efficiency must consider both surface and ground water. Lack of effective maintenance affects efficiencies and restricts drainage

7 Water allocation systems

The Warabandi is a rotational system and allocates water based on land holding. Allocation system breaks down-with top enders growing rice or in groundwater zones massive over use of groundwater.

8 Groundwater Major overexploitation of groundwater, groundwater must be integrated with the surface water planning

9 Planning and Design Standards

Planning and design standards do not incorporate climate change. Mechanisms to be set up to gradually incorporate potential climate impacts into water planning and design.

INSTITUTIONS 10 Central Institutions Lack of coordination of water sector programmes at Central Government-

Central Government needs to take on IWRM in parallel with state Governments 11 MoWR/CWC State Governments capacities and functions have significantly increased. Role of

MoWR and CWC must move to take on the modern needs and challenges to complement the state. Proposed to restructure CWC. Groundwater to be mainstreamed into CWC.

12 MoWR Affiliate Organisations

Organisations are under resourced and lack flexibilities to provide the high level of technical and professional support services to centre and states.

13 National and State Institutes

Organisations are under resourced and lack flexibilities to provide state of the art professional support services

14 Private Sector Very limited participation outside the water supply sector Government shortfalls need to be supported by private sector and/or strengthened institutes.

15 State Institutions Lack of an apex or coordinating body to manage integrated water resources Lack of technical capacity and resources-staff are frequently rotated. Integration


of sector agencies required though a water resources coordination committee

16 Control and Subsidies Government is unable to enforce major regulation of water use. 17 Subsidies Subsidies and support prices between the different agencies are not coordinated

and are blanket allocations primarily to support production and food security. New needs for conservation, water management and climate change adaptation require an integrated approach of appropriate and workable regulation combined with targeted subsidies to meet needs of IWRM and water sustainability

B. Climate Change Assessments

519. Coordination of Climate Change Activities There are many organizations and agencies who are carrying out research on effects of climate change water resources, various scenarios and adaptation studies . It is suggested that for networking climate change water resources studies and adaption studies, a network of such organization /agencies is to be created. It is suggested that a centre for climate change and adaptation may be established in CWC which will be networked with all the organizations and agencies dealing with research on climate change adaptation. This centre can also have support from Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) who is doing climate change studies related to meteorological aspects like rainfall, temperature, etc. CWC Climate Change Centre should also get linked to Disaster Management Authority for the study of management of flash floods and water resources related calamity situations.

C. Data Management

520. Open Access of Data: data management of water resources has made major progress with the development of WRIS and the HP-1 and HP-2 projects and other initiatives. The NAPCC identified information needs and necessary databases and information systems. The NAPCC topmost goal was 'Comprehensive water database in public domain and assessment of the impact of climate change on water resource. There are different levels of databases; national, central and local level. Each of the water sector departments hold information at central and state level. State data is not generally available at central level and central data is not available at state level. Obtaining the data is possible through the proper channels and good contacts which are closed to many researchers who need good data to support their research efforts.

521. Data have to be accessible to central and state government agencies, to research institutes and universities, to NGOs and to private organisations that might be recruited by national or state agencies to assist in delivering sustainable water management under climate change, or recruited to assist in adaptation designs for government or private organisations. Data collected by government agencies is effectively under public ownership, and should therefore be accessible to those who need to use it. It is reasonable to prevent any resale or re-packing of the data for profit, but not to restrict its use by consulting organisations, for example in the execution of studies and designs that are most often funded with public money in any case.

522. There were found to be simple difficulties with parts of the data obtained for this study including for example-matching the locations of measuring points, hydrology and older data prior to 1990 is not digitised, groundwater depth below ground are recorded but sourcing the ground levels is not easily available; these are small details but affect the usefulness. Information on the source and meta data are generally not available.

Data Sharing Agreement: open access of data has been shown to be a key first step towards effective basin management71. A data sharing and management agreement should be established between all states, central government agencies and institutes

523. Water resources planning and management requires the foundation of comprehensive databases covering all aspects of the water resource system. The requirement for different

71 For example the four countries of the Mekong River Commission have developed an open data sharing

agreement for water resources.


categories of data has been discussed along with the requirements for adequately managing that data and ensuring its availability to those who would use it.

524. A data management strategy has been outlined in Section III. The basis of the strategy is a distributed data management system comprising links to a series of data hubs or nodes run by the concerned organisations (CWC, CGWB, IMD, IITM, IGS, SRO, State WRDs, State DoAs). Data would be accessible through web based portals, possibly with single authentication. Implementing the strategy clearly requires commitment from the nodal organisations, and specialist support in software development to provide compatibility and to standardise data formats as far as possible.

D. Water Resources Modelling

525. As stress on water resource systems becomes more acute, the task of managing resources becomes more difficult, and generally requiring the use of mathematical modelling approaches to support the planning and management process. The primary role of mathematical simulation models in water resources assessment is to assist in the evaluation of alternative resource management and development scenarios, and the evaluation of potential climate change impacts and adaptation strategies. This is achieved by simulating the effects that these management or development or climate scenarios would have on resource availability in various parts of a basin. Typically models are used in conjunction with statistical techniques to quantify impacts, and to permit other forms of analysis such as economic analysis to be carried out. Models permit the integration of complex processes and interactions, aid understanding and provide insights to impacts that would not otherwise be possible. A summary of model categories in water resources is given in Table 29

Table 29 Summary of Model Types, Function and Expected Outputs

Type Function Output Statistical Estimation of risk and reliability. Fitted probability distributions in graphical

and tabular form. Stochastic Generation of alternative sequences of

hydrological data. Time series of precipitation or streamflow that preserve the statistics of available observed data for input to other models.

Rainfall-runoff Synthesis of river flows: creating records where none existed, infilling periods of missing record, assessing the potential impacts of land use change, assessing the potential impacts of changes in climate on runoff.

Time series data of simulated river flows at points of interest in a catchment that can be analysed statistically in resource assessment or used as input to drive a systems simulation model. Outputs also available on catchment water balance components.

Regional groundwater To simulate groundwater response to alternative abstraction regimes, and investigation of alternative resource management strategies.

Preferred locations of abstraction wells, groundwater level contours under different scenarios, maximum abstraction rates, potential influence of abstraction on river flows.

System simulation To synthesise resource availability and reliability at different locations in a basin in response to various infrastructure provisions, management strategies, and demand scenarios.

Assessments of resource reliability under different development scenarios at different locations in a basin; assessments of water productivity and economic performance of resource development and management scenarios.

Hydrodynamic To synthesise water flow through river and channel networks in a basin (most commonly used in flood investigations, or in river water quality investigations).

Water depth, discharge and velocity at different locations in a channel system

Water quality To simulate water quality in water courses or water bodies in response to different pollutant loadings.

Spatial representation of water quality, and risks of desired water quality criteria being violated.

526. Models can be used to identify issues and constraints in ways that are easily understood by a wide range of stakeholders. Models equipped with modern graphical user interfaces can be used to present findings and results in ways that inform the consultation process and ensure that the physical


constraints on resource development are well understood, as well as the impacts that actions in one part of a basin may have on other parts.

527. Basin water resources simulation models permit the evaluation of, and testing of, alternative water allocation policies and demand management strategies under different demand forecasts. It is possible to have economic and financial functions in the modelling approach that could include, for example: crop yield, water charging, capital and operating costs.

528. Basin water resources simulation models can assist in identifying areas in which additional monitoring would be advantageous, and can be used to test the sensitivity of results to uncertainty in various aspects of model inputs or control assumptions. Understanding the impacts of uncertainty in model inputs on results produced clearly informs assessments of the robustness of particular management or development strategies, and helps in assessing the risks associated with these.

529. Water resources planning involves looking at water allocation opportunities and limitations, based on water availability and demand predictions, various stakeholder interests, and including sectors such as irrigation, rural and urban municipal water supply, industry and environmental requirements. A local and regional perspective is required. Computer models can utilise the spatial and temporal distribution of the available data to simulate the processes that are required for a particular purpose, such as defining baseline conditions. Subsequently, the modelling provides a systematic approach to analyse future scenarios and the consequences of changes in the natural system, water availability or demands.

530. Basin systems simulation models are used to represent water resources infrastructure in a basin and the impacts that such infrastructure has on resource reliability in different parts of a basin. Typically a basin systems simulation model is driven by time series inputs of stream flow at different parts of the system. The model then routes these stream flows through the river system, accounting for the influence that reservoirs, diversions, abstractions, river leakage and return flows, have on flow availability temporally and spatially in the system. Impacts of different operational rules for reservoirs, and water allocations between different demand centres, on water availability for different stakeholders can thus be assessed using this type of model. As the models simulate operations through a time series, risks of failure or the reliability with which various demands in a basin can be satisfied under various operational or management strategies can be assessed. These models permit data to be generated that can subsequently be used in other forms of analysis: linked for example, to crop production, abstraction permitting, and economic analysis. Some typical basin modelling requirements are summarised in Table 30.

Table 30 Typical Basin Modelling Requirements and Modelling Features

Modelling requirement/ feature Technical comments Water allocation for different user categories

Water use categories can include industrial and municipal water supply, irrigation, environmental flow requirements, hydropower and navigation. A model must be able to make allocations to these users on the basis of water demand, and should output time series of water supply to each identified user in a basin.

Drought management Most water resources management and planning investigations are concerned with drought management. Models must be capable of simulating long time series and of representing operational rules set up to help manage resources during drought.

Identifying water deficits It is generally important to have knowledge of the distribution of water deficits in a basin, geographically and between different user groups. Within any particular use group, a criteria might be to distribute water deficits equally between users, subject to system distribution constraints.

Internal hydrology In larger river systems one might consider external and internal hydrology in relation to water resources systems simulation. External hydrology is concerned with catchments that provide inputs to the system simulation model. Internal hydrology is concerned with translated river flows within the system simulation model that can be checked at gauging stations. Internal hydrology would also be concerned with aspects such as river leakage, or crop water use within an irrigation system.

Variable time steps For some modelling investigations it may be appropriate to have short time steps (1-day) during the flood season, and longer time steps (10-day or


Modelling requirement/ feature Technical comments monthly) during the dry season. It may often be preferable to work with the shortest time step required.

Reservoir operation / hydropower

Multi-purpose reservoir operation is generally a key feature of system simulation models. It is important to identify the manner in which operating rules are built in and prioritised

Groundwater utilization / stream-aquifer interactions

It is important in many river basins that groundwater recharge and abstractions can be calculated and that stream-aquifer interactions can be represented to some extent (detailed modelling requires an integrated surface-subsurface model utilising a distributed groundwater model).

Conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater

In many river basins there is conjunctive use of surface and groundwater and this will often impact on stream-aquifer interactions. In some cases groundwater may be used to augment surface water supplies.

Irrigation demand assessments Irrigation demands are influenced by precipitation and potential evapotranspiration. Models that calculate irrigation demands internally will be capable of a better representation of the resource system.

Flood routing / inundation Generally requires a much more sophisticated modelling approach than can be incorporated in resource system simulation model.

Climate driven demand estimation

This is most obviously linked to irrigation demand estimation, but can be linked to other demands also. For demands other than irrigation it is, however, more common to simply introduce seasonally variable demands.

Water quality assessment Water quality is incorporated in a number of system simulation models. Generally modelling is based on a continuously stirred mixed reactor type system, with quality responding to discharge, residence times and temperatures.

Sediment transport / geomorphic processes

Not generally found in basin system simulation models, and a more sophisticated hydrodynamic modelling approach is usually required for this.

Build and compare scenarios Models may be used to evaluate scenarios such as changes in land use or changes in climate. It is important to be able to manage scenarios and their associated parametric data effectively

Data analysis capability In-built analysis of data may be important for many applications, where it may also be useful to be able manipulate and enhance available data.

Financial and economic analyses

The financial and economic performance of alternative water resources development strategies is generally an important consideration. Many models permit capital and operational costs to be included, and calculate revenues and benefits through water sales, hydropower production and crop production.

531. There are now available a number of models that integrate a number of component models, and offer planning tools that can be applied to varying degrees of complexity. One such model is the WEAP model, developed by the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI, www.weap21.org). The WEAP model is now a very comprehensive tool. The relevant features of the WEAP model as shown in Table 31 below.

Table 31 WEAP Model Features

Integrated Approach Unique approach for conducting integrated water resources planning assessments

Stakeholder Process Transparent structure facilitates engagement of diverse stakeholders in an open process

Water Balance A database maintains water demand and supply information to drive mass balance model on a link-node architecture

Simulation Based Calculates water demand, supply, runoff, infiltration, crop requirements, flows, and storage, and pollution generation, treatment, discharge and instream water quality under varying hydrologic and policy scenarios

Policy Scenarios Evaluates a full range of water development and management options, and takes account of multiple and competing uses of water systems

User-friendly Interface Graphical drag-and-drop GIS-based interface with flexible model output as maps, charts and tables

Model Integration Dynamic links to other models and software, such as QUAL2K, MODFLOW, MODPATH, PEST, Excel and GAMS


532. The strength of a model like WEAP is in the manner that water resources development and water allocation are handled, and in the capability to link with a distributed groundwater model. It permits a holistic approach to water resources planning and management, integrating surface water and groundwater, and water quality. The groundwater capability and linkage between surface water and groundwater is particularly relevant in many parts of India where conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater takes place and must be managed.

E. Incorporating Climate Change Information Into Planning

533. Incorporate climate change information into the planning process requires more research and preparation of workable guidelines. The urgency to gradually incorporate climate impacts is stressed especially for new structures; new structures can be made climate proof for minimal cost where retrofitting can be extremely expensive.

1. Approach used in the three Sub Basins

534. In the three pilot sub basin the studies have examined the current climate trends as well as preparation of projections of temperature, precipitation, evapotranspiration and from the swat model runoff, groundwater recharge and baseflow. The sub basin studies have also identified development strategies based on current issues as well as additional requirements to meet the projected climate impacts. The vulnerabilities under climate change have been assessed based on:

o Firm actions: firm actions are based on the level of confidence of the projections and where firm and early action is required; planning and designs should incorporate firm actions.

o Indicators: indicators are of a lower level of confidence but have been used to support the direction of adaptation. The indicators can be positive or negative.

o Negative indicators where the projections gave rise to a worsened more critical situation the effects were reviewed. Where the projections are supported by the climate trends more weighting was given.

o Positive indicators which give rise to a potentially improved situation (eg increased precipitation to support cropping) were noted and considered as a possible scenario in the decision making process.

o Key Areas for study: these are the key areas of study that need to be taken up to support

detailed planning and sub-project design.

535. A summary of the key climate change parameters in each of sub basins and the adaptation response is shown in Table 32.


Table 32 Climate Change Decision Matrix for Pilot Sub Basins Su

b Ba

sin

Climate Change Parameters from PRECIS/SWAT

Adaptation Response Te

mpe

ratu

re in

crea

se

Prec

ipita

tion

Ann

ual

Prec

ipita

tion

JJA

S

Prec

ipita

tion

ON

D

Rai

nfal

l Int

ensi

ties

Surf

ace

Wat

er R

unof

f

Evap

otra

nspi

ratio

n

Grn

d'w

ater

rech

arge

Bas

eflo

w

Clim

ate

varia

bilit

y

Firm actions Negative indicators

Key areas for study

Sutle

j

+20 C

+15%

+15%

+20%

+ sm

all

NQ

NS

NS

NS

+ N

Q

Temperature

Snow and glacier change in the upper catchment Increased monsoon precipitation (flooding and drainage)

Snow glacier response to temperature rise.

Kshi

pra

+20 C

+15%

+15%

-5%

No

chan

ge

+83%

-5%

+17%

+4%

+ N

Q

Temperature

Increased monsoon precipitation (flooding and drainage)

Flood risk assessments

Cau

very

+20 C

No

chan

ge

-10%

+10%

to +

20%

No

chan

ge

NQ

No

chan

ge

No

chan

ge

No

chan

ge

+NQ

Temperature Sea level rise

Reduced SW monsoon-(drought, salinity) Increased NW monsoon-(flooding drainage)

Hydrodynamic modelling of estuary and coastal area to incorporate sea level rise. Drought salinity management strategies for SW monsoon.

Not

es NS change not significant

NQ change not quantifiable with present data + increase but not quantifiable

2. Institutional Aspects

536. Design Standards: The Bureau of Indian Standards covers fourteen sectors including water resources, Water resources fall under the Water Resources Division Council(WRDC) which includes the Standardization in the field of Water Resources development to include the activities covering utilization of water resources for irrigation, drinking water as well as ground water development. In case of drinking water the work shall be confined to making the water available to the municipal authorities. NIH Roorkee is a member for WRDC. For smaller catchments the design discharges are defined by the Hydrology of the Smaller Catchments which is presently being revised. There would appear not to be any programmes to reassess design standards to meet climate change. The importance of incorporation of climate change into planning and design requires to be mainstreamed. Possible approaches are described in the section above; institutional mechanisms involving MoWR/CWC and NIH and the Bureau of Indian Standards need to be developed.

537. Management: Moving forward water resources planning and management over the next forty years requires a significant reshaping of strategies to develop and implement plans. Water resource systems are rapidly moving towards closure where there is no more water available for use and highly effective management systems are required.


538. Integrated Water Resource Management: Both the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the NWM recognize the potential of IWRM to be used as a means to reconcile varied and changing water uses and demands, IWRM offers greater flexibility and adaptive capacity than conventional water resources management approaches. These findings are reinforced from lessons learnt in the sub basins. Although IWRM is slowly making inroads into the state level and district level strategies; Central government has however made very limited progress in this direction. The establishment of strong and coordinated action from Central Government to support and guide the state Governments is seen to be critical and especially so, for climate change adaptation. For climate change adaptation there is a need to integrate the climate change aspects into IWRM. Institutionally it would appear logical to develop 'IWRM' and 'Climate Adaptation' as an integrated package and it is proposed that State and Central Government move towards IWRM encompassing climate change adaptation as a core component

539. Functions of MoWR and CWC need redefinition to meet the changing role and now increased capacities of the states . Wherever possible delegation of tasks should be given to state Government. The MoWR and CWC must take a key role in terms of driving forward new ideas and initiatives. The functions of CWc have evolved over a period of time. The organization has moved with the times, responding to new challenges caused by changes in its operating environment. The needs and challenges of water resources and climate change are now moving very fast and it is important that CWC keeps ahead of and on top of the complexities of addressing issues and climate change adaptation. To meet the future needs require more effective partnerships between the sectors as well as central and state government is required. An appropriate devolvement of authority is required

540. Institutional Strengthening; climate change adaptation creates a wide range of new issues that have to be addressed in parallel with existing issues. Understanding these issues requires a well planned institutional strengthening process. As a prerequisite to institutional strengthening there is a need to identify the challenges affecting the Institutional strengthening process. These challenge areas could be of the following nature; (i) the need to improve coordination within government at different levels; (ii) the need to build capacity at all levels: (iii) the need for effective involvement of local communities; (iv) the need for good quality information for decision-making.

541. State Water Regulatory Authorities will become more relevant to the climate change adaptation strategy. While the basin authorities are important for planning of the water resources in the basin, inter-sectoral water allocations, environmental management issues related to water, interstate issue, and water distribution and regulation between the states etc, the role of Water Regulators in the state should be approvals of the annual water distribution and regulation within the state, regulation of equitable water distribution in the canals particularly tail enders, asset management of water resource infrastructure, managing the emergency and crises situation of water shortage, water audits of the water resources project, fixing up of water rates etc. The 13 th Finance commission of India in their report published in Dec 2009, has recommended setting up of such authorities as statutory autonomous institutions at the state level for addressing the water management problems of water amongst various categories of water user, these would include low water use efficiency, low water charges etc. An incentive grant of Rs 5000 Crores to the states have also been recommended for setting up proposed regulatory authorities.

542. Funding for Climate Adaptation of Water Resources funding requirements for climate change adaptation requires to be assessed, Various estimates have been prepared under the NWM and other studies. Mechanisms to effectively identify critical areas and timely allocation of funds is critical. Without professional quality investigations of present issues and assessment of climate impacts financing will be wasteful and inefficient. Adequate funding for operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure has to be assured for upkeep of the irrigation system and to assure quality of irrigation.

F. Water User Efficiencies

543. An action plan for improving water use efficiencies has been set up based on the recommendations of the National Water Mission. The target is to increase water use efficiencies by 20% by 2017. The action plan focuses only on surface water irrigation systems. The experience in the sub basins has however demonstrated the complexities and the need to consider a wider holistic view


of the overall irrigation and agricultural issues including conjunctive surface and groundwater efficiencies as well as other issues such as salinity, water quality and water productivity

544. The sub basins are a only a small sample but they do illustrate the complexity of the issues. The main focus of Government has historically been to improve and develop surface water systems; it would appear that the ongoing NWM Efficiency Action Plan is largely directed to surface water. The Action Plan study identifies quite a large potential to address efficiency including the main canals and command area issues; the main focus appears however to be canal lining. It is less specific on water efficiencies of cropping systems and does not include conjunctive surface and groundwater efficiencies which is considered critical where there is major conjunctive use. Canal lining provides a simple but expensive solution to meet the 20% efficiency target for the canal systems; however the impacts of canal lining on groundwater recharge require to be incorporated into the feasibility assessments. Lining is an easily implementable approach and involves minimal institutional issues or requirement for community involvement which would be required under the more complex conjunctive management approach; in many situations the real value of lining has to be carefully assessed.

545. Reducing Evaporation Losses: rate of evaporation and evapo-transpiration from the crop fields are likely to increase considerably with global warming. Losses from the field, water logged areas, barren lands and wet soils can be managed to be curtailed by suitable measures that would depend from place to place and for different situations. When considering conjunctive water efficiencies evaporation becomes the critical factor to be addressed. Agriculture departments and water managers in the states have to study the specific situations in their area. While studying the micro-irrigation schemes in Shipra basin consultants noticed that farmers are very enthusiastic on their water saving measures like mulching of the fields with plastic sheets and they are receptive to any suggestion about water saving and crop yields. Central Water Commission and Indian Council for Agriculture Research (ICAR) through a joint panel (Joint panel of CWC & ICAR) have also been working on water saving techniques and on farm water management practices. It is suggested that more such research is carried out at state and centre levels for the different agro-meteorological zones. Such techniques and practices should be spread in wider areas through the agriculture extension services or farmer‘s participatory research programs.

546. Integrated Role of Control and Subsidies to Support Needs of IWRM and Climate Adaptation: one part of the NWM Action Plan for Efficiency is to promote regulation of the irrigation systems. Regulation and control potentially can improve irrigation efficiencies. Effectively free of charge access to surface water and groundwater offer no incentive for farmers to conserve water. Poor regulation of water abstractions allows top end farmers to grow rice and bottom end farmers to go dry; in other situations unsustainable abstractions of groundwater result to meet the water shortages by bottom enders. The very social nature of the irrigation limits to scope for regulation; in a situation of limited scope for regulation, the potential role of subsidies and price support to promote water savings and conservation should be incorporated into the water strategy. Subsidies by the different departments are largely uncoordinated and provide very limited support towards the needs of water sustainability and in some areas can worsen the situation; for example the support price for rice in water short areas and free power for pumping in areas of groundwater overexploitation.

547. Modelling of possible impacts of climate change induced by global warming on surface water availability and the ground water aquifers can be analyzed by surface water modelling like WEAP and groundwater MODFLOW. Modelling can incorporate assessments of conjunctive water use efficiency and assess different scenarios to address issues such as over extraction of groundwater from these policy responses to the adverse situations can be framed.

G. Water Resources Management Issues

1. Integrated Basin Management

548. Basin management is a difficult area in India. The Ministry of Water Resources and Central Water Commission have made persistent effort for setting up river basin authorities for the Godavari basin and Mahanadi basin. These efforts have not been successful so far due to reluctance of the state governments. However, some river basin authorities have been set up under the directions and verdicts of Inter-state Water Dispute Tribunals links Narmada Control Authorities have been set up for the water sharing frame work of Narmada basin. Recently Krishna Water Tribunal report and decision


have been issued and it is hoped that Krishna Water Authority will be notified and set up. There are success stories about functioning of some sub-basin authorities like Betwa Control Board, Bansagar Central Board, Tungabhadra Board and Damodar Valley Corporation. There are hopes that the newly formed Ganga River Basin Management Authority may offer a model towards effective river basin institutions.

549. The importance of the basin approach is brought out in the Sutlej Study where the assessment for Punjab required integration of the situation in Upper Sutlej and PR China. The Bhakra Beas Management board have now agreed information sharing and are carrying decision support system analysis of the combined upper and lower basin. Hydropower producers have signed an MoU for free information exchange. This cooperation is very positive and can lead towards a gradual improvement and openings for basin management. The findings of the study in the Sutlej identify the importance of extending the role of the BBMB to support integrated studies and planning.

550. The work of reassessment of Basin wise water resources is being carried out by Basin Planning and Management Organization (BPMO) of CWC with the collaboration of Water Resource Division of National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC). Studies for two basins have been taken up on pilot basis – Godavari Basin and Baitarani Basin. Results of the pilot study are awaited and based on this re-assessment of the other basins will also be carried out CWC and NRSC.

551. It is considered important that re-assessment of Basin wise water resources for all the basins in India have to be tested with respect to future climate change scenarios and possibly changed development scenarios. For this as mentioned in NWM, future situations with changed in demand, land use, precipitation, evaporation etc are to be matched with projected climate change water resources scenarios. To implement this would require open availability of all the data from the participating states as well as central data.

2. Estuarine and Coastal Management

552. The sub basin study in the Cauvery delta, identified the general concern among farmers about increasing trends in the winter storms. The intense winter rainfall are causing losses to the agriculture crops and submergence of coastal area near sea because of poor drainage. Gradual sea level rise due to climate change is likely to compound the risk of coastal flooding. Similar situation are reported in other coastal states like Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Orissa and West Bengal, besides the Union Territories areas and Islands. These delta areas have rich fertile agriculture land and large scale rural and urban habitation

553. World Bank and Government of India have recently launched a adaptation project for the coastal area the ‗ National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project‘ to be implement by National Disaster Management Authorities (NDMA) of India with signing of World Bank Loan of $225 million. Investment proposals include (i) construction of cyclone shelters (ii) strengthening and upgrading of road to connect to cyclone shelters, and (iii) rehabilitation and Strengthening of saline and tidal embankments; in the state of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. The Asian Development Bank is supporting studies and investments in five states to develop integrated and sustainable coastal and shoreline protection and management.

554. National Water Mission in their action plan identified the need for data collection and modelling for the studies related to sea level rise. The NWM also suggests study, planning and implementation of tidal embankments. The need for reassessment of the coastal protection needs has to be integrated with issues of salinity, coastal flooding, estuary mouths.

555. Experience in India and elsewhere has shown that construction of sea walls can cause damage to the ecosystems and losses of sea beaches. In the Cauvery delta studies that, salinity ingress is also threatening the farm lands. New more integrated and environmentally appropriate approaches are required, these include diversification of shifting of agriculture to fresh or brackishwater fish or prawn farming, utilization of coastal submerged land for setting up power projects, beach nourishment, mobile barriers, revival of mangroves and reefs, sand bagging, relocation of buildings, movable building etc. Such studies in different coastal areas have to be undertaken by state governments with the technical and financial support of central government and International institutions. As the risk of damage due to sea level rise is increasing, detailed modelling


studies and adaptation studies in a project mode have to be undertaken before launching implementation works. These studies have to be holistic to identify the causes of the issues and development of sustainable and environmentally appropriate solution.

3. Flood and Disaster Management

It is projected that climate change will gradually increase the risk of floods and other water disaster events. Adjusting to the changing flood regime is important.

556. Dam safety in climate change situation: The World Bank Dam Safety project is being undertaken by Ministry of Water Resources and State governments. Under the project, spillway designs of the dams are being checked for new criteria taking into account climate change scenarios.

557. Flood Assessments under climate change: flood assessments are required to incorporate the Dealing with changing flood and sea level regime. Flood controls like embankment works have to be tested for the floods taking into account climate change scenarios. Urban Storm Water Drainage Improvements also require to incorporate climate change. At this stage there is not full understanding of the climate impacts on rainfall intensities and it may be appropriate to apply an interim factor until a more scientific assessment can be made. The approach that is now used in UK as an interim measure is to apply a nominal 10% to 20% addition to be applied to flood assessments for potential climate effects.

558. Disaster management is being dealt by National Disaster Management Authorities (NDMA) under the ministry of Home Affairs. NDMA co-ordinates and implements disaster management at the central level and lay down guidelines for the state authorities. Under the Disaster Management Act, 2005, there are provision for setting up State Disaster Management Authorities in the states. The list of calamities includes. Cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, hailstorm, landslides, avalanches, cloud burst and past attack. The role of MoWR and the state Water Resource Departments in supporting the disaster management programme is extremely important. There is lack of clarity regarding the responsibilities and funding arrangement for disaster mitigation. There are several schemes at centre as well as state level targeted towards mitigation such as drought proofing, flood management and dam safety, coastal protection and management, etc. Funding arrangement for which are finalized by the Planning Commission with the state government and central ministries. Some of the schemes are managed by NDMA with special provisions. Flooding is very likely to become a more serious issue under climate change including flash floods, river floods, coastal flooding. Application of flood warning systems similar to that being developed for the Sutlej are a priority. Adequate and sustainable funding and management of these systems must be assured..

4. Improved Water Quality Management

559. Responsibilities for water quality management falls under various departments. Pollution control and surface water quality management comes under the purview of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and state pollution central boards (SPCB). Central Water Commission is carrying out water quality measurements at several gauge and discharge sites under its jurisdiction. It is not clear how CWC data are utilized for water quality monitoring and pollution controls. For ground water quality monitoring and control the chief nodal agency is Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA). Various environmental concerns related to ground water like over exploitation of aquifers, water quality etc are monitored and controlled by CGWA. Ministry of Water Resources is also administering the water quality Assessment Authority (WQAA). Some studies on minimum flow in rivers downstream of the water abstraction structures were carried out by WQAA. Allocations of minimum flow fall under the operators of dams and river regulator structures.

560. The main weakness in water quality management is the lack of coordination and integrated strategy to sharing data and analysing the data. Two important aspects are WQ management and efficient data collection and modelling. Public awareness and public participation in the water quality management programs require to be made more effective. WQ data management at centre and state levels are being upgraded under the World Bank aided Hydrology Project. Data sharing between the departments at State and Central Government remains a bottleneck


5. Weather Forecasts and Warnings

561. Agricultural meteorological wing of IMD issues advisory weather forecasting based on agro climatic zones in the country .Considering the high variability of weather in time and scale, IMD has recently upgraded the Agro-meteorological advisory service from agro-climatic zone scale to district level. IMD is issuing weather forecasts to 612 districts in the country for meteorological parameters up to 5 days in quantitative terms. These are issued through Regional Meteorological Centres. It is recommended that these services may be further refined and popularized with the help of agricultural department extension services, so that farmers can integrate these forecasts for their cropping operations. Parallel weather warnings systems need to be developed, where farmers, communities and other stakeholders are advised on storm events, cyclones, etc.

H. Implementation of Irrigation Development

1. Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme

562. The Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP) was launched during 1996-97 to give loan assistance to the states to help them complete some of the incomplete major/medium irrigation projects which were in an advanced stage of completion and create additional irrigation potential in the country. The Surface Minor Irrigation Schemes of North-Eastern States, Hilly States of Sikkim, Uttaranchal, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Koraput, Bolangir and Kalahandi Districts of Orissa have also been provided Central Loan Assistance(CLA) under this programme since 1999-2000. Like other Central sector schemes a grant component has been introduced in the programme from April, 2004 As per the existing AIBP criteria effective from December, 2006, grant amounting to 25% of the project cost for major and medium irrigation projects in non-special category States and 90% grant of the project cost for major/medium/minor irrigation projects in special category States (including undivided Koraput, Bolangir and Kalahandi districts of Orissa) are provided to the selected projects.

563. The minor irrigation schemes in non-special category States falling in drought prone/tribal areas are treated at par with special category States and are released 90% grant of the project cost. Major and medium projects providing irrigation benefit to drought prone/tribal area and flood prone area are also eligible for 90% grant of the project cost. The State Governments have been provided an amount of Rs.48565 crore ($10.8 billion) as CLA/Grant under AIBP since inception of the programme to date for 287 major/medium irrigation projects and 12,622 minor surface irrigation schemes. Since the commencement of the programme 132 major/medium and 8140 small surface schemes have so far been completed. An additional irrigation potential of 5.5 million hectare has been created through major/medium irrigation projects and an irrigation potential of 0.45 million hectares has been created through Surface minor irrigation schemes up to March, 2009. Irrigation potential of 0. 9.million hectares has been created during 2009-10 up to March 2010

564. As per the prevailing AIBP guidelines, projects benefiting drought prone/tribal area, projects included in the Prime Minister‘s relief package for agrarian distress districts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala and projects in the States having irrigation development below national average could be included in AIBP in relaxation to one to one criteria of inclusion of new project under AIBP. Of the 65 major/medium projects initially included in the Prime Minister‘s relief package for agrarian distressed districts of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerela and Maharashtra, so far 40 projects have been funded under AIBP. The grant released so far for these projects is Rs.5241.6 crore.

565. Performance of AIBP: Creation of irrigation potential in the country under major and medium sector received a fillip after commencement of AIBP. During the Eighth Plan period, irrigation potential of 2.2.million ha was created in the country under major and medium sector at an annual rate of 0.4million ha per annum. During Ninth Plan, when AIBP was in operation, irrigation potential created in the major and medium Sector was 4.2 million ha out of which 1.65 million ha (nearly 40%) was through AIBP assisted schemes. During the Tenth Plan, the potential creation with major and medium sector and AIBP contribution is shown in Table 33 below;


Table 33 Performance of AIBP

Year Potential created (million ha)

Contribution of AIBP (million ha)

Percentage contribution of AIBP

2002-03 0.8 0.5 56 2003-04 0.9 0.4 48 2004-05 1.0 0.5 47 2005-06 1.1 0.6 56 2006-07 1.4 0.9 63 2007-08 0.7 2008-09 0.6 2009-10 0.9

566. As may be seen from the above, there is enhancement in the annual rate of irrigation potential creation in the country from 8th Plan to 9th Plan from an annual rate of 0. 4.million ha/annum to 0.8 million ha/annum i.e. nearly increase of 0.36 million ha/annum, mostly contributed by AIBP. In the 10th Plan, the potential creation is more than 10 lakh ha/annum out of which more than 50% is contributed by AIBP assisted projects.

567. The projects, which have completed more than 90% of its target and the balance works are held up due to various reasons, have been reviewed in June 2007 to be declared completed. Two projects where the implementation has been held up or is very slow have been dropped/declared completed with truncated scope. To date 132 AIBP assisted Major and Medium Irrigation schemes have been completed. The intended objective of increased rate of potential creation has, by and large, been achieved and contribution of AIBP in completion of projects has now significantly increased.

568. The progress of completion of minor irrigation schemes has been very satisfactory. Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (Project Monitoring Division), in their evaluation study on AIBP have highlighted the great positive impact of minor irrigation schemes in North-Eastern States. The benefits have been observed as: (i) increase in irrigated area; (ii) increase in farm productivity; (iii) farmers motivated to take up irrigated agriculture in place of shifting cultivation (Jhum); and (iv) markets have developed and (v) a change in socio-economic structure.

569. The main reasons for delay in completion of major and medium irrigation projects include:

o Delay in land acquisition for dam, reservoir, and canal system o Delay in completion of Resettlement and Rehabilitation work of project affected persons o Escalation in cost of construction material as well as labour o Unsatisfactory infrastructure of States for execution of projects o Contract management problems and litigations

It is proposed to take further corrective measures in consultation with State Governments to overcome these problems as AIBP has now to deliver time bound targets under Bharat Nirman and Prime Minister‘s Package for agrarian distressed districts. It is proposed that for the future projects to be supported by the AIBP would be identified under the proposed planning processes. It is essential that for the future that the AIBP investments are closely linked to the outputs of the sub basin and basin planning programmes as proposed by the S-NWM study.

support to the national water mission · support to the national water mission napcc iii appendix 1...

Documents