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SUPPLY/ DEMAND CHAIN ANALYSIS OF
CHARCOAL/ FIREWOOD IN DAR ES SALAAM AND
COAST REGION AND DIFFERENTIATION OF
TARGET GROUPS
Prepared by:
Napendaeli Sem
Dar es Salaam
April 2004
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my gratitude to Tanzania Traditional Energy Development and
Environment Organization (TaTEDO) for offering me the opportunity to undertake
this study, which was challenging and interesting. I would like to sincerely thank the
Executive Director, Mr. E. N. Sawe together with all TaTEDO staff. Specifically, I
would like to mention a few whom I worked closely with, namely; Mr. S. Sago and
Ms. G. Ngoo of Energy Environment Initiative Section, Mr. F. Songela and L.
Pesambili of Bio-energy section and the SEECO staff. They all provided valuable
information and cooperation. I am also grateful to HIVOS and particularly Mieke
Hartveld, their critical comments on the draft report provided valuable input for this
report.
My grateful thanks also go to the following institutions and key resource persons:
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Forestry and Bee-keeping Division
for their cooperation, provision of valuable information on woodfuel supply and
modalities for paying government royalties. Special thanks go to Professor Iddi, Mr L.
Lyimo, Mr Mkea, Mrs. Mugheni and Ms. T. Ntemo.
The Ministry of Energy and Minerals; Eng. N. C. X. Mwihava and Mr. Fadhili Kileo
for their valuable guidance and valuable information on Tanzania‟s energy supply and
demand.
Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology; Dr. M. L Raphael for providing
guidance and valuable information on improved cookstove development in Tanzania.
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Dar es Salaam; Dr.
L. M. P Rweyemamu (improved fuelwood stove specialist) for his valuable
contributions to the outcome of this research. The guidance received from Dr.
Rweyemamu is acknowledged with thanks.
The success of this study is greatly attributed to many other institutions, individuals
and various actors in the woodfuel demand/ supply chain (charcoal producers, dealers,
wholesalers/ retailers, improved stove fabricators, and stove traders) in Dar es Salaam
and Coast regions who rendered their invaluable support and time to the study team. I
am greatly indebted to all.
Many grateful thanks goes to research assistants; Mr. David Mwampanga and Ms.
Gladness Foya both fresh graduates faculty of Social Science, Economic Planning,
Mzumbe University, and Mr. Innocent Mgalula, an entrepreneur. They were all very
instrumental during the whole research period i.e. from data collection, through data
analysis and report writing.
Last but not least my special thanks goes to my father; Mr. N. G. Sem (a long-term -
served forest officer) for his valuable technical backstopping and moral support
during the whole research period.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................................ ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................ iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................... v
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................. vi
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 2
1.1 Objectives of the Study ..................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Study Methodology ........................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Analysis and Report Writing ............................................................................................. 3
1.4 Scope and Limitations ....................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Presentation of the Rest of the Report ............................................................................... 4
PART ONE ....................................................................................................................................... 5
2.0 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ....................................................................................... 5
2.1 Related Supportive Policies .............................................................................................. 6
2.2 Tree varieties suitable for charcoal burning ...................................................................... 6
3.0 WOODFUEL CONSUMPTION IN TANZANIA ................................................................. 9
3.1 Woodfuel consumption in Dar es Salaam ....................................................................... 10
4.0 ANALYSIS OF WOODFUEL SUPPLY AND DEMAND ................................................. 13
4.1 Factors affecting woodfuel supply and demand .............................................................. 13
4.1.1 Factors affecting demand of charcoal .................................................................. 13
4.1.2 Factors affecting supply of charcoal .................................................................... 13
4.1.3 Factors affecting demand of firewood ................................................................. 13
4.1.4 Factors affecting supply of firewood ................................................................... 14
4.1.5 Women as energy suppliers and users ................................................................. 14
4.2 The charcoal supply and demand chain map ................................................................... 15
4.3 The functions and participants ........................................................................................ 15
4.4 Marketing Functions ....................................................................................................... 21
4.5 Technologies ................................................................................................................... 24
4.6 The Chains ...................................................................................................................... 26
4.7 Business services in the supply chain ............................................................................. 29
5.0 REGULATORY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ............................................... 31
5.1 Regulatory Policies Supportive or Hindering Development in the Woodfuel Supply
/Demand Chain .......................................................................................................................... 31
5.1.1 The Legal Framework .......................................................................................... 31
5.2 The policy environment which may hinder or slow down development in the woodfuel
supply/ demand chain ................................................................................................................ 32
5.2.1 The Forest Sector ................................................................................................. 32
5.2.2 The Energy Sector ............................................................................................... 33
6.0 SUPPLY CHAIN DYNAMICS ........................................................................................... 34
6.1 Driving forces ................................................................................................................. 34
6.2 Local policies .................................................................................................................. 34
6.3 Points of leverage ............................................................................................................ 35
6.4 Policies ............................................................................................................................ 36
7.0 ANALYSIS OF CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES .............................................. 38
7.1 Analysis of Constraints ................................................................................................... 38
7.2 Analysis of Opportunities ............................................................................................... 39
7.2.1 Identified Opportunities ....................................................................................... 41
7.2.2 Proposed Leverage ............................................................................................... 41
8.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................... 42
8.1 Proposed recommendations for TaTEDO interventions ……………………… …42
8.1.1 Promote the formation of producer associations or marketing cooperative
societies ......................................................................................................................... 42
8.1.2 Lobby for tax/levy reduction ............................................................................... 44
iv
PART TWO .................................................................................................................................... 45
9.0 OVERVIEW OF BIOMASS ENERGY AND IMPROVED STOVES TECHNOLOGIES 45
10.0 IDENTIFICATION OF DIFFERENT TARGET GROUPS AND BENEFICIARIES OF
TaTEDO IMPROVED STOVES AND OVENS AND THEIR SPECIFIC NEEDS ...................... 48
10.1 Types of Improved Stoves Available to Beneficiaries ............................................... 48
10.2 Target Groups and Beneficiaries ................................................................................ 48
10.2.1 Beneficiaries in the Rural Areas .......................................................................... 49
10.2.2 Beneficiaries in the Urban Areas ......................................................................... 49
10.3 Specific Needs and Preferences of the target groups .................................................. 49
10.3.1 Specific Needs and Preferences for Urban and Rural Households ...................... 50
10.3.2 Specific Needs and Preferences of the Institutions .............................................. 54
10.3.3 Specific Needs and Preferences of the Micro and Small Enterprises (MSEs) ..... 58
11.0 ANALYSIS OF ADOPTION LEVEL OF IMPROVED BIOENERGY
TECHNOLOGIES AMONG THE IDENTIFIED SUBGROUPS .................................................. 60
11.1 Current Adoption level of improved bioenergy technologies ..................................... 60
12.0 OTHER DETERMINING FACTORS FOR UPTAKE AND ADOPTION OF STOVES
AND OVENS .................................................................................................................................. 61
12.1 Level of Accessibility/Availability of Improved Stoves/Ovens ................................. 61
12.2 Identification of Key Target Group and Beneficiaries of TaTEDO Improved Stoves
and Ovens ......................................................................................................................... 61
13.0 IDENTIFICATION OF POSSIBLE MODIFICATIONS OF THE EXISTING
PROTOTYPES ............................................................................................................................... 62
14.0 DEVELOPMENT OF STRATEGY FOR INCREASED UPTAKE AND ADOPTION
OF IMPROVED STOVES AND OVENS ...................................................................................... 64
14.1 Strategies for increased uptake and adoption ............................................................. 64
14.2 The Supply and Demand Chain Analysis ................................................................... 65
14.2.1 Functions and Participants ................................................................................... 65
14.2.1.1 Research and Prototype Development ....................................................... 65 14.2.2 Marketing Functions ............................................................................................ 68
14.2.3 Technologies ........................................................................................................ 68
14.2.4 The Chains ........................................................................................................... 69
14.2.5 Business Services in the Supply Chain ................................................................ 71
14.3 Supply Chain Dynamics ............................................................................................. 72
14.3.1 Driving forces ...................................................................................................... 72
14.3.2 Points of Leverage ............................................................................................... 72
14.4 Analysis of Constraints and Opportunities ................................................................. 73
14.4.1 Analysis of Constraints ........................................................................................ 73
14.4.2 Analysis of Opportunities .................................................................................... 74
14.4.3 Proposed Leverage ............................................................................................... 76
15.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................... 77
15.1 Summary of Constrains faced by SMEs in Tanzania and SME development policy
2002 ......................................................................................................................... 77
15.2 Proposed Recommendations for TaTEDOs Interventions .......................................... 78
15.5.1 Marketing Strategies for Improved Stoves and Ovens ........................................ 79
15.5.2 Conclusions.......................................................................................................... 80
16.0 REFFERENCES CITED ................................................................................................. 82
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................ 84
APPENDIX I: TERMS OF REFERENCES ................................................................................... 84
APPENDIX II: LIST OF TABLES (From PART TWO) ............................................................... 90
APPENDIX III: CHAIN MAPS ................................................................................................... 101
APPENDIX IV: LIST OF PEOPLE CONTACTED .................................................................... 104
v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADF - African Development Foundation
ALAF - Aluminium Africa
AREED - African Rural Energy Enterprises Development.
ATC - Appropriate Technology Centre
BEK - Basic Earth mound Kiln
CAMARTEC - Centre of Agricultural Mechanization and Ruvu Technology
CBFM - Community Based Forest Management
COSTECH - The Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology
CSDI - Centre of Sustainable Development Initiatives
DASICO Dar es Salaam Small Industries Corporation
DFOs - District Forest Officers
DSM - Dar es Salaam
ERV Excheque Receipt Voucher
FDB - Forest and Beekeeping Division
FINCA Foundation for International Community Assistance
GDF - Gross Domestic Production
HH - Household
HIVOS - Humanist Institute for Corporation with Developing Countries.
IBEK - Improved Earth mound Kiln
IPI - Institute of Production Innovation
JFM - Joint Forest Management
LPG - Liquefied Petroleum Gas
MAI Mean Annual Increment
MWEM - Ministry of Water Energy and Minerals
NGO - Non-Governmental Organization
NORAD - The Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation
RFPP - Ruvu Fuel wood Pilot Project
SEECO - Sustainable Energy and Environment Consultancy Company
SIDO - Small Industry Development Organization
SMEs - Small and Medium Enterprises
TaTEDO - Tanzania Traditional Energy Development and Environment
TOE - Tones of Oil Equivalent
TShs - Tanzania Shillings
vi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
E.1: Background
This study was commissioned by Tanzania Traditional Energy Development and
Environment Organization (TaTEDO) in order to carry out an independent analysis
of, firstly, the existing woodfuels demand/supply chain within TaTEDO programme
area and to analyse and determine the primary constraints and opportunities that exists
in the whole chain in order to lay groundwork for identifying support initiatives that
can promote the development of the sub-sector and recommend the most appropriate
method of assessing environmental impact associated with woodfuels production and
use; and secondly, to analyse the various sub-groups within the overall target group
for improved stoves and ovens and their respective needs and wishes.
The Terms of Reference for the Study are included as Appendix I herein.
The study has analysed the pattern of woodfuel supply and consumption to and by
various target groups both in the rural and urban households, institutions, micro and
small enterprises by examining the supply and demand chain/conditions, and also
identified the specific needs and preferences of these groups. The study has also
analysed the current adoption level of the improved stoves technologies among
targeted groups and finally identified possible modifications for the existing
prototypes and developed the strategy for increased uptake and adoption of TaTEDO
improved stoves and ovens.
E.2: Methodology and Approach
The study is based on information collected from primary sources in the field where a
total of 170 respondents were interviewed. The secondary data included the review of
available documented reports, information and studies that were thought of relevance
to this study. Field survey and visits provided useful information in the form of
questionnaires filled. In addition, various key resource persons in the woodfuel sub
sector supplied invaluable information.
E.3: The Main Findings of this Study are the following:
E.3.1 Although the average daily consumption of charcoal in Dar es Salaam is
estimated to be 24,000 bags per day, this study has revealed that only 10 –
20% of this amount passes through legal checkpoints and thus earning the
government the revenue.
E.3.2 The main types of stoves used by urban dwellers are charcoal stoves and
ovens, while rural dwellers use mainly firewood stoves, which are
dominated by inefficient traditional three-stone fireplace.
E.3.3 Low-income communities located both in rural and urban areas form a
potential user group of charcoal and woodstoves. The study has established
that none of those who are earning less than TShs. 45,000 per month is using
electricity as main energy type.
vii
E.3.4 The price of improved cookstove has been seen to be the most important
factor impacting adoption of improved stoves by users especially the rural
households. Survey results have revealed that affordable stoves are those
with prices ranging between TShs.1,350 to TShs.5,000, which are
Bellbottom, Straight, Sazawa, Miguu Mitatu.
E.3.5 While in most regions, fuelwood is still largely free (i.e. people depend on
what they can gather themselves), in urban areas fuelwood is largely
purchased. The success of improved stoves in the urban areas will depend on
how much the user will cut down fuelwood requirements. By using
improved charcoal stoves the survey has recorded the savings among the
user up to 50 percent.
E.3.6 Most of the stoves are not durable and the major factors attributed include
usage of low-quality raw materials especially poor quality iron sheets, scrap
material and ceramic liners as well as poor workmanship by unskilled
artisans who operate informal businesses in the informal sector and have not
attended prior stove fabrication training from TaTEDO.
E.3.7 Interviewed users of improved stoves reported that, the use of improved
stoves contribute a lot to the improved kitchen environment especially with
regard to cleanliness and health, and that the amount of smoke that was
being produced by the traditional stove has been reduced tremendously and
hence the level of coughing, headache and eye irritation has been reduced.
E.3.8 There are still a very little number of institutional stoves on the market than
the domestic stoves. Artisan fabricators have no technical and financial
capacity to produce institutional stoves of high standards.
E.3.9 There is a big potential for improved institutional stoves to reduce fuel
consumption in the community centres and thereby reduce the deforestation
as well as health hazards appreciably.
E.3.10 The most commonly used fuel in the institutional stoves is firewood,
however the availability of the fuel is uncertain the factor which keeps
potential users asking on the possibility or option of using charcoal in the
institutional stove.
E.3.11 Most users especially those in small food processing and catering business
have expressed their concern on the unavailability of larger sizes of charcoal
stoves, which are capable to meet their operating requirements.
E.3.12 Field observations have indicated that the improved institutional woodstoves
which was designed using the knowledge from the University of Dar es
Salaam and installed at some schools in Tanzania that have indicated little
fuelwood consumption, with fuel saving between 60 to 80%.
E.3.13 The adoption level of improved stoves is higher in the urban households as
compared to rural households. According to findings of this survey the
majority of the urban users have used at least one type of improved stoves.
Stove prices seems to be affordable to the targeted users in the urban areas
viii
where woodfuel (particularly charcoal) is purchased hence users are
interested to save fuel.
E.3.14 It has been observed that the uptake and adoption of improved stoves and
ovens depends on the user‟s cooking requirements both for households and
institutional level. In the school survey it could be established that the
adoption of improved institutional stoves depended on some key factors such
as availability of fuel type, the price of the fuel and the type of foods
prepared.
E.3.15 Needs and wishes of potential beneficiaries do at a large extent determine
modification aspects that should be considered for successful adoption of
stoves. Through this study it has been established that durability of the stove
is the main aspect of concern and should be taken as a base when planning
future modifications. Advanced stove technologies will have to include new
materials in order to produce a ceramic liner, which can withstand higher
temperature fluctuations and mechanical stresses.
E.3.16 The study has revealed that for increased uptake and adoption of improved
stoves and ovens the strategies should include constant follow-up throughout
the whole stove chain involving stove components manufactures, retailers,
users, researchers, and policy makers and/or stoves programs facilitators.
E.3.17 From the literature sighted during this study it was revealed that simple
traditional kilns are capable of making charcoal at a conversion rates ranging
from 2 – 5.20 bags of charcoal from 1 cubic metre of fuelwood (2 – 3bags)
and (2.84 – 5.20). If this statement is true, then TaTEDO will need to find
ways of improving its technology in order to produce kilns that are more
efficient than the traditional earth mound kilns.
E.3.18 From the interview it has been ascertained that charcoal dealing is a purely
male dominated activity as no women dealers were found during the
research period. Further investigations reveal reasons for non-participation
of women as charcoal dealers, as that business operation is done during the
night when women are supposed to be at home caring for children and other
members of the family. Furthermore, because of poor road conditions and
poor state of the vehicles used in charcoal transportation, women consider
this as risk factor in this business.
E.3.19 Apart from many factors that constrains the growth of the charcoal supply /
demand chain, there are also many positive factors that provide opportunities
for growth and hence strong reasons for TaTEDO and other support
organizations to focus their activities in the supply chains.
ix
E.4 Recommendations
E.4.1 For TaTEDO to promote successfully improved technologies, the
organisation should take steps to make interventions which are aimed at
directly impacting beneficiaries through increasing their income and creating
employment. For example to assist charcoal producers establish producers
association.
E.4.2 TaTEDO should lobby for government supportive policies in order to order
to reduce tax on charcoal trading.
E.4.3 TaTEDO to link artisans Business Development Service providers to assist
the formation of legally registered artisans‟ association of producers.
E.4.4 TaTEDO should lobby for government supportive services in order to put in
place infrastructure and operating environment, since most of operators do
not have approved premises to conduct their businesses.
E.4.5 In order to achieve high quality products, TaTEDO should link producer
associations to funding organizations (e.g. AREED, ADF) so that they can
get an access to finance or supplier of credit for raw materials.
E.4.6 TaTEDO should collaborate with University researchers to develop and put
into the market the stove materials / components, which have better working
properties so that to enhance the performance of the stoves as well as their
durability.
2
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Tanzania Traditional Energy Development and Environment Organization (TaTEDO)
is a renewable / rural energy national development NGO based in Dar es Salaam
Tanzania. For more than twelve years, TaTEDO has implemented various
undertakings aimed at promoting and disseminating renewable energy technologies
and practices on conserving environment in Tanzania. TaTEDO has been undertaking
programs and projects in five1 regions, and recently has added two
2 more regions.
With support from its development partners, in particular HIVOS and NORAD,
TaTEDO has initiated a three-year programme on integrated Sustainable Energy
Services for Poverty Reduction and Environmental Conservation in Tanzania (July
2003 to June 2006).
The three-year programme‟s main goal is to contribute to poverty reduction for the
target groups and environmental conservation by enhancing the opportunity for
increased productivity through increased uptake and usage of improved energy
technology.
The programme‟s main objective is to increase uptake and usage of renewable energy
technologies and services in the programme areas.
TaTEDO woodfuels related products are (i) efficient charcoal production kilns (ii)
energy efficient firewood stoves (iii) efficient charcoal stoves and ovens and (iv)
efficient tree planting and management practices.
TaTEDO provides the following services to its target groups: (i) to lobby for
supportive policies that enhances provision of better energy services, (ii) to
facilitate/strengthen the development of renewable energy related to SMEs through
business support and in partnership with financial institutions, (iii) to provide
technical extension services and (iv) to facilitate SMEs linkages with
technical/business/market development and training institutions.
1.1 Objectives of the Study
This study has two main objectives:
1. To study the existing woodfuels demand/supply chain within TaTEDO
programme area and to analyse and determine the primary constraints and
opportunities that exists in the whole chain in order to lay groundwork for
identifying support initiatives that can promote the development of the sub
sector and recommend the most appropriate method of assessing
environmental impact associated with woodfuels production and use.
2. To analyse the various sub-groups within the overall target group for improved
stoves and ovens and their respective needs and wishes.
1 Mwanza, Shinyanga, Kilimanjaro, Coast & Dar es Salaam
2 Arusha, Tanga
3
1.2 Study Methodology
Sampling and Data Collection
The study has used both primary and secondary sources of data.
(a) The secondary data included the review of available documented
reports, information and studies that were thought of relevance to this
study (reference list is provided at the end of this report).
(b) Primary data was collected from 170 respondents in Two Forest
Management Projects i.e. 20 tree growers, 25 charcoal producers, 21
charcoal/firewood wholesalers/ retailers, 9 charcoal dealers, 26
artisans, 9 traders of woodfuel stoves and 60 users of woodfuel stoves.
The sampling was done randomly with assistance from TaTEDO staff
(Department of Energy Environment Initiatives & Bio-energy
Sections).
(c) Key resource persons in the woodfuel sub sector supplied valuable
information (see Appendix IV).
1.3 Analysis and Report Writing
Simple statistical methods using Microsoft access software data analysis program has
been used to analyse responses from the respondents to the questionnaires. The
analysis focus was on the various actors within the supply / demand chains and their
relationships, with a particular focus on micro enterprises and other players. It
indicates the forces that are driving the changes in the supply/ demand chains, and the
role that can be best played by TaTEDO in strengthening the micro enterprise growth
(increased income and employment opportunities) within the supply /demand chains.
The analysis provides insights into the driving forces, the points of leverage and the
roles for different actors with woodfuel products.
1.4 Scope and Limitations
It is important to note that time allocated was short compared to the areas to be
covered and the degree of details required to be captured. While a good view of the
charcoal production and stoves/ovens fabrication areas that were visited is represented
in the report, it is possible that there are other production and marketing systems that
are not captured in the study because they were not observed or were not identified in
other documents. This study took place during the farming season when there was not
much of charcoal production and trading taking place. The best period would have
been between June and September (when harvesting of field crops has been
completed and just before land preparation activity for the next agricultural cycle).
The areas studied covers Coast region (woodfuel supply side) and Dar es Salaam
region (demand side).
4
It is also important to note that quantitative information is largely absent in Tanzania
it was difficult to get figures on the quantities traded through different channels in the
demand supply chain.
1.5 Presentation of the Rest of the Report
This report is presented into two parts:
Part 1 discusses demand and supply chains of charcoal/ wood and is organised in 8
chapters (i.e. chapters 1 to 8):
Part 2 discusses differentiation of target groups and beneficiaries for TaTEDO
interventions and is organised in 7 chapters (i.e. chapters 9 - 15).
5
PART ONE
2.0 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Woodfuel accounts for about 10 percent of the total energy used in the world. It
provides about 20 percent of all energy used in Asia and Latin America, and about 50
percent of total energy used in Africa3. However, it is the major source of energy,
particularly for domestic purposes, in poor developing countries. More than half of
the total wood harvested in the world is used as woodfuel.
In Tanzania, woodfuel is the principle source of energy, quantitatively accounting for
90 percent of the total energy consumed. The dependency on woodfuel is expected to
continue for the foreseeable future but the supply of woodfuel potential is dwindling
in all regions.
Tanzania is covered extensively with Forests and Woodlands. The bulk of these
resources (between 30 and 40 million hectares) are comprised of extensive dry
woodlands, primarily of miombo type, which provide critical wood resources and
other forest products both to rural communities and the urban centres, and perform
other important services, e.g. as watershed catchments and as dry season grazing
reserves4. The bulk of these woodlands are not legally protected as forest reserves,
hence vulnerable to uncontrolled harvesting, agricultural expansion, fires, livestock
grazing and other human activities5.
In contrast, the country‟s tropical moist forests accounts for a relatively small
percentage of the total, they are mainly found in the mountain forests and in the
narrow strips of forest along the coast, which in total comprise less than 5 percent of
the total forest area.
Tanzania forest and woodlands are extremely important for mitigating the impact of
rural poverty. The rural poor are heavily dependent on resources derived from
woodlands and deforestation and trees degradation poses a significant threat to rural
livelihood. Recent studies has shown that fully 50% of total household consumption
in some rural area is accounted for by forest and woodland products such as
woodfuels, construction materials, wild fruits and other foods (a point noted in
Tanzania’s Poverty Reduction strategy paper).
The bulk of charcoal and firewood for the rural and urban household in Tanzania is
produced from the woodland forests, which are primarily of the miombo types, which
are very resilient and regenerate freely after disturbance if left alone or protected and
properly managed. Moreover the study on “Impact of charcoal extraction to the forest
resources of Tanzania; the case of Kitulagulo area”, by R.E.Malimbwi, S.Misana, G.
3 Arnold, 1991, Murray and De Montalembert, 1992
4 World Bank report No. 22743 – TA, FCMP Project Appraisal, January 2002
5 The Tanzania National Forest Policy
6
C.Monela, G.Jambiya and E. Zahabu found out that standing wood volume and basal
area of the miombo species. in the study area are lower in public land compared to
forest reserves, while stem numbers shows a reversed trend suggesting regeneration of
these species in public land. These woodlands are estimated at 32.3 million hectares6.
There are no reliable data on deforestation; however Forestry and Beekeeping
Division estimates a range from 130,000 to 500,000 hectares per annum
(approximately 1.55% of the woodlands7). There are many reasons for deforestation
taking place in the country, major reasons being clearing for subsistence agriculture
(shifting cultivation), fuel wood and charcoal production for cooking, fuel wood for
firing bricks for home construction and timber use for house and furniture
construction. At this rate of deforestation if there are no interventions, it would take
only 64 years to destroy all the woodland forests
Some individuals and non-governmental organizations like TaTEDO have realized
this danger and have introduced various renewable energy technologies like improved
charcoal kiln and improved cookstoves. TaTEDO develops prototype stoves, ovens
and grills that are using less wood and charcoal, for household, commercial and
institutional use.
2.1 Related Supportive Policies
Forest Policy Statement: Objective is to ensure sustainable supply of forest products
and services by maintaining sufficient forest area under effective management.
Policy Statement (3) is to enable participation of all stakeholders in forest
management and conservation, through Joint Forest Management agreements, with
appropriate user rights and benefits.
Joint Forest Management agreement with communities living adjacent to forests will
ensure proper management and protection of the forest resources in those forests and
therefore mitigate the rate of current deforestation trends.
The National Forest Policy 1998, supported by the National Environmental Policy
1997 and the National Energy Policy 1992 (revised 2003) are tools intended for
mitigating the current deforestation trends and ensuring sustainable supply of wood
resources to the woodfuel supply/ demand chain.
2.2 Tree varieties suitable for charcoal burning
Indigenous wood tree species commonly used for charcoal production as mentioned
by charcoal producers in the surveyed areas are summarized in the table below:
6 The Tanzania National Forest Policy, Woodfuel Strategy, December 2002 by Kaale B.K and Sawe
E.N 7 The Tanzania National Forest Policy
7
Table 2:2: Trees commonly used for charcoal production
LOCALITY LOCAL NAME BOTANICAL NAME
Vigwaza/Ruvu
area
1Muyombo/Miombo/Myombo
2.Mlama
3.Mtete
4.Msama
5.Mkulo
6.Mnango/Munango
7.Mtanga/Mkungu/Mkenge
8.Mkwaaju/Mkwazu/Mkwaju
9.Mkongolo
10.Msewe
11.Mseju
Brachystegia species (sp)
Combretum . zeyheri
Hymeocardia ulmoides
Manilkara mochisia
Spirostchys africana
Hymenaea verrucosa
Albizia versicolor
Tamarindus indica
Combretum sp
Albizia sp
Unknown
Ikwiriri Rufiji
1.Mnepa/Mlepa
2.Mnangu
3.Mpugupugu
4.Mkwaju
5.Mungo
6.Mwimbilia
7.Mtonga
8.Mkungo
9.Mtongatonga
10.Mtasi
11.Mchonda
12.Mnyakambi
13.Mpelepele
14.Mkorwa
15.Mkulo
16.Mbondolondo
17.Mndolindli/Mninga maji
18.Mperapori
19.Mkwanga
20.Mnango
21.Topetope
22.Mpogopogo
23.Msolu
Pteleopsis myrtifolia
Byrsocarpus boivinianus
Markamia abtusifolia
Tamarindus indica
Unknown
Unknown
Strychnos innocua
Unknown
Strychnos cacculoides
Baphiopsis
Acacia sieberian
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Spirostachys africana
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Annona senegalensis
Unknown pseudolachnostylis-
Maprouneaefolia
Ruvu Kibaha
1.Mkuruti
2.Mkangowe
3.Mgovu
4.Mlama
5.Mtebeti
6.Mkenge
7.Mpuya
8.Mkangazi
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Combretum sp
Camptopus goetzei
Albizia verrsicolor
Unknown
Khaya sp
8
LOCALITY LOCAL NAME BOTANICAL NAME
9.Midamudamu
10.Mng‟oko
11.Mtete
12.Mngogi
13.Msagati
14.Myombo
15.Mlawilila
16.Mkole
17.Namrama
18.Mfiru
Unknown
Unknown
Hymeocardia ulmoides
Unknown
Unknown
Brachystegia sp
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
According to research findings, 84 percent of respondents reported that trees for
charcoal production are easily accessible while 16 percent seemed to be worried that
the trees are becoming scarce due to intensive charcoal burning activities, which are
on-going in the areas. They said the reason for this indiscriminate tree felling is
because there is no royalty paid for felling trees used for charcoal burning (fees are
paid for charcoal sold). This could lead to disappearance of the forests in quite a short
time. They suggested that the Government assisted by NGOs should create more
awareness for forest protection and tree planting (TaTEDO has already started the
awareness campaign).
9
3.0 WOODFUEL CONSUMPTION IN TANZANIA
High woodfuel consumption in Tanzania is ascribed to low per capita income and
limited investment in alternative energy supplies. Yet still the vast majority of
woodfuel consumers cannot afford the high investment costs associated with those
alternative commercial energy sources8. Availability, reliability of supply and cheaper
prices renders fuelwood more preferable than alternative sources of energy.
Households consume about 97% of wood energy mostly for cooking, heating and
cottage industries while industrial sector is the second to household sector. Most of
the industrial wood energy is consumed by small-scale industries which include food
processing industries and service sectors such as brewing, fish smoking, salt
production, baking, restaurants, schools, hospitals and food vending; agro-processing
industries such as tobacco curing, tea drying and beeswax processing; and production
of building materials such as burnt bricks, lime, smiths, foundries, pottery and
ceramics.
In rural areas where charcoal is produced, people use mostly firewood for their
cooking energy requirements. In 1999 it was found that 40.4 million m3 of wood, of
which 26 million m3 of wood were consumed in rural areas as fuel wood (24 million
m3 of wood consumed for household cooking and 2.03 million of wood were
consumed in rural industries whose priority list include tobacco curing, fish smoking,
salt production, brick burning, tea drying, processing of beeswax) and 13.4 million m3
of wood were consumed in the urban areas mainly as charcoal9.
The majority of urban households depend on charcoal, kerosene and firewood, for
their energy needs. In 1988, 31 percent in Dar es Salaam had electricity connections.
By 1995 the figure had actually fallen, to 28.2 percent10
In any case not all households
with electricity have regular connections which can be used both for light and
domestic appliances. Access to electricity is concentrated among the high-income
groups. It was estimated in 199911
, that, countrywide, 6.7 million urban residents were
using charcoal. In Dar es Salaam the proportion of households depending on non-
electric fuels has not gone down since 1998.
Increased demand of charcoal and firewood has accelerated deforestation in rural
areas with environmental consequences. However, little is known about the actual
extent of deforestation due to urban charcoal use, the social and economic patterns,
which determine the exploitation, or the policy options available to mitigate the
problem. According to FAO Forest Resources Assessment deforestation is defined as
a change of land use with depletion of tree crown cover to less than 10 percent.
Furthermore the extent of forest resource, use impact, their growing stock and Mean
Annual Increment (MAI) are not known with any degree of precision. The
8 Impact of charcoal extraction to the forest resources of Tanzania: the case of Kitungalo area,
Tanzania. 9 C. Pesambili, F. Magessa and N. Mwakabuta: Sazawa charcoal stove designed for efficient use of
charcoal. 10
Saad S. Yahya, Woodfuel and change in urban Tanzania 11
Kaale and Sawe, Woodfuel Strategy Options, 2001
10
understanding of the potential of forests to supply firewood and charcoal over a
medium time perceptive is limited. This has implications on the country regarding its
ability to design and implement appropriate energy policies that can intervene in the
charcoal sectors. Rational decisions in management of natural forest depend on
information available on their growing stock. Acquisition of forest growth
information is prerequisite to any forest management system and sustainable land
use12
3.1 Woodfuel consumption in Dar es Salaam
The main market for charcoal from Coast and other regions is the Dar es Salaam City.
About 90 percent of the Dar es Salaam population depend on charcoal as first choice
for domestic energy.
Dar es Salaam possesses a large number of petty food vendors, local brew producers,
cottage industries, hotels & restaurants, and various other institutions. Moreover, Dar
es Salaam‟s population is growing at a significant rate to the extent that within the last
two decades where it has almost doubled e.g. the 1988 census showed population to
be 1.8 million people, but currently various estimates put it at about 2,538,100 million
people13
. There is huge migration of people from rural Tanzania into urban areas, Dar
es Salaam, in particular. The majority of the migrants live in squatters in suburbs of
Dar es Salaam city practising typical rural life. Consumption of woodfuel by these
people is high particularly as source of energy.
The average daily consumption of charcoal is estimated to be 2.8 kg per household
and the total consumption is estimated to be 24,000 bags of charcoal per day14
.
The data collected from four main checkpoints (Maili Moja Kibaha, Vikindu, Boko and
Gongo la Mboto) indicates that 1,021,167 bags (or 2,798 bags per day) of charcoal
passed through the four checkpoints in its way to Dar es Salaam during 2003 (the
below charts indicate three years trend of charcoal going to Dar es Salaam from four
major checkpoints as recorded by the officers at the government checkpoints. To
avoid double counting data from Ruvu Fuelwood project was not counted). According
to information from various sources, the amount recorded is only between 10 – 20%
of actual amount of charcoal bags transported to Dar es Salaam each year. „About 80
– 90% bypasses the government checking points. Main reasons being to evade
government levies/taxes (Central Government Levy – TSh. 400 per bag, District Levy
TSh. 200 per bag). These levies can virtually wipe out the whole profit under certain
circumstances, such as for truck transport of a load of charcoal that has been
purchased at high production costs in the dry season15
.
From 15,000 to 20,000 bags of charcoal enter Dar es Salaam every 24 hours, everyday
of the year, and an equal amount enters the other major towns combined. The amounts
12
Impact of charcoal extraction to the forest resources of Tanzania: The case of Kitungalo area,
Tanzania 13
The World Gazzetteer, current population figures for cities, towns and places of all countries,
2004. 14
Final Report CHAPOSA Research Project, Tanzania 15
Final Report CHAPOSA Research Project - Tanzania
11
sold adds up to nearly one million tonnes of charcoal per year, for which trees have to
be cut from 3,320 square kilometres of forests”16
TaTEDO as one of the stakeholders in the development of renewable energy
technologies have designed and promoted improved energy saving cook stoves and
efficient charcoal production kilns. TaTEDO cook stoves would reduce consumption
of charcoal by 50% (using the Sazawa stove). Traditional earth mound kilns make
charcoal at conversion rate of 2 –3 bags of charcoal from 1 cubic metre of fuelwood.
According to findings of this survey, TaTEDOs improved kilns would improve
efficiency by 34.3% (table 4:3).
Sources of charcoal/ firewood that pass through the four main checkpoints were
mentioned by the check point officers as follows:
Maili Moja Kibaha:
Ruvu Fuel Pilot Project (RPPP), Chalinze, Mkata, Mdaula, Mseyu, Ngerengere,
Vigwaza, Mlandizi and Msata.
Vikindu:
Ruhoi, Kazamoyo, Mkuranga, Mbunju Mvuleni, Kiwagwa, Namkutwa, Tamburu,
Ngumburuni, Mtanza and Kiwengoma.
Boko:
Muzoka, Msata, Mbwewe and Mkata.
Gongo la Mboto:
Pugu, Mkamba, Msanga, Kisarawe and Chanika
Chart 3:1 Record of charcoal, which passed through four checkpoints from 2001
- 2003
Records of charcoal which passed through four check-points from 2001-2003
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
700000
2001 2002 2003
Years
Am
ou
nt
reco
rded
.
Vikindu
Kibaha
Boko
Gongo la Mboto
16
Destroying cheap forests to buy expensive water, by Zephania Musendo.
12
Chart 3:1 Record of firewood, which passed through four checkpoints from 2001
- 2003
Records of firewood which passed through four check-points
from 2001-2003
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
2001 2002 2003
years
Am
ou
nt
reco
rded
Vikindu
Kibaha
Boko
Gongo la Mboto.
13
4.0 ANALYSIS OF WOODFUEL SUPPLY AND DEMAND
4.1 Factors affecting woodfuel supply and demand
4.1.1 Factors affecting demand of charcoal
In urban areas, the household sector relies mainly on charcoal for cooking,
supplemented by kerosene, electricity and gas. In many cases charcoal is the first
choice fuel energy used in most urban households. Charcoal is mostly used due to
many factors:
i. Its price as compared to alternative commercial sources (kerosene, electricity,
gas);
ii. Its availability and convenience. Charcoal is easily accessible in the Dar es
Salaam city and other major towns. Most households obtain charcoal from a
variety of charcoal stores that are located nearby, between 1 – 5 minutes walk to
get to a selling point;
iii. Charcoal has a higher calorific value per unit weight than firewood (about
31.8 MJ per kg of completely carbonised charcoal with about 5 percent moisture
content as compared to about 16 MJ per kg of firewood with about 15 percent
moisture content on dry basis17
;
iv. Transport. It is more economic to transport charcoal over longer distances as
compared to firewood;
v. Storage. Charcoal takes less room as compared to firewood;
vi. Demand fluctuations: Some households have a high level of charcoal
consumption in the months of June/July and December/ January, mainly because
most of the children especially those attending boarding school are at home.
Therefore, there is a lot more cooking and at a large quantities18
.
4.1.2 Factors affecting supply of charcoal
One of the major factors affecting supply of charcoal is the price difference between
the dry and wet seasons. Price during the wet season is linked to the increase in
transportation cost, which is passed on to the consumer.
4.1.3 Factors affecting demand of firewood
i. Its availability. In the rural areas, the household sector depends almost
exclusively on firewood for cooking and heating purposes. Traditionally
foods are cooked on simple inefficient stoves, the three stone firewood,
usually for single-family groups. As long as wood and twigs which are
used as fuel for cooking are in plentiful supply, there is no great incentive
to introduce improved more efficient cooking methods, e.g. by using
charcoal (which is more cleaner);
17
Kaale and Sawe, Woodfuel Strategy, December 2000 18
CHAPOSA, Dar es Salaam Charcoal Consumer’s Study
14
ii. Type of stove. The most commonly used fuel in large stoves (especially
institutional stoves) is firewood. Even where gas or electricity is available
supplies can be unreliable and wood is often cheaper;
iii. Institutional large amount requirements: One of the schools visited
(Makongo Secondary school) monthly requirement was reported to be
about 1,200 pieces of one metre long billets. Three small-scale textile
production businesses (producing batik and tie & dye) reported monthly
consumption of between 5 – 8 billets (they use a combination of charcoal
and wood), also fish fryers at the Dar es Salaam Integrated Fish Market
complex reported a monthly consumption of between 50 – 60 billets;
iv. Prices. Prices for firewood are reasonably cheaper as compared to other
commercial fuels. Price range as reported by respondents is between TShs.
300 – 1,500/billet depending on seasonality (dry and wet season effects).
During the rainy season demand for firewood goes down because the wood
is wet and hence too smoky;
v. Demand fluctuations: for example during special occasions like
Christmas and Ramadhan price of firewood goes up;
Fore more information, also refer part two of this survey “differentiation of target
groups”.
4.1.4 Factors affecting supply of firewood
i. Scarcity: In the past, the supply of firewood was abundant in rural areas
and it was regarded as a free good, the only cost input to the product being
labour spent to collect it. In the predominantly surplus rural areas e.g.
Ikwiriri, the opportunity cost of such labour used to be almost zero. Today,
supply sources of firewood in some rural areas have been depleted creating
scarcity of firewood. Main consequences of firewood scarcity include
increasing distances and time for collecting firewood. Firewood, which
was once a free commodity, is now a traded commodity both in rural and
urban areas;
ii. Weather: Bad weather and poor road conditions affects supply;
iii. Agricultural activity circles: During intensive agricultural activities,
firewood supply declines hence prices goes up.
4.1.5 Women as energy suppliers and users
Women as suppliers of energy, collect wood to meet their household needs and
participate in commercialisation of wood. Firewood trading is done by both men and
women and is a major source of income to some households especially in rural areas
and semi-urban areas.
15
Women know which tree burn slowly and which burns fast, which smokes and which
kindles easily.
4.2 The charcoal supply and demand chain map
The charcoal supply/ demand chain map is a visual presentation of the way that
charcoal flows through different channels from production sites to the markets. The
map is divided between the different functions that are carried out in getting the
charcoal from production sites to the end markets. The participants are divided into
channels based on their forward and backward linkages and their use of technologies
that differentiate them from one another.
4.3 The functions and participants
There are five different functions in the charcoal supply /demand chain within the
Coast and Dar es Salaam regions. The major functions start with the forest resources
management related services within the studied areas, the production of charcoal,
transport to Dar es Salaam City, its storage, and the sale through various
intermediaries to the final consumer. All totalled, charcoal often changes hands 4 to 5
times between the charcoal producer and retailer who eventually sells it to the final
consumer.
Forest projects and tree planting initiatives
The new National Forest Policy promotes the participatory forest and woodland
management concept. The term participatory forest management implies, any forest
management regime, which involves other stakeholders, co-managing with
conventional forest resources management, forming the management team of a
particular forest area. It embraces the concepts of Joint Forest Management [JFM] and
Community- Based Forest Management [CBFM].
JFM as defined in the National Forest Policy means, involvement of local community
or non -governmental organizations in the management and conservation of forests
and forestland with appropriate user right as incentives.
CBFM as defined in the Community Based Forest Management guidelines,
{produced by the Forest and Beekeeping Division (FBD)}, refers to any forests
management regime in which local people plays a major role. This may be developed
in respect of still un-reserved forest in village or general lands or in respect of
government forest reserves (National Forest Reserve or Local Authority Forest
Reserves).
Both of the two Forest Management Projects (for the supply source) visited are
located in Coast Region. These are:
16
(i) Ruvu Fuelwood Pilot Project (RFPP) located in North Ruvu Forest Reserve in
Kibaha District; and
(ii) Mbunju Mvuleni Village Forest Reserve at Ikwiriri in Rufiji District
The Ruvu Fuelwood Forest Project (started in 2000) is a Strategic Integrated Joint
Forest Resources Management initiative, located in the North Ruvu Forest Reserve.
The North Ruvu gazetted forest reserve has 32000 hectares, but the JFM area
occupies only 1900 hectares (approximately 6 per cent of the gazetted area). The
remaining area, approximately 30,100 ha are under Conventional Forest Resources
Management.
The prime goal of RFPP is to increase production of forest products in order to
provide sustainable supply of woodfuel to meet the demand for the increasing
population in the Dar es Salaam City and Kibaha.
Project activities are such as: provision of extension services, training, documentation,
seedling production, rotational woodlots, natural forest management, promote
efficient production & use of bio energy, research, promote income generating
activities.
There are 400 households from four villages surrounding the forest, involved and
committed in the management scheme of the project.
Benefits and responsibility sharing between RFPP and the 400 households, include:
Free access to the forest resources (land & wood standing volume);
Forest regeneration through rotational woodlots (320 farmers have been allocated
with 3ha plot per household which have been earning surplus food from cassava,
sweet potatoes, pigeon peas, maize and rice);
Provisional of inputs to facilitate seedling production for regeneration;
Continuing education to stakeholders;
Securing markets for forests products (tree seedlings, honey);
Protection of the forest reserve through holistic approaches e.g. beekeeping,
construction of water ponds;
TaTEDO, which is also an important stakeholder in this project has introduced in a
pilot scale, more efficient charcoal production kilns for improved wood carbonisation
(70 households) and wood saving stoves (45 households).
The Mbunju Mvuleni village forest reserve is wholly owned by the village under the
CBFM regime. The reserve was gazetted in April 2003 and is comprised of 6,222
hectares. It is divided into two parts i.e. an area set aside for total protection and
another for utilization of forest resources including charcoal production. TaTEDO
provided training on tree growing with the objective of imparting the participants with
the knowledge on tree -growing and management techniques to enable them establish
private tree-nurseries using local initiatives. TaTEDO has also introduced more
efficient kiln in this village since 2001.
17
Charcoal production
Charcoal burning as an economic activity, using the traditional technologies, started
way back since urbanisation began in Tanzania. Traditional knowledge has been
passed from one generation to another through parents, relatives and friends. TaTEDO
interventions both at Ikwiriri and Kibaha started in 2001 and 2002 respectively; by
introducing the Improved Earth mound Kiln. At Ruvu, seventy (70) charcoal
producers were trained in improving carbonisation using the Improved Basic Earth
mound kiln. At Ikwiriri 15 househols (10 men & 5 women) were trained for the same
purpose. It was learned that, apart from TaTEDO, no any other organization has done
similar initiatives in both of the areas studied.
Trial production by TaTEDO and charcoal producers was done on both production
sites and results were very promising, as indicated in the table below:
Table 4:1 Productivity comparison between two charcoal production
technologies during trial productions.
Trial
burning
site
Kiln
design
Billet
length
(m)
Stack
volume
(m3)
Number
of Bags
Duration
of burn
(days)
Productivity
(bags/m3)
Ikwiriri
Kaskazini
Village
BEK 1 –2 8.9 10 18 1.12
IBEK 1 – 2 8.9 18 4 2.0
Mkuza
Village
BEK 1 – 2 9 8 7 0.8
IBEK 1 – 2 9 21 3 2.3 Source: TaTEDO Annual Report 2002/2003
Literature sighted during this study revealed that simple traditional kilns are capable
of making charcoal at a conversion rates ranging from 2 – 5.20 bags of charcoal from
1 cubic metre of fuelwood (2 – 3bags)19
and (2.84 – 5.20)20
If this statement is true, then TaTEDO will need to find ways of improving its
technology in order to produce kilns that are more efficient than the traditional earth
mound kilns.
Other trial production carried out by the Ruvu Fuel wood Pilot project indicates
productivity (bags/ m3) of some exotic and indigenous species applying improved
earth mound kiln.
Table 4:2 Productivity of some exotic and indigenous species using IBEK
Spp Age (Yrs) Origin Wood
Volume
(m3)
No. of Bags Productivity
(bags/m3)
Eucalyptus
terreticornis
20+ Australia 4.7 10 2.1
Pithecelobium
dulce
17 Asia 2.6 6 2.3
From author analysis
19 Saad S. Yahya: Woodfuel and change in urban Tanzania
20 R.E Malimbwi, S. Misana, G.C Monela, G. Jambiya and E.Zahabu: Impact of charcoal extraction
to the forest resources of Tanzania THA case of Kitungalo area.
18
Acacia
mangium
12 Australia 1.2 3 2.5
Combretum
spp
20+ Indigenous 1.9 6 3.2
Senna siamea 15 Asia 2.3 5 2.2 Source: RFPP, February 2004
Twenty-five (25) respondents were interviewed for this purpose. The sample was
drawn from the Cost region to represent the supply source. Interviews with charcoal
producers were conducted in two charcoal producing areas (Ikwiriri – Rufiji and
Kibaha) where TaTEDO had introduced improved charcoal production techniques.
Both males and female were included in sampling, however the number of males
exceeds females by 52 percent i.e. females were 24 percent and males were 76
percent. Sixty percent of the respondents are organized into informal self-employed
groups having a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 15 people each, while forty percent
operate as sole proprietors.
The below table summarises survey findings in relation to increased productivity as a
result of using the improved basic earth mound kiln.
Table 4:3 Productivity comparisons between two charcoal production technologies
by survey respondents.
S/n respondent BEK
No. of bags
IBEK
No. of bags
DIFFERENCE
No. of bags %
1. 200 250 50 25.0
2. 20 23 3 15.0
3. 9 22.5 13.5 150.0
4. 15 20 5 33.3
5. 7.5 12.5 5 66.7
6. 10 17 7 70.0
7. 3 10 7 233.3
8. 25 32.5 7.5 30.0
9. 22.5 37.5 15 66.7
10. 12.5 17.5 5 40.0
11. 20 40 20 100.0
12. 6 9 3 50.0
13. 9 10 1 11.1
14. 4 4 0 0.0
15. 200 250 50 25.0
16. 52.5 65 12.5 23.8
17. 27.5 30 2.5 9.1
18. 10 15 5 50.0
19. 7.5 22.5 15 200.0
Total 661 888 227 34.3
Average prdn 34.5 46.7 Source: Field Survey, February 2003
Data from the nineteen respondents reveal the mean kiln efficiency of 34.3 percent
(table 4.3). This value is in the higher extreme as compared to data in table 4:1 and
4:2.
19
However, it is important to note that, respondents could not provide actual data related
to age of tree, billet length (m) and diameter (cm), stack volume (m3) as well as ash
content and waste amount (chenga).
It is also important to note the following:
Due to lack of record keeping culture, the figures that are given by charcoal
producers are only estimates;
There are no incentives to increasing production due to low prices offered by
dealers at production sites;
Charcoal production supplement farming, which is the main economic
activity in the surveyed areas.
Charcoal producer preparing earth kiln, side; Tanzania (May, after the rains)
Survey findings reveals that more of after training follow-up is required in order to
increase adoption levels. Apart from that, (it is an opinion of the research team) that
an integrated approach (access to working capital, technical training, business
management training and access to markets) type of support is also required so that
charcoal producers see the benefit of increased production as a result of the new
technology.
Gender: Although TaTEDO provided training to both men and women, charcoal
burning was found to be a male dominated activity and this is due to the following
reasons:
i. Heavy work associated with tree cutting using hand tools. Charcoal
making process involves cumbersome woodcutting, kiln preparation,
carbonisation and finally unloading charcoal from kiln;
ii. Due to over exploitations of forests, wood raw materials are no longer
found in the proximity of villages (in Camps), where women find it
impossible to camp away from home;
iii. Women have other important household chores to attend including care of
children, husbands and other elderly family members.
Out of the 25 charcoal burners interviewed in both Ruvu and Ikwiriri, only 6 (or 24
percent) were females.
20
Transport, trading and storage
Transport: The research team was interested to find out the kind of distribution
systems and costs that are used in the charcoal supply chain.
Survey findings indicate that 60 percent of charcoal producers do not ferry their
charcoal to the city where it is demanded, instead charcoal dealers come and collect
charcoal from production sites. 36 percent of charcoal producers use bicycles to ferry
charcoal up to nearby main roads and charcoal dealers come to collect from there.
Only 4 percent of charcoal burners do hire transport (lorries & pick-ups) and ferry
their charcoal up to wholesalers/retailers in Dar es Salaam city.
The major factor that is constraining charcoal producers from ferrying their charcoal
to end-user markets where they can obtain higher prices is the lack of collective
mechanisms to mobilize large charcoal quantities and make profitable business. This
is attributed by the following factors:
a. limited access to financing mechanisms for working capital;
b. operating informal businesses;
c. poor business management skills;
d. poor access to market information
Trading: As stated above most charcoal producers sell their charcoal to dealers at
production sites. Selling prices at production sites are indicated in the first row of the
table below:
Table 4:4 Selling prices at various points in the supply chain
Selling Point Ikwiriri – Rufiji
(TShs./bag)21
Ruvu fuel project –
Kibaha (TShs./bag)
At production site 1,000 1,200 – 1,500
At the nearest main road 1,500 2,500
Wholesalers (from Charcoal
transporters) at Dar es Salaam City
4,500 4,500
Retail Price in the City 5,500 5,500 Source: Field Survey, February 2004.
Difference in price between the two areas is due to the following factors:
i. Distance from the production site to the market place (the nearer the
market place the higher the price);
ii. Road condition. The poorer the road condition the lesser the price offered
to producers.
Selling constraints: According to respondents, main factors that are hindering
producers from accessing end-user markets are high costs associated with transport
(1,500/= per bag from Ikwiriri and between 1,600/= /bag to 1,800/=/bag from Ruvu)
and government levies. The following are the requirements that one has to fulfil in
order to ferry charcoal to the urban centres:
21
Lower purchase price at Ikwiriri as compared to Kibaha has direct relationship with the distance to
the market place, road conditions and availability of trees for charcoal production.
21
Trading Licence, TShs. 50,000 per annum;
Central Government Levy, TShs. 400 per bag;
District Levy, TShs. 200 per bag.
Storage (in DSM): Producers in the rural areas do not store any charcoal as they
always do not have excess to store, (they sale all what they produce).
60 percent of the wholesalers/ retailers interviewed in Dar es Salaam, store charcoal
in rented premises/ sheds, 33 percent cannot afford renting and therefore they use
plastic or canvas materials to cover charcoal from rain water. The remaining 7 percent
do sale their charcoal directly to the customers.
According to respondents, cost of storage ranges between 3,000/= to 10,000/= per
month. Most wholesalers/ retailers complained about poor storage facilities (i.e. roof
leakage during rainy season) and theft especially during the night.
4.4 Marketing Functions
The marketing of charcoal in the Dar es Salaam City is through the informal market
system. Charcoal dealers play a critical coordinating role in the entire process. The
charcoal supply / demand chain map presents the relationships between the different
actors (charcoal producers, roadside small scale traders, large scale traders/ charcoal
dealers, wholesalers, and retailers).
Charcoal Dealers
Nine (9) charcoal dealers were contacted and interviewed. The interviews took place
at checkpoints. According to the findings, charcoal dealing is a purely male
dominated activity as no women dealers were found during the research period.
Further investigations reveal reasons for non-participation of women as charcoal
dealers. These are amongst others:
a. Experience shows that business operation is done during the night when
women are supposed to be at home caring for children and other members of
the family. Most vehicles carrying natural resources products are
theoretically not allowed to travel after 6:00 PM. Therefore, it is assumed
that once vehicles reach the checkpoints after this hour they should stay until
the next morning22
;
b. Poor road condition and poor state of the vehicles used in charcoal
transportation (they are old with several mechanical problems). Women
consider this as risk factor in this business.
22
CHAPOSA country scientific report: Tanzania, January 2002
22
The charcoal dealer was found to be one of the most influential actors in the supply/
demand chain and serves a very important coordinating and financing role. To dispose
a large load of charcoal bags (e.g. 80 bags), at values up to 4,500/= per bag means that
they must go to several wholesalers / retailers located in various places in the City.
The dealer pays for transport costs and then offloads charcoal to wholesalers/ retailers
both on cash and on credit basis. According to this survey, most dealers (89%) sell
charcoal to wholesalers/ retailers, while just a small percentage (11%) sell directly to
end-users.
Dealers’ volume of business: In order to estimate their volume of business, dealers
were asked to state their amount of charcoal bags per trip and number of trips they
make per month. The following table indicate their responses:
Table 4:5 Volume of business - Dealers
S/n No. of bags per trip No. of trips per month Total traded bags
per month
1. 50 12 600
2. 70 4 280
3. 80 2 160
4. 52 2 104
5. 60 12 720
6. 80 4 320
7. 70 4 280
8. 23 12 276
9. 65 4 260
Total 56 3,000
Average 6 333 Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
During this survey, no dealers were found to have their own charcoal stores/
warehouses for storing charcoal.
As noted stated earlier in the report:
Almost all actors interviewed do not keep proper business records, so these
figures are estimates only (may be over stated or under estimated);
The study took place during the farming period in some areas (Ikwiriri),
there were not much of the charcoal burning taking place.
23
Wholesaler
The wholesalers buy a number of bags from dealers who offload to them in Dar es
Salaam and then sell them to retailers. Some of the wholesalers also do retail (i.e.
providing a double function). There are advantages for them to purchase just a few
bags at a time, and then to turn this over more quickly, relying on the dealers to
supply them on a regular basis with new stock.
80 percent of wholesalers / retailers contacted get charcoal for onward selling through
charcoal dealers. They reported to get charcoal from Coast region (Kiwangwa, Rufiji,
Mkuranga, Ruvu, Kibaha, Chalinze), Tanga region (Mkata) Morogoro region
(Mdaula, Mseyu). 20% of all wholesalers/ retailers buy charcoal directly from
production sites.
As indicated by respondents, duration from pressing order to receiving charcoal differ
depending on seasonality and distance from charcoal production sites. During dry
season it takes about a day or two while during the rainy season it may take a week to
receiving charcoal. This is due to the fact that, during the rainy season most of the
roads are in poor condition and also very small amount of charcoal is produced.
Retailer
There are two different types of retailers: those who are in Dar es Salaam and those at
smaller urban centres closer to charcoal producing areas. In the smaller urban centres
(e.g. at Ikwiriri), the retailers purchase directly from charcoal producers and add about
50 percent mark-up and sell charcoal locally.
Charcoal retailing in Dar es Salaam is a very well structured system geared for
different consumers. In the high-density residential areas, charcoal is easily accessible
for almost everyone, not only in terms of location, but also in the amount that one
needs to use at a particular time.
There are different charcoal measures used in different parts of the city, largely
depending on the population‟s socio-economic situation. Some people buy charcoal in
a sack, this is because they see it is more economic and makes it easy to budget on a
monthly income. Other groups of people prefer buying by the 4-litre tin. People from
lower socio-economic ranks mainly use this measure.
Poorer households buy by the small heap (mafungu). Those who buy the small heap
(fungu), or by tin (kopo) measure tend to buy almost on a daily basis.
24
Gender: Women wholesalers/ retailers comprise of only 16 percent of the
wholesalers/ retailers interviewed.
4.5 Technologies
The main differentiating technologies in the way charcoal is produced, transported
and marketed are highlighted below:
Production
The main difference in technology used in charcoal production relate to carbonisation
process. Before TaTEDO‟s interventions in the two surveyed areas, charcoal
producers were mainly using the low efficient “Traditional Earth mound Kiln”. The
field study reveals that 68 percent of the respondents have adopted the Improved
Earth mound Kiln technology, while 32 percent, although received TaTEDO training,
went back to the Traditional Earth mound Kiln. Current system has no incentives for
charcoal makers to adopt efficient production technologies because of various
reasons, including: poor access to information on end-user markets; failure to access
end-user markets, which offer higher prices; failure to mobilize resources for
organizing for large charcoal quantities and high government taxes/levy. Some other
reasons specifically for Ikwiriri as observed by the survey team include: the lazy
nature of the Coastal people, they fail to follow instructions e.g. arranging billets in an
improved kiln; high poverty level hindering them from investing in improved
technologies (charcoal producers were complaining about the price of aluminium
sheet used as a chimney); low level of entrepreneurship; low literacy level; Ikwiriri
people are used to receive free things and even sitting allowances for training which is
Charcoal seller
25
beneficial for them; the firewood situation is not difficult enough to make it
worthwhile for people to change over to a relatively complicated kiln (requirement to
properly arrange billets and cut logs of the same size) from the traditional earth
mound kiln, which at the moment is adequate for their needs.
It was revealed during the survey that, charcoal burning is more of labour than capital
intensive. Only simple manual tools are required for this purpose. The main tools
mentioned to be used by respondents and their prices23
are listed in the table below:
Table 4:6 Tools for tree felling and charcoal production
S/n TYPE OF TOOL PRICE (TShs)
1. Axe 3,000
2. Bow Saw 8,000
3. Matchet (panga) 1,000
4. Hoe 1,500
5. Rake 2,000
6. Shovel 2,000
7. Slasher 1,000
Total 18,500
Transport
Ferrying of charcoal to Dar es Salaam is done either directly from the forests or from
local markets located in surrounding villages. In most cases bicycles are used to
transport charcoal to the nearest local markets, but for longer distances, especially
moving charcoal directly from the forests or local markets to the city, motor vehicles
(lorries and pickups) are employed. In the inner edges of Dar es Salaam, the bicycle is
used again to deliver charcoal to consumers.
Costs of transport from Ikwiriri and Kibaha to Dar es Salaam as reported by charcoal
transporters is presented in the table below:
Table 4:7 Costs of transport from various points in the supply chain
Ikwiriri – Rufiji
(TShs.)
Ruvu – Kibaha
(TShs.)
From the forests to the nearest main road 500/=/ day24
500/= / day
From the forests to the nearest local
markets
500/=/ day 500/=/ day
From the forests to Dar es Salaam 1,500/ =/ bag 1,600/ - 1,800/bag Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Quality of transport: Old vehicles with several mechanical problems are the most
dominant. The reason for using old vehicles in the charcoal transportation is probably
that the charcoal trade does not generate enough profit to pay for the upkeep and
capital of new vehicles25
.
23
These are current price information collected from hardware stores in Dar es Salaam. 24
Cyclists make between 2 to 5 trips a day at 500/=/day depending on the distances from production
sites to the main roads or nearest local markets (i.e. 100 – 250/= per bag). 25
Final Report CHAPOSA Research Project – Tanzania.
26
It is important to note that in order to increase the profit margins, there is a strong
incentive to evade the government levies. Government levies are evaded by either by-
passing the checkpoints or overstaffing charcoal bags.
4.6 The Chains
The team identified five main chains through which charcoal passes from production
to the end consumer. The chains are differentiated by the technologies that they use
and the relationships (buying, selling) between the different actors in the supply
/demand chain. These chains are not intended to be all encompassing, but represent
the majority of the different kinds of relationships that are encountered.
The first chain is the producer using the traditional basic earth mound kiln
(BEK). Actors in this chain are characterised by low productivity per kiln. As a result
of low productivity producers in chain one are less motivated to ferry their charcoal to
the nearby main roads. They sell all of their charcoal to either the small-scale bicycle
dealers (who collects at production sites) or large-scale dealers from Dar es Salaam.
Estimates on returns from this chain:
Producer from Ikwiriri:
Let‟s say production per kiln is 35 bags (refer Table 4:3, last row – average
production BEK & IBEK).
Selling price at production site is TShs. 1,000 per bag26
Total Revenue will be 35 bags x TShs. 1,000 = TShs. 35,000/=.
Estimated total costs is TShs. 17,000/= Estimated by respondents as follows:
1. Tree felling 7,000/=;
2. Ferrying logs to the production site + kiln construction 5,000/=; and
3. Lunch for helpers 5,000/=.
Gross Profit will be:
Total Revenue 35,000/=
Total Costs 17,000/=
18,000/=
Therefore Gross Profit Percentage is: 51.4
Note: This Profit not inclusive of depreciation of tools, royalty for felling trees,
owner‟s salary.
The second chain, the producer using the improved basic earth mound kiln (IBEK)
and sell all of his charcoal at the production site. The difference between Chain 1
producer and Chain 2 producer lies in efficiency level of the kiln. Since Chain 2
producer uses the improved kiln, he gets more charcoal quantities per production as
compared to Chain 1 producer. As said earlier, in the report, according to findings,
26
Mkuza Village – Kibaha, selling price is between 1,200/= to 1,500/=
27
those who use the improved kiln get 34.3% more charcoal than those who use the
traditional non-efficient kiln.
Let‟s assume, we compare two producers, (Chain 1 and Chain 2), who use the same
amount of wood and labour, the Chain 2 will get 47 bags (i.e. 35 bags x 34.3%).
Therefore; gross profit for channel 2 (for Ikwiriri) will be 47 bags x TShs. 1,000 =
TShs. 47,000. The TShs. 12,000 has increased as a result of using the IBEK.
Estimated total costs is TShs. TShs. 17,000/= Estimated by respondents as follows:
1. Tree felling 7,000/=;
2. Ferrying logs to the production site & kiln construction 5,000/=; and
3. Lunch for helpers 5,000/=.
Gross Profit will be:
Total Revenue 47,000/=
Total Costs 17,000/=
30,000/=
Therefore Gross Profit Percentage is: 63.8
Chain three, the producer using either the traditional basic earth mound kiln or the
improved basic earth mound kiln and sell some of his charcoal to dealers at the nearby
main roadside and some to chain 4 (i.e. the integrated producer/ trader) at production
site.
The main different between this chain and the first two chains is that, producer earn
extra income by moving his products a bit up the supply/ demand chain. From the
production site, normally charcoal is transported using bicycles to the main road or to
the rural urban centres. Transport usually costs about 100/= - 250/= per bag.
Selling price at the main road or urban centre at Ikwiriri (Rufiji) is 1,500/= per bag
and at Vigwaza main road (Kibaha) is 2,500/=.
Estimated total costs is TShs. TShs. 17,000/= (as above)
Let‟s assume producer sells 50% of his/her charcoal at production site and 50% at
Ikwiriri main road.
Gross Profit will be:
Total Revenue 58,500/=
Total Costs 17,000/=
41,500/=
Therefore the Gross Profit Percentage is 70.9
Chain four, the charcoal dealer. The dealer purchase charcoal from producers at
production sites, ferry it to the City and sell to wholesalers/ retailers.
28
Let‟s consider that dealer purchase and sell 300 bags of charcoal per month (refer
Table 4:5 last row – average traded bags per month). His profits margins will look as
follows:
Costs:
1. Price per bag TShs. 1,000 (Ikwiriri)
2. Trade Licence TShs. 50,000 (per annum)
3. District levy TShs. 200 per bag
4. Central Government levy TShs. 400 per bag
5. Transport costs TShs 1,500 per bag.
Therefore:
Cost of purchase TShs. 1,000 x 300 bags = 300,000/=
300 bags x 600/= (levies) = 180,000/=
300 bags x 1,500 (transport costs) = 450,000/=
50,000/12(monthly licence fee) = 4,167/=
Total costs = 934,167/=
Total revenue is 300 bags x 4,500 = 1,350,000/=
Less total costs = 934,167/=
Gross Profit = 415,833/=
Therefore Gross Profit Percentage is: 30.8
Chain five is the integrated producer/ trader. Though the integrated producers/
traders are very few, their business is the most profitable one.
One integrated producer/trader interviewed during the survey indicated to be
getting gross margins of about TShs. 664,833.
He sells to wholesalers/ retailers about 100 bags of charcoal to Dar es Salaam three
times per month. Selling price at wholesalers/ retailers in Dar is 4,500/= per bag.
He incurs the following costs:
6. Trade Licence TShs. 50,000 (per annum)
7. District levy TShs. 200 per bag
8. Central Government levy TShs. 400 per bag
9. Transport costs TShs 1,500 per bag.
Therefore per month income will be:
100 bags x 3 per month = 300 bags
Production costs = 51,000/= (estimated – refer Chain 1; 17,000/= x 3)
300 bags x 600/= (levies) = 180,000/=
300 bags x 1,500 (transport costs) = 450,000/=
50,000/12(monthly licence fee) = 4,167/=
Total costs = 685,167/=
Total revenue is 300 bags x 4,500 = 1,350,000/=
Less total costs = 685,167/=
29
Gross Profit = 664,833/=
Therefore Gross Profit Percentage is: 49.2
Other important actors in the supply/ demand chain are the wholesalers/ retailers.
They play a very important role of onward selling to final consumers, they also enjoy
much profits as compared to producers
The Wholesaler purchasing from Dealer
1. Purchase price from Dealers TShs. 4,500 per bag
2. Renting of storage shade TShs. 10,000 per month
Therefore; profit margin calculation will be as follows:
300 bags x 4,500/= (purchase price) = 1,350,000/=
Renting of storage shade = 10,000/=
Total costs = 1,360,000/=
Total revenue is 300 bags x 5,500 = 1,650,000/=
Less total costs = 1,360,000/=
Gross Profit = 290,000/=
Therefore Gross Profit Percentage is: 17.6.
From the above calculated gross profit percentages, it is clearly that the percentages
only cannot be relied to provide data that indicates the most profitable Chain. It is
wise to also consider aggregate data (business total volume) before drawing any
conclusions. When combining gross profit percentages and aggregate data, indication
is that the most profitable Chain is Chain 5, the integrated producer/trader.
4.7 Business services in the supply chain
Many different services are being provided to charcoal producers. As noted earlier in
the report, there as many as 5 to 6 different cash transactions that can take place in the
process from selecting trees suitable for charcoal production to the point of sale of the
charcoal to the final consumer.
Table 4:8 Business services in the supply chain
Function Activity Business Business
Development
Service to
charcoal
producers
Tree nursery
management
Research, seed
multiplication,
extension services
- Provision of
Extension Services
Tools supply Sale of charcoal
production tools
Hardware stores Access to finance
or supplier credit
for tools
Charcoal
production &
Site selection,
selecting trees, tree
Tree cutting
services, kiln
Provision of
technical training
30
Function Activity Business Business
Development
Service to
charcoal
producers
Packing cutting, logging,
drying of logs, kiln
construction.
construction
services
on improved kilns
Local trader
(bicycle trader)
Move to main road,
rural centres
Transport Access for working
capital
Dealer (Regional
Trader)
Re-pack (overstuffing
bags), move to
market,
Transport, empty
bags sales
Trading Re-pack again,
selling to wholesaler/
retailer
Wholesale and
Retail
Market storage,
security, transport,
selling
Shed rental,
security, transport
Access to working
capital for storage
Taking into account that there are many business activities taking place in the supply/
demand chain, any intervention by TaTEDO or any other development organization
must take into consideration the effect that these will have on those businesses. In
addition, looking to the long term sustainability and success of any identified
solutions, TaTEDO or any other development organization must see how they can
involve and use the private sector to actually implement the solutions, by facilitating
their involvement.
31
5.0 REGULATORY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
5.1 Regulatory Policies Supportive or Hindering Development in
the Woodfuel Supply /Demand Chain
Policies
Overall Regulatory Policies in the Forestry, the Environmental and Energy Sectors
have recently been formulated27
.
All three sectoral Policy Statements are supportive of each other in the areas of:
Ensuring sustainable supplies of forest resources for meeting basic needs for
present and future generation (woodfuel is a basic need for most Tanzanians);
Ensuring/ maintaining sufficient forest cover under effective management,
preventing deforestation, and any form of unnecessary vegetation losses;
Enhancing national capacity to manage and protect forests and related
environmental renewable energy, in collaboration with other stakeholders
including individuals and community participation and raising public
awareness.
5.1.1 The Legal Framework
Legislation is one of the main instruments by which the Government steers and
control its policies. The Forest Act 2002 has already been passed by the Parliament
and received the President‟s assent on June 4, 2002.
The 1992 National Energy Policy was revised in 2003, the revision of the legislation
is underway but yet to be finalised.
Regarding Environmental Legislation, Policy Statement Para 70 states that the
framework environmental legislation shall be designed to organise various agencies of
Government charged with aspects of environmental protection to promote
coordination and cooperation among them, and shall define environmental
management tools of general scope that facilitate an even degree of policy and
enforcement. Sectoral legislations shall be designed in such a way as to factor
environmental policy objectives in their area of coverage.
In conformity with Para: 70 of the National Environmental Policy, section 18 of the
Forest Act 2002 requires Environmental Impact Assessment for certain development
proposed in any forest land i.e. forest reserves, private forests or sensitive areas
including water sheds.
27
The National Environment Forest Policy 1997, the National Forest Policy 1998 and the National
Energy Policy 1992 (revised 2003).
32
Conclusions
With regards to sustainable supply of woodfuels in the supply / demand chain, it is
our opinion that existing sectoral policies and their respective legislations (when
completed) are sufficient (if properly implemented) to guarantee efficient, reliable and
affordable wood energy to the population in the rural and urban centres in Tanzania.
Gender Issue
The National Forest Policy (1998) emphasises of participatory gender balanced forest
management and decentralisation;
The National Energy Policy 1992 (revised 2003) state as follows: “The involvement
of women at all levels of the sector shall, therefore be prioritised to better utilise
available potential, competence and capacity. Training and incentives for increased
female participation as decision makers at all levels need to be encouraged”.
The National Environment Policy (1997) state as follows: “Women are the natural
resource managers in our society. Their knowledge, experience and traditional skills
in the management of resources stocks and household should be tapped for increased
environmental actions. The role of women in environmentally-related activities will
be recognised and promoted with a view to achieving increased women‟s involvement
and integration in all environmental management areas”.
The current study noted that although TaTEDO has done a commendable job in
training both women and men, the participation of women in the supply/ demand
chain of charcoal is still low.
5.2 The policy environment which may hinder or slow down
development in the woodfuel supply/ demand chain
5.2.1 The Forest Sector
An ineffective system of decentralised forest administration, which places the role of
enforcement and management of the bulk of the woodland forest resources under the
District Forest Officers (DFOs) (most of the unreserved woodland forests are within
the jurisdiction of the district councils), who are not answerable to the key policy
custodian (Forestry and Beekeeping Division) in the ministry responsible for forest
management. DFOs are answerable to the District Council; the District Councils are
in the portfolio of the Ministry of Regional Administration and Local Government in
the President‟s Office. When operating in this kind of environment, conflicts on
priorities and emphasis may occur.
The technical and financial capacity for the Local Government on forest activities has
been weak. As the funding for natural resources management at the district level is
generally inadequate, over-exploitation of forest resources has been practiced to try to
alleviate the critical shortage of revenue. This kind of environment does not guarantee
sustainable supply of wood resources in the woodfuel supply/ demand chain.
33
5.2.2 The Energy Sector
Legislation is one of the main instrument by which the government may effectively
implementing its policy. The 1992 Energy Policy was revised in 2003. The legislative
process, which is meant to provide the basis for implementing the revised policy, is
yet to be finalised.
34
6.0 SUPPLY CHAIN DYNAMICS
Tanzania is committed to free market economy, which means that private sector
should take the lead in creating income, wealth, employment and growth. The
government role is to be the regulator and facilitator of private sector development.
Micro, Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) in most sub sectors including the
charcoal sub sector are the emerging private sector in Tanzania. Though the sub sector
possesses high employment potential, it is largely informal, under-performing and in
need of considerable assistance to overcome disadvantages and barriers. Since late
1990‟s there has been major policy changes that create enabling environment for
private sector to take charge of all productive activities. Various Non Governmental
Organizations including TaTEDO have recently played major roles in supporting
micro enterprises especially in rural areas to improve household incomes and
employment creation.
It is clear from the supply/ demand chain map, that TaTEDO interventions in the
target group through the introduction of the improved charcoal carbonisation, the
traditional charcoal producer using the BEK (in Chain 1) is being shifting to Chain 2
(IBEK) and benefit from increased income as a result of improved productivity.
Most of the charcoal produced is passing through Chain 4 (Dealers), this can increase
or shrink depending on the future interventions in the supply /demand chain.
Chain 5 (integrated production/trading) is the emerging chain and the most profitable
one. There are possibilities for actors in chains 1, 2, & 3 to shift to chain 5.
6.1 Driving forces
A number of different forces are driving the dynamics within the supply/ demand
chain. These forces range from market prices, weather, technologies, transport, and
competition from other economic activities (farming). The relationship of these forces
and how they impact on the decisions of the actors within the supply / demand chain
provide very important insights into the best kinds of activities that the support
organizations can implement to have impact on micro enterprises.
Market prices of charcoal
The Coast Region charcoal market is primarily focussed towards Dar es Salaam.
There is huge difference between selling prices at production sites (between 1,000/=
to 1,500/=per bag) and end user price in Dar es Salaam (5,500/=).
6.2 Local policies
The main policies affecting the supply/ demand chain relate to the local levies (cess)
and transport (the time during when charcoal is transported to the City). Vehicles
carrying natural resources products including other forest products are theoretically
35
not allowed to travel after 6:00 PM). Although the precise effect of each of these is
difficult to assess, we note that they lead to change in behaviour:
High levels of cess lead to traders either evading paying it completely by
bypassing the checkpoints or cheating (by overstaffing bags) in order to
reduce the tax burden.
Weather
The weather is an important element to look at, since charcoal production slows down
during raining and farming seasons. Since charcoal is a cash product, proper planning
is crucial in order to make a good balance between food production and production of
cash products. The weather is an important factor to look at. During the rains it is
more difficult to transport charcoal and especially from the kiln site to the main roads.
This difficulty results in reduced supply of charcoal and is reflected in the higher
prices (the low of supply and demand).
Transport
The cost of transport, particularly on bad roads such as those at the forests, are major
factors in forcing down the price of charcoal to the producers to factor in the added
costs associated with the bad roads.
6.3 Points of leverage
The points of leverage are those points in the supply/ demand chain where applying a
small amount of pressure will lead to a fairly large impact. This is extremely
important when trying to work with micro and small enterprises (MSEs), which are
very difficult to reach on an individual basis. There are generally three main sources
of leverage in the charcoal supply/ demand chain:
System nodes, or those points in the supply chain where a single firm is in
contact with a much larger number of firms;
Geographic clusters where there are large concentrations of targeted firms;
and
Policies, where a decision taken at a central level has a broad reaching
impact on a large number of firms in the supply/ demand chain
System Nodes
The dealers: Charcoal dealers serve as important points of contact within the supply/
demand chain as they each deal with large numbers of actors (charcoal producers,
government officials through checkpoints and wholesalers/ retailers).
Geographical clusters
Charcoal producers tend to be clustered into geographic areas that are particularly
appropriate for charcoal production. The two charcoal producing areas visited by the
36
survey team (Kazamoyo forest in Ikwiriri and the North forest) are the examples of
geographic clusters.
6.4 Policies
It was noted that, policies related to taxation (cess) and transport play an important
role in affecting charcoal prices. This though needs further analysis.
Table 6:1 Impact of tax on total costs.
S/n COST per bag TShs. % Total Cost
1. Purchase 1,000.00 32.11
2. Transport 1,500.00 48.17
3. Levies 600.00 19.72
4. Registration fee 13.89
Total 3,113.89 100.00 Source: Field Survey, February 2004
Policy/institutional framework for licensing and other payable fees
The forest Ordinance Cap 389 of the principle legislation empowers the Director of
Forest and Beekeeping to license extraction of forest products from central
government forest reserve and general lands, while local authorities are empowered to
license forest products from local authority forest reserves.
The Minister responsible for Forests determines and prescribes charges and fees for
forest products and services from time to time.
The fees and royalties for Forestry and Beekeeping Division are paid when forest
products from central government forest reserves and general lands are removed from
these forests by license.
Other areas from which fees are collected include establishment of sawmills in the
forest reserves, installation of any commercial facility in the forest reserves, camping,
research, grazing, grading of forest product prior export, registration of forest produce
dealers, fines etc. District Forest Officers (DFO) on behalf of Forest and Beekeeping
Division collect the revenue from central government forest reserves and general
lands, except for Morogoro and Tanga regions where collection are done by regional
Catchments Forest Officers. DFOs also collect revenue for their respective districts
(local authorities).
Payable fees or levies for charcoal and firewood in the Dar es Salaam and Cost
regions
To enter into forest product dealership, an annual registration is required which carries
an annual registration fee of TShs 50,000 [fifty thousand shillings only] as first step
.A general collection license for firewood and charcoal (License No 3) is then
purchased from the DFO at the fee rate of TSh 3,000 per cubic metre in case of
37
firewood and TSh 400 per bag in case of charcoal. An Exchequer Receipt voucher
(ERV) is then issued for the actual quantities collected (m3 or bag). In addition, levies
are collected payable to the Local Authority at the rate of 5 percent of the prescribed
fees in respect of firewood and TShs. 200 per bag in case of charcoal.
38
7.0 ANALYSIS OF CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES
7.1 Analysis of Constraints
There are many constraints facing micro enterprises and the growth of the supply/
demand chain. Most constraints present opportunities for TaTEDO and other support
organizations for designing and implementing solutions.
CATEGORY CONSTRAINTS ACTORS
AFFECTED
Procurement
of Raw
Materials and
Inputs
Seedling diseases Tree growers
Market
Development Low selling price (at production site)
No customers for tree seedling during dry
season
Charcoal producers
Tree growers
Technology /
Product
Development
Poor working tools
Low productivity
Poor charcoal quality led by poor
carbonisation (high waste and ash contents)
Long waiting periods from ordering to
receiving charcoal especially during rainy
season which might be caused by the long
time taken to produce charcoal (up to 18
days BEK)
Charcoal producers
Charcoal producers
Dealers/Wholesalers/
Retailers
Wholesalers/
Retailers
Business
Skills
Development
Poor/No business records (production, sales
records)
Low awareness on environmental
conservation
Lack of information on types of trees with
high calorific values
ALL
Charcoal producers
Finance Low capital base
Non existence of financial institutions that
provide loan support to charcoal producers
(some women at Ikwiriri accessed loans
from FINCA through other types of
businesses)
Charcoal producers
Tree growers
Policy
Environment High levels of cess lead to traders either
avoiding paying it completely by by-passing
the checkpoints or cheating (overstaffing
bags) in order to reduce the tax burden
Transport time during when charcoal is
transported to the City (vehicles carrying
natural resources products including forest
products are theoretically not allowed to
travel after 6:00 PM).
Dealers
39
CATEGORY CONSTRAINTS ACTORS
AFFECTED
Operating
Environment/
Infrastructure
The Traditional BEK produces a lot of
smoke, causes respiratory problems
(coughing, eye irritation)
Lack of reliable sources of water at some
localities, hinder establishment and
development of community nurseries
Poor transport quality (old vehicles) & poor
road conditions (feeder roads leading to
charcoal production areas, lead to
unnecessary delays to reach markets)
Poor storage facilities
High transporting costs
Charcoal producers
Tree growers
Dealers
Wholesaler/ Retailer
Dealers
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
7.2 Analysis of Opportunities
CATEGORY TYPE OF CONSTRAINT PROPOSED
OPPORTUNITY
FOR
INTERVENTION
Procurement of
Raw Materials
and Inputs
Seedling diseases
Market
Development Low selling price (at production site)
No customers for tree seedling during dry
season
Penetrate to high
value markets
Organized into
formal groups and
lobby for better
prices
Technology /
Product
Development
Poor working tools
Low productivity
Poor charcoal quality led by poor
carbonisation (high waste and ash
contents)
Long waiting periods from ordering to
receiving charcoal especially during rainy
season which might be caused by the long
time taken to produce charcoal (up to 18
days BEK)
Organized into
formal groups in
order to gain access
to financial
services.
Provide more
technical training.
Provide storage
facilities at
production sites
Business Skills
Development Poor/No business records (production,
sales records)
Low awareness on environmental
conservation
Lack of information on types of trees with
Provide business
training
Provide more
awareness creation.
40
CATEGORY TYPE OF CONSTRAINT PROPOSED
OPPORTUNITY
FOR
INTERVENTION
high calorific values
Finance Low capital base
Non existence of financial institutions that
provide loan support to charcoal
producers (some women at Ikwiriri
accessed loans from FINCA through other
types of businesses)
Organized into
formal groups in
order to gain access
to financial
services.
Policy
Environment High levels of cess lead to traders either
avoiding paying it completely by by-
passing the checkpoints or cheating
(overstaffing bags) in order to reduce the
tax burden
Transport time during when charcoal is
transported to the City (vehicles carrying
natural resources products including forest
products are theoretically not allowed to
travel after 6:00 PM).
Establish
Association/ Lobby
group
The Government
should intervene
Operating
Environment/
Infrastructure
The Traditional BEK produces a lot of
smoke, causes respiratory problems
(coughing, eye irritation)
Lack of reliable sources of water at some
localities, hinder establishment and
development of community nurseries
Poor transport quality (old vehicles) &
poor road conditions (feeder roads
leading to charcoal production areas,
lead to unnecessary delays to reach
markets)
Poor storage facilities
High transporting costs
More training, after
training follow-up
and encouragement
to use IBEK
Construction of
water ponds for
fish, seedlings and
vegetable
production28
The Government
should intervene
(e.g. through
collected cess)
The Government
should allocate
working premises
for MSEs
Formation of
Associations/Lobby
groups to have
more bargaining
power. Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
28
Already done at some areas (at RFPP)
41
It is important to note that, all of the proposed interventions are being done in some
degree. There is therefore a gap in each that needs to be tackled and overall there is
need for coordinated effort (integrated approach).
7.2.1 Identified Opportunities
Apart from many factors that constrains the growth of the charcoal supply / demand
chain, there are also many positive factors that provide opportunities for growth and
hence strong reasons for TaTEDO and other support organizations to focus their
activities in the supply chains.
Some of the positive factors can be summarized as follows:
Availability and already introduction of the improved charcoal carbonisation
process in some major production sites (the TaTEDO improved BEK);
Any intervention will have a longer-term impact since woodfuels dominate the
energy balance for Tanzania.
All the three policy statements are supportive of each other and they support
the development of the charcoal supply/ demand chain;
There are many geographic clusters, where charcoal producers have organized
themselves into informal groups;
There are many different services available although are not well coordinated;
Charcoal has a long storage life, can be stored and sold during the rainy season
when roads are impassable and production is low;
Ferrying charcoal from the production site to Dar es Salaam (consumption
area) is more profitable than selling at the production site;
7.2.2 Proposed Leverage
Leverage points can be identified at three main areas:
1. Increased productivity through the following measures:
(i) Encourage the use of IBEK;
(ii) Provision of credit facilities;
(iii) Establishment of charcoal storage facilities at production sites.
2. Penetrate into higher-value end-user markets
3. Lobby for tax/cess reduction
42
8.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Abundant evidence of the charcoal and firewood trade is visible throughout Tanzania.
A visit to almost any forest reveals the presence of charcoal makers. Highways are
lined with charcoal bags for sale from the production sites. About 20,000 bags of
charcoal enter Dar es Salaam every 24 hours, every day of the year.
Summary of Constraints faced by the actors in the supply/demand chain that
hinders conservation and sustainable utilization of forests
Major constraints in the demand /supply chain can be summarized as:
Low selling price (at production site);
Poor charcoal quality led by poor carbonisation (high waste and ash contents);
Long waiting periods by wholesalers/ retailers from ordering to receiving
charcoal especially during rainy season which might be caused by the long
time taken to produce charcoal (up to 18 days BEK);
Poor/No business records (production, sales records);
Low awareness on environmental conservation;
Lack of information on types of trees with high calorific values;
High government levy/taxes.
8.1 Proposed recommendations for TaTEDO interventions
As earlier noted, an integrated type of support to the actors in the supply/ demand
chain is required in order for TaTEDO to achieve its objective of conserving the
environment through higher adoption level of improved technologies as well create
positive impacts to intended beneficiaries in terms of income generation and
employment creation.
Several issues that require more in-depth analysis arise before deciding what to do and
how to do it. These can be:
Promotion of producer associations and/or marketing Cooperatives (which will
provide to its members an integrated approach type of support such as access
to finance, Business Development Services, technical training, lobbying, etc);
Lobby for tax/levy reduction.
8.1.1 Promote the formation of producer associations or marketing
cooperative societies
Charcoal production in Tanzania is known to contribute substantially to the economy
of rural people as well as to the government in the form of revenue collection.
Charcoal production is not an illegal business as long as it is practised at non-reserved
areas and also if there are no illegal and wasteful harvesting practices. Joint Forest
Management is the best tool for participatory forest management practices whereby
43
the government and the public (charcoal producers /traders) share the responsibilities
and benefits
Within the foreseeable future charcoal will remain the most important source of
energy fuel for all Tanzanians due to its affordable prices to the majority of the
population as well as its availability.
The charcoal producers association to be formed will bring together small-scale
charcoal producers to consolidate and collectively sell their charcoal in the most
progressive and producer – beneficial manner possible.
The association will seek to become a model of a progressive; village based charcoal
producers service organization; and a catalyst for better standards of service within
the charcoal industry in Tanzania.
The association will move from a situation where its members depend on selling to
lower – price production site buyers, to selling its charcoal to Dar es Salaam (or other
major towns) at better prices. During survey period, production site prices were TShs.
1,000/bag and TShs. 1,500/bag at Ikwiriri and Kibaha respectively. Selling prices at
Dar es Salaam were ranging between TShs. 4,500/ bags to 5,500/ bags.
Charcoal producers will benefit from collective marketing. The larger the volume the
association can mobilize and market, the less per unit cost and hence better returns to
charcoal producers. Adequate stock will also put the association in better negotiating
terms with buyers in Dar as it can assure them delivery of economic quantities.
It is expected that producers will join the association based on economic,
environmental and social incentives that members will get from the association. The
economic incentives include access to working capital and better charcoal prices,
access to more technical training on improved technologies that results to improved
quality and quantity (more charcoal per cubic metre), and access to business training.
Other economic benefits as a result receiving better prices will be such as ability to
send children to school and improve housing conditions. Socially, charcoal producers
will act as a bigger family and will have access to social services such as improved
health facilities (medical, water and sanitation). Environmentally as an association,
members will have an increased awareness on environmental concerns through
environment awareness creation workshops. Members are expected to be more aware
of protecting their environment and forest resources. As a result of understanding the
benefits of using the improved kiln, they will reduce tree cutting and therefore forest
conservation.
The association will collectively, with assistance from TaTEDO lobby for levy/tax
reduction and sharing of forest revenues with the government.
Through this model the government will also benefit because it will know where to
collect revenues.
The efforts will have direct connection with TaTEDO‟s initiatives of promoting
improved cookstoves that uses less woodfuels i.e. up to 50% efficiency (the Sazawa
stove).
44
Specifically,
TaTEDO would used Business Development Services providers to mobilize
charcoal producers and assist them in the formation of producer associations
and imparting them with business management skills;
TaTEDO would continue providing technical skills in the areas of improved
charcoal kilns and environmental conservation awareness training;
TaTEDO would link the associations with donor funding organizations sot that
they can access working capital.
8.1.2 Lobby for tax/levy reduction
It was revealed during this survey that there is a strong incentive for most charcoal
dealers to evade government taxes/cess in order to increase their profit margins. These
levies are evaded either by bypassing the government checkpoints or by overstaffing
charcoal bags. With this situation and taking into consideration that charcoal is an
important sub sector, the government is loosing a lot of money and on the other side
charcoal producers are not motivated to sell their charcoal at the end – user markets
where they can benefit from high prices. The current amount of government levy/cess
charged per bag of charcoal is TSh. 600 which is considered very high by both
charcoal producers and dealers, i.e. almost 60% of purchasing price at the production
site.
According to information from various sources, the daily charcoal consumption for
Dar es Salaam only is 24,000 bags. Other sources also reveals that between 15,000 to
20,000 bags of charcoal are entering Dar es Salaam everyday.
Three-year trend data (2001 – 2003) collected from the four major checkpoints
reveals that only 2,800 bags (or 12% of consumption) of charcoal are taxed everyday.
Through the current system the government is loosing a lot of money in terms of
revenue and also those who are paying taxes are not benefiting much in this business.
With the current situation, the government is collecting a daily revenue of TSh.
1,680,000. Let‟s assume that levies are reduced to TSh. 200 /bag (i.e. 100/= for the
Central government and 100/= for the district council) and taking into account a daily
consumption of 24,000 bags for Dar es Salaam. The government would collect a daily
revenue of TSh. 4,800,000 and this reduction would have a big financial impact to the
target group (66% savings) or increased income as a result of tax reduction.
If proper mechanisms are put into practice e.g. collecting levy through registered
charcoal associations (refer first recommendation), both the government and charcoal
producers will benefit.
One of the services that TaTEDO provides to its target groups is to lobby for
supportive policies that enhance provision of better energy services.
45
PART TWO
9.0 OVERVIEW OF BIOMASS ENERGY AND IMPROVED
STOVES TECHNOLOGIES
Biomass is a primary fuel that provides households with energy for meeting basic
needs such as cooking, space heating, and energy for small industries largely in the
developing countries with the population of about 3 billion being beneficiaries.
Domestic cooking makes up a major portion of the total energy used in these nations,
(close to 60 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa)29
. Biomass can be classified into two
main groups: woody biomass and agro-forestry waste (crop residues, animal manure
and forestry processing wastes). Various options of utilising biomass for energy
purposes include directly utilisation by burning in the combustion devices, production
of secondary fuel by converted wood into charcoal through carbonisation process,
production of liquid biofuels such as ethanol through fermentation; and production of
gaseous fuels by gasification processes (both thermal and biological processes).
Since nearly three billion people in the world use traditional stoves to prepare their
meals, efforts to improve the efficiency of cookstove and to mitigate health hazards
have been on the increasing in the developing world. Improved stoves come in
different forms and sizes. Improved cookstove can be designed and built in various
ways, depending on the local conditions, which include user‟s requirements and types
of fuel and its properties. “At their simplest, improved stoves rely on providing an
enclosure for the fire to cut down on the loss of heat and protect it against the wind. In
addition, attention can be given to devising methods of controlling the flow of hot
combustion gases, so as to increase the transfer of heat to the cooking pot” (Foley and
Moss, 1983, pp.16). Many of these stoves are normally made of mud and/or sand and
iron sheets since both of the raw materials are almost available.
One of the first improved stoves was the “Magan Chula”, introduced in India in 1947.
A publication called “Smokeless Kitchens for the Millions30” advocating the health
and convenience benefits of increasing efficiency in the burning of biomass further
stimulated the promotion of improved cookstove. In recent decades, urban areas in
developing nations have experienced higher penetration rates of improved stoves;
indeed, many urban households have made the switch to fuels like liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG) or kerosene for cooking. Most rural households in these countries, on the
other hand, are not endowed with the infrastructure that would bring them cleaner
fuels, nor do they have the adequate income to pay for the fuels if they were available.
The dissemination of increased-efficiency cookstove households can be a step taken
toward curbing indoor air pollution and decreasing time and money spent on
woodfuels. Tanzania, for example, with an annual per capita income of only $240 and
29
Ergeneman, A. 2003 30
Raju, 1953
46
with less than one percent of its rural households having access to electricity could
greatly benefit from increased efforts in improved cookstove dissemination
programmes.
In the last 20 years, substantial effort has been directed towards the modernization of
small scale and environmentally sound improved cookstove for rural and urban
households in sub-Saharan Africa (Table 2.1).
In Tanzania, domestic energy demand has grown rapidly due to population growth
and the increase in economic activities during the last ten years. The Ministry of
Energy and Minerals estimated energy consumption is more than 22 million tons of
oil equivalent (ToE) or 0.7 ToE per capita. Energy consumption in the rural areas
accounts for about 85% of total national energy consumption.
The energy balance is dominated by biomass fuels, particularly woodfuels (charcoal
and firewood), which are the main sources of energy to both urban and rural areas.
Biomass fuel accounts for more than 90% of primary energy supply. Charcoal is
mainly used in the urban areas, whereas firewood is predominant in the rural areas. In
the urban areas charcoal is preferred because of its ease of storage, high energy
content, and lower levels of smoke emissions. Corresponding major cooking devices
are charcoal stoves and three stone fire places, all of which are still employing
outdated combustion technologies. Traditional wood and charcoal stoves are used in
hundreds of millions of homes. Their redesign can have a dramatic effect on energy
usage, the environment and community health.
Tanzania has a forested area of about 35.5 million hectares of which about 32 million
hectares are woodland, from which the bulk of the household woodfuel is produced.
Traditional charcoal production which relies on the traditional and rudimentary earth
kiln is considered to be a major contributor to deforestation in many parts of sub-
Saharan Africa. Efforts to improve and modernize small-scale biomass energy
systems to ensure environmentally sound use of biomass energy constitute an
important component of national energy strategies in many sub-Saharan African
countries.
In Tanzania such policies are formulated and implemented by responsible Ministries
and stakeholders through The National Energy Policy 1992 (revised 2003). The policy
objectives are to ensure availability of reliable and affordable energy supplies and
their use in a rational and sustainable manner, in order to support national
development goals. The National Energy Policy therefore, aims to establish an
efficient energy production, procurement, transportation, distribution and end-use
system in an environmentally sound and sustainable manner.
The vision of the energy sector is to effectively contribute to the growth of the
national economy and thereby improve the standard of living for the entire nation in a
sustainable and environmentally sound manner, while the mission for the energy
sector is stated as to create conditions for the provision of safe, reliable, efficient,
cost-effective and environmentally appropriate energy services to all sectors on a
sustainable basis.
47
Large volumes of wood are used annually (40.4 million cubic meters were consumed
in 199931
). The bulk of the woodfuel is used in households for cooking and heating.
The traditional charcoal stoves (used in urban areas) and the three stone fire place
(used in rural areas) are extremely wasteful, because they use less than 15 and 10
percent respectively of the energy available in the wood. The wasteful use of wood
leads to greater demand from the forests.
TaTEDO (in collaboration with other stakeholders and partners) has been promoting
renewable energy technology development and environmental conservation practices
since its inception. The organization was registered in 1990, as a non-governmental,
non-profit sharing organization, for spearheading the development of renewable energy
technologies and services as well as environmental conservation.
The expected outcomes of TaTEDO interventions are:
Improved energy production efficiency for a given volume of biomass fuel material;
Reduced wasteful exploitation of woodfuel from forests, therefore improved supply
and sustainability of forest resources as well as environmental conservation;
Improvement in the household economics (poverty reduction), due to less firewood/
charcoal used to prepare the family meals and heating, resulting from the improved
charcoal or firewood stoves.
31
Woodfuel strategy Dec. 2000
48
10.0 IDENTIFICATION OF DIFFERENT TARGET GROUPS
AND BENEFICIARIES OF TaTEDO IMPROVED STOVES
AND OVENS AND THEIR SPECIFIC NEEDS
Since 1990 TaTEDO has managed to develop over 19 different designs of improved
solid biomass stoves. The developed improved stoves may be categorized in four major
groups, namely; improved charcoal stoves; improved charcoal ovens; improved
woodstoves; and biowaste stoves.
10.1 Types of Improved Stoves Available to Beneficiaries
The main types of stoves used by urban dwellers are charcoal stoves and ovens, while
rural dwellers use mainly firewood stoves.
Survey findings indicate that “Bell-Bottom” improved stove is the mostly known and
widely used stove (72 percent of the surveyed population were found to be using this
stove – see table below). Other lesser known types of stoves are “Double Plate Stand”
which, is used by 31 percent of the surveyed population, “Straight” used by 13
percent of the surveyed population, “miguu mitatu” used by 13 percent, “Sazawa”
used by 10 percent of the surveyed population, “efficient woodfuel brick” used by 5
percent of the surveyed population and “Double Plate Box” used by 3 percent of the
surveyed population. However, 13 percent of the user respondents are still using the
“traditional metal stove” (Table 3.2a).
About 13% of respondents still use the inefficient traditional stove. When asked as to
why they preferred the traditional metal stove, the respondents gave different reasons.
Price and durability are major elements. According to some of the respondents,
traditional metal stoves last longer than improved stoves, mainly because the clay
insulation materials tend to be brittle and break quite frequently.
10.2 Target Groups and Beneficiaries
Low-income communities located both in rural and urban areas is most likely to benefit
from TaTEDO improved stove programmes. According to the survey, the target groups
were categorized into three main categories i.e. (i) households (urban & rural), (ii)
SMEs (food vending, hotels & restaurants) and (iii) Institutions (schools & training
centers).
Total user respondents interviewed were 60 (i.e. 46 respondents in urban and 14
respondents in the rural areas). The respondents were categorized into the following
target groups: schools & colleges, hotels & restaurants (local & tourists), training
centres (textile), cottage industries (textile), households (rural & urban) and food
vending (chips fryers, fish fryers, barbeque). Out of the total surveyed population,
female respondents were 59 percent and male respondents were 41 percent. This
reflects the main purchasers and users of fuel energy.
According to responses from urban households, charcoal seems to be the most
affordable type of energy fuel as compared to electricity (sold at TShs. 4,500 to TShs
5,500 per bag of 35kg). Out of 13 household respondents who are earning less than
TShs. 45,000 per month, 10 of them or 77 percent use charcoal; out of 22 respondents
49
of those earning between TShs. 45,000 to TShs. 100,000 per month, 19 of them or 86
percent use charcoal and out of 11 respondents who earn above TShs. 100,000 per
month, 8 of them 4 or 73 percent use charcoal as main type of energy (also in this
income level category, 45 percent use electricity). Therefore, within the foreseeable
future, charcoal will remain to be the first choice fuel for most urban households,
because of its availability, convenience and low price compared to other fuels.
Out of 8 respondents who are earning less than TShs. 45,000 per month, all 8 of them
or 100 percent use firewood and 3 of them or 37.5 percent use charcoal; out of 5
respondents of those earning between TShs. 45,000 to TShs. 100,000 per month, all 5
of them or 100 percent use firewood and 4 of them or 80 percent use charcoal.
According to findings of this survey, the level of income is a major factor that reduces
the use of electricity in both the urban and rural areas. From Table 3.1a it can be
established that, none of those who are earning less than TShs. 45,000 per month is
using electricity as main energy type.
10.2.1 Beneficiaries in the Rural Areas
According to respondents, the main sources of fuel energy used by the rural areas
dwellers were firewood (93 percent of respondents), followed by charcoal (57
percent), kerosene (29 percent) and saw dust (14 percent). In the surveyed areas of
Ruvu and Ikwiriri it was clear that charcoal is not a priority source of energy since
they usually collect firewood free of charge from the surrounding forests
(Table 3.1b).
10.2.2 Beneficiaries in the Urban Areas
As noted in the Table 3.1b, the main types of energy that are used by the urban
dwellers arranged in decreasing order includes charcoal (80.4 percent), kerosene (34.8
percent), electricity (32.6 percent), firewood (32.6 percent), sawdust (10.9 percent)
and gas (8.7 percent). While electricity is an important source of modern energy for
economic activities, only about 33 percent of interviewed population have access to it.
Eleven percent (11%) of respondents were found to be using sawdust stoves; these
were mainly street food vendors. Most of the respondents interviewed (57 percent),
combine two or more types of energy sources. This is partly because they tend to use
certain fuel energy sources for certain foods. For instance, the findings revealed that,
the cooking of dried beans or maize cereals require longer cooking time and in such
cases, most people decide to use charcoal or firewood than other sources of fuel such
as kerosene or electricity. The same respondent may use kerosene or other expensive
but convenient energy sources to cook light foods. Level of income, prices and
availability are among the determinants of using any source of energy.
10.3 Specific Needs and Preferences of the target groups
Consideration of users‟ requirements is a vital factor for any cookstoves introduction
and dissemination programme. The early cookstoves programs focussed strongly on
stove efficiency and fuelwood saving, and many programs failed because they ignored
the requirements of the user. There is a great need for stove designers and producers
to find out if there is an interest and market for improved stoves. For the sake of this
50
survey, customer specific needs and preferences for choice of stove were categorized
into seven categories:
(i) Monetary benefit (Price of the stove and Energy saving);
(ii) Durability of the stove;
(iii) Appearance (or appealing) of the stove;
(iv) Social and Culture (acceptability of the stove);
(v) Health and Improved kitchen environment;
(vi) Appropriateness (type of food, size, portability, safety);
(vii) Availability of repair services or after-sales services.
10.3.1 Specific Needs and Preferences for Urban and Rural Households
(i) Monetary benefits (price of stove and energy saving)
Price: The price of improved cookstove may yet be the most important factor
impacting their adoption by users especially the rural households. The price of the
improved stoves varies significantly.
According to findings, affordable stoves are those with prices ranging between TShs.
1,350 to TShs. 5,000 (Bellbottom, Straight, Sazawa, Miguu Mitatu) as responded by
49% of the surveyed population.
The most expensive energy saving stoves as expressed by respondents (particularly
those having average income level of below TShs. 100,000 per month) are Double
Plate Box, Double Plate Stand, most of the Charcoal Ovens and Efficient Firewood
Brick stoves (Table3.3a).
On the other hand, the actual price for two-pot openings efficient firewood clay stove
adapted for rural areas (example at Ikwiriri) and constructed at user‟s home is TShs.
1,000 - 2,500. Apart from TaTEDO’s efforts to increase adoption by providing initial
promotional price reduction offer of up to 50 percent of the actual stove cost, the
intended user could not afford to pay. This made it difficult for trained artisans to take
over production and to sell these improved fixed clay firewood stoves. It is the feeling
of the survey team that, although the villagers are constrained by low income, but the
main factor, specifically for Ikwiriri is not the price of stove but rather is the easily
availability of firewood in the area. Ikwiriri is not a deforested area and therefore,
firewood can be easily collected free of charge from surrounding woodlands and
forests. In this case, financial benefit of investing in an improved woodstove is small
if not nil.
Several authors argue that if prices of alternative fuels like kerosene, electricity or gas
go down, they can substitute woodfuel and reduce its demand. However the level of
substitution may be affected by the high prices of certain equipment for these energy
sources. High price of equipments like electric cookers or heaters may hinder the
substitution of woodfuel for alternative heating sources (e.g. electric power) even if
the prices of these alternatives are dropped (Table 3.3b).
In the other hand, there is a need to perform an in-depth costing and pricing analysis
as well as the analysis of level of productivity in order to determine the level of price
that is attractive to both user and producer of improved stove. The rationale is that if
producers and traders can make an attractive income from the fabrication and
51
marketing of improved stoves then these businesses will in the long run be sustainable
and hence; the fabricators will be motivated to improve quality of stoves.
Table 3.3c summarizes gross profit margins as responded by surveyed workshops.
There is a need to assess if the margins are attractive to producer artisans.
Energy saving: The bulk of energy from wood is used for cooking and heating.
Although no macro-estimates exist of the percentage of wood consumed directly as
fuelwood, and the percentage consumed as charcoal, micro studies indicate that
charcoal is mainly an urban fuel. While in most regions, fuelwood is still largely free
(i.e. people depend on what they can gather themselves), in urban areas fuelwood is
largely purchased. The success of improved stoves in the urban areas will depend on
how much the user will cut down fuelwood requirements. Seventy eight percent
(78%) of the urban household interviewed reported to have gained the benefit of
energy saving by using improved stoves. They reported that the consumption of
charcoal has been reduced by up to 50 percent .
Only 38 percent of the rural households using efficient firewood stove responded to
have realized this benefit. As noted earlier, firewood is not a crisis in the surveyed
rural areas (Table 3.3d).
(ii) Durability of the Stove
The durability of the improved cook stove is an important factor determining
household choice on whether to adopt the stove or buy a new one to replace the old
one. The durability depends on such characteristics as the quality of materials used in
fabricating the stove, application of proper technical knowledge during fabricating
stove, and the availability of technical assistance for stove repairs. According to
findings of this survey, 56 percent of the respondents (users) interviewed, pointed out
that most of the stoves are not durable (Table 3.3e). They have the opinion that, stove
fabricators use low quality raw materials especially poor quality iron sheets, scrap
material and ceramic liners (ceramic liner cracks very easily). The survey also
revealed that, most of the improved stoves sold through various outlets are fabricated
by unskilled artisans who operate informal businesses in the informal sector. Survey
findings also reveal that 14.3 percent of urban artisans interviewed and 100% of rural
artisans (Ikwiriri) have received stove fabrication skills training from TaTEDO. The
remaining 81 percent have learned how to fabricate stoves through other artisans
(relatives or friends) (Table 3.3f).
In the rural areas, as indicated by 92 percent of the interviewed households, durability
is largely dependable on the quality of the clay soil used to construct the stove. In
most cases, the constructed stoves cracked and collapsed and had not been replaced.
(iii) Appearance (or appealing) of the Stove
The most appealing stove to most urban users seemed to be the “bell-bottomed”.
Another appealing stove as reported by some household users is the “double plate
stand”, although is not within the reach of the majority of households.
52
(iv) Social and Culture of Users
Acceptability: The survey team observed that the acceptability of improved stoves is
high in the urban areas, especially for those, which are within the reach of many urban
dwellers in terms of price, required sizes and good looks (appearance). Urban
households require small sizes cookstoves (sizes 9 – 14) and which are affordable to
them (TSh. 1,300 – 6,000). Improved stoves were seen to be dominant in most of the
households visited. It was also observed that some of the households maintained
traditional three-stone fire places alongside with the improved ones. The reasons for
maintaining the traditional stove were stated as lack of awareness on availability of
larger sizes of improved stoves and poor quality of ceramic liners. While waiting for
repairing of the improved stove one uses the traditional stove.
There are about two indicators one can argue that the improved stoves are acceptable
by the urban dwellers. These are:
(a) Artisans are making them continuously and even increasing the
production; and
(b) Retailers and regional traders are stocking them and selling them. The
stoves are mostly sold in Dar es Salaam, Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Shinyanga,
Tanga and Mbeya (Tables 3.3g - h).
Gender: The success of improved wood stoves depend on whether the stoves are
acceptable by women who are the mass of users, especially in the rural areas. The
status of women within the household is a significant factor in wood stove adoption,
especially where adoption requires cash expenditure. Although women are the
potential users and, therefore, in the best position to assess the advantages and
disadvantages of the wood stove, men usually handle the household cash and make
decisions on how it is spent. Where women manage to get independent access to
money, they spend it on family needs, whereas men tend to spend it on their own
needs, such as drink, clothes, etc. Hence, where men make the decisions, the purchase
of an improved stove almost certainly does not get priority, especially since its main
advantage is greater leisure or convenience in cooking for women.
Rural women usually have no direct access to institutional credit or to an
independently disposable cash income to purchase new innovations; and they seldom
have access to information on new innovations. It is also unfortunate, that up to now,
rural women have not been given the education, training or the opportunity to
undertake decision-making roles or responsibilities in the public sphere.
Cleanliness: When one cooks with the improved stove, one can still wear nice clothes
without getting them dirty or smoke and also can reduce time spent in cleaning pots
after cooking (smoke blackens pots and other utensils and hence need vigorous
cleaning). Clean and smoke-free kitchen environment would attract members of the
family especially men to sit around while the women are preparing the meals.
(v) Health and Improved Kitchen Environment
In-door smoke removal and reduction of harmful emissions from the kitchen are
important considerations for improved biomass stoves. Interviewed users of improved
stoves reported that, the use of these stoves contributes a lot to the improved kitchen
environment especially with regard to cleanliness and health. They said that, the
amount of smoke that was being produced by the traditional stove has been reduced
53
tremendously and hence the level of coughing, headache and eye irritation has been
reduced. However, it was difficult for the survey team to quantify to what extent the
uses of improved stoves have brought impacts to the health of users.
Various studies have associated the smoke from traditional stoves with health risks
including acute respiratory infections in children, chronic obstructive lung diseases
(such as asthma and chronic bronchitis), lung cancer and pregnancy-related problems.
Specifically, indoor air pollution affects women and small children far more than any
other people in the society. Women typically spend three to seven hours per day by
the fire (cooking breakfast, lunch and dinner), exposed to smoke, often with young
children nearby or strapped on their backs.
Properly designed improved cookstoves with chimneys would be the answer to reduce
smoke exposure for the rural people.
(vi) Availability of Repair Services
Improved stoves need continuous repair and maintenance. From the survey findings, it
is obvious that user acceptance and quality control in fabrication are prerequisites for
success in this business. There is, therefore a need for identifying strategies to be
adapted to control stove quality while at the same time avoiding negative effects on
stove prices.
(vii) Appropriateness
In order to achieve higher adoption level, it is crucial that improved cookstove are
appropriate for the specific community they are dealing with. Although efficiency and
fuelwood saving are very important factors but other requirements of the user should
not be ignored. Some of the user needs, besides fuel saving include type of food,
cooking comfort, portability and safety.
a) Some foods e.g. dry maize and beans (makande) cooked by communities takes
six hours to cook. Clay and sand stoves proves quite useful in this respect as
the mass will take the heat for the first 30 minutes but later the mass retains
the heat within itself as the fire is directed to the pot;
b) The length of time the food takes to cook is also an important factor in the
stove efficiency consideration design;
c) The type of pot used in the cooking. Many pots used cannot fit very well with
a situation where heat is to be forced to scrape against the sides of the pot;
d) Some foods requires pounding as it cooks which influences the way the pot
has to sit on the stove;
e) Gender aspects are important because most household users are generally
women. Most successful way to design a stove that will be widely appreciated
and used is to involve women in the design;
f) Cooking comfort is also an important factor. The cookstove should be adapted
to the most comfortable cooking posture (depending on the type of food,
sometimes cooking could be done while standing or sometimes sitting down
e.g. in the case of stirring “ugali”;
54
g) Saving time is another important factor that most urban households are
looking for, especially the working population. In order to save time, there are
many households that use electricity to boil water especially by using an
electric kettle. Saving time for rural women is also important. One of the
major drawbacks of the rural three stone fire place is that one is required to be
in the kitchen during the whole cooking period as she has to feed the stove
with wood every few minutes, which increases the time required for tending
the fire;
h) Safety is also very crucial. Major drawbacks of the traditional stove, especially
the three stone firewood place are dispersion of flames and heat because of the
wind, poor control over the fire, exposure to heat and smoke, and fire hazard.
The benefit of the improved stove is that safety is enhanced since the flame is
enclosed inside the stove.
10.3.2 Specific Needs and Preferences of the Institutions
Stoves to cater for larger groups of people are known as institutional stoves. They are
distinguished from domestic stoves mainly by their larger size and more sturdy
construction. There are still fewer types of institutional stove on the market than the
domestic stoves. This is because of beliefs among the stove fabricators that the market
for institutional stoves is smaller and, because the development of a working stove
design is often a very lengthy and detailed process.
Institutional stoves may be used for one or more of the following purposes, and
should be designed accordingly:
cooking or boiling;
heating water for tea, washing, or for heating systems;
as an oven for roasting or baking bread or cakes; and
frying.
In order to assess the potential of institutional stoves amongst Dar es Salaam schools,
a study was conducted by Dr. L.M.P Rweyemamu of the Department of Chemical and
Process Engineering; University of Dar es Salaam. In this study, which was carried
out in May – June 2003, the situation of the fuelwood consumption in 26 randomly
selected schools located in all the three districts of Dar es Salaam was assessed. The
following sections below i.e. (i) – (vii) discusses findings relevant to this assignment.
(i) Monetary Benefits (i.e. price of stove and energy saved)
Monthly Expenditure on Fuel Procurement: Total monthly expenditure of shillings
varied from 30,000 to 1,110,000 shillings. The expenditure on energy to feed one
student varied from 150 to 1960 shillings per month.
Energy saving: The potential for fuel saving is much greater in institutional kitchens
than in domestic cooking if the owners are conscious of the cost of fuel and the
amount used, and keep records of operating costs. Improved stoves of higher
efficiency may be more expensive to buy but will repay their cost in the long term. As
institutions buy fuel from outside contractors, rather than gather it free themselves,
they have a strong incentive to keep down fuel costs by using efficient stoves.
55
Energy saver cookstoves were found in four schools, i.e. 13% of the visited schools.
The benefits of energy saving stove could be clearly noted from the assessment of one
of the school energy saving cookstoves (St. Mathew High School). It had the highest
number of students of all surveyed schools. It spends about 600,000 shillings a month
to burn around 10 tons of firewood, and thus preparing meals for its 1,244 students.
On the other hand another school with 920 students had monthly wood energy
expenditure of 1,110,000 shillings. In other words, the school with energy saving
woodstove is spending about 490 shillings on energy to feed one student, whereas that
using traditional metal charcoal stoves is spending about 1200 shillings for one
student per month. The efficiency of energy saving stoves normally varies between 40
– 80%, whereas that of metal charcoal stoves ranges between 15 – 25%.
With appropriately improved cookstoves technology schools would realise numerous
benefits including cutting down their fuelwood expenses and improving the hygiene
of their kitchen. From the study and the level of cookstoves technology, the projected
energy saving is calculated at 60%, which is on the lowest side. The maximum saving
can go up to about 80 per cent. The current expenses of St. Mathew Secondary School
can be improved by the minimum of 20%.
According to the savings realised and the cost of buying the stove, the amount spent
to by stoves could be realised within a relatively short period of time.
(ii) Durability/Reliability of Cookstoves Used
The life-span of most charcoal stoves used in schools varies between 8 – 18 months.
The shortest life-span is offered by the ceramic charcoal stove (Jiko bora). The main
factor here is the characteristics of the construction materials. The ceramic charcoal
stoves have a ceramic liner to reduce the heat loss and therefore maximising the heat
going into the pot to cook food. However, due to operating conditions and the quality
of workmanship the ceramic liner can deteriorate very fast and thus shortening the
stove‟s service life. The ceramic liner cracks and/or detaches from the metal where it
is fixed by using the binding material. Most of the construction materials used to
make these stoves is metal scraps which to a large extent have already been subjected
to excessive rust. Some metal charcoal stoves comprise of massive metal parts such as
auto tyre rims. This type seemed to be the best choice of most schools because it
offers longer service-life up to 2 years.
The study showed the relationship between stoves reliability and the type of the
cookstove used. Most of charcoal stoves users and energy-saving stoves responded as
their stoves being good. The assessment on how reliable the stoves are revealed that
most users (73%) are moderately satisfied. Nineteen per cent expressed dissatisfaction
with the reliability. The schools which are using energy-saving woodstoves, or gas
and electricity were proud with their cooking devices. They were only 8 per cent of all
surveyed schools.
(iii) Appearance (or appealing) of the Stove
Fuelwood energy-saving stoves are constructed in a way to enclose the combustion
chamber and to insulate the body with poor conducting materials. With the cooking
pot inserted into the stove and the smoke discharged outside through the chimney, the
institutional stove presents itself as a high standard cooking device.
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(iv) Social and Culture (acceptability) of Users
The survey revealed the interest of schools to obtain and using improved cookstoves.
Some schools have obtained such stoves but actually not operating to the satisfactory
standards in terms of combustion efficiency, hazardous smoke emission, fuel saving,
durability, costs, etc. A well designed improved cookstove should function to offer a
number of desirable benefits.
Field observations have indicated that stoves designed and developed by Dr.
Rweyemamu consumes little fuelwood, with fuel saving between 60 to 80%. Besides
reducing deforestation, the financial savings obtained from using less fuelwood can be
used by schools for other purposes such as obtaining new physical facilities,
textbooks, improving quality of meals, etc. Because of high combustion efficiency,
the stove also saves time for cooking.
Because of the good insulation materials constituting the body of the improved stove,
food can be cooked by using the smallest amount of produced charcoal from wood
combustion. This also keeps foods warm for longer hours even after extinguishing the
fire. Good insulation properties of the used materials make the stove safer for users
because of tolerable sensible heat on the outer walls. These reduce risks of burning
accidents, and provide further comfort to the cooks by not exposing them to excessive
heat which is detrimental to their health.
Whereas other types of the stoves have a short service life, the design and properties
of materials used to construct these improved stoves ensures longer life-span of more
than six years.
(v) Health and Improved Kitchen Environment
Indoor air pollution in most community centres including schools seems to be a
normal situation that a cook has to be subjected to. Most school kitchens are not well
ventilated or provided with facilities to remove the smoke. Even schools which have
already acquired energy-saving stoves had their kitchen environment not welcoming.
The ill-performance of energy-saving stoves could be related to the fundamental
design of the stoves as well as the way they are operated. Application of advanced
woodstoves‟ technology aims largely at maximising the conversion and transfer of the
amount of energy in wood during combustion to the food being cooked. Such
technological principles generally involve improvement of the combustion efficiency
of fuelwood, improving heat transfer to the pot, minimising release of smoke
containing harmful emissions, as well as improving quality of materials used in
making the stoves.
(vi) Availability of Repair Services
Successful dissemination of the institutional energy-saving stoves has to involve
training of artisans within the area where the stoves are to be installed. The
maintenance services normally involve frequent clean up of the chimney and
fireboxes. Also, school maintenance personnel could be trained to service the stoves.
57
(vii) Appropriateness
The appropriateness of the improved institutional cookstoves includes the ability to
cook a large variety of meals in the high hygienic conditions while preserving the
nutritional values and safety of food ingredients and foods in general. Improved
institutional cookstoves can be easily fitted with the water heater to recover the energy
escaping with hot flue gases.
From the school survey the followings were established:
Types of Meals Cooked: All schools visited are offering lunch to their students.
Ninety six per cent of them do provide breakfast. Schools with boarding option
accounted for 46%, whereas those offering supper were only 15 per cent.
Variety of Foods Cooked: With a few exceptions where students eat only snacks and
deep-fried potato chips, most of the surveyed schools have their meals incorporating
traditional Tanzanian dishes. Rice and ugali are cooked in combination with stews
from beans and beef. Vegetables are also included in daily menus. Breakfast menus
involve tea and porridge.
Hot Water Requirements: Usage of fuel covers preparation of hot water for various
purposes in the schools. A large number of schools interviewed (85%) requires hot
water for washing kitchen utensils. Schools boiling water for drinking purposes
accounted for 69%. In some schools hot water is required for bathing purposes, and it
accounted for only 4%.
Types of Cookstoves Used: Seven types of cookstoves were found to be used in the
schools. The stoves with their predominance percentages in the brackets included
traditional metal charcoal stoves (53%), three-stone fireplace (13%), energy saving
woodstoves (13%), improved ceramic charcoal stoves (Jiko bora) (6%), gas stoves
(6%), electric cookers (6%), and sawdust stoves (3%).
Although it is the oldest and the least efficient cooking system (typically utilising less
than 10% of the energy in the wood to food being cooked), three-stone stove is still
used even in new schools which have been recently established. Both firewood and
sawdust briquettes are burnt in this rudimentary stove.
The use of energy efficient ceramic charcoal stove (jiko bora) which has
comparatively higher efficiency (20 – 30%) than other charcoal stoves is still very low
in schools. Schools using this stove had a lower number of students not exceeding
130. The TaTEDO ceramic stove (bell-bottom) is mostly available in small sizes and
mainly aimed at household level to cook for small families.
Besides TaTEDO, other cookstoves manufacturers‟ especially of metal charcoal
stoves are entrepreneurs running micro metal workshops. The major discrepancy of
their stoves is caused by lack uniform pattern in terms of size of fireboxes, size of the
grates and number and size of grate-holes, and the doorway for combustion air. The
quality of materials used is also of low quality. The feeling of energy efficiency
aspects by these manufacturers is generally lacking.
Type and Quantity of Fuel Used: The fuel or energy source used in the schools is
firewood, charcoal, sawdust, sawdust briquettes, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and
electricity. Woodfuel comprising firewood, charcoal, briquettes and sawdust is
predominant energy source accounting about 90 per cent. This was attributed to
higher costs of charcoal. Higher costs of charcoal lead to energy-mix, where schools
opt to use traditional three-stone fire place.
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About 640 bags of charcoal representing approximately 41 tons of charcoal were
being consumed by 21 schools within a month.
Size of the Stove: Stove size is dependant on pot capacity, which is dependent on the
number of people served. The larger stoves are designed for 10 to 200 litre capacity
and although stoves are made up to 300 litres capacity the cooking vessels then
become very heavy to handle32
. Therefore, large institutions often prefer to use a
larger number of smaller stoves. To supply 600 people, for example, 5 to 6 stoves of
100 litres pot could be required.
10.3.3 Specific Needs and Preferences of the Micro and Small Enterprises
(MSEs)
The Micro and small enterprises visited included, food related business (local and
tourist restaurants, food vendors) and small cottage textile businesses.
The group of food vendors included street vending chicken/chips fryers, fish fryers
(small and large scale) and barbeque businesses.
Types of stoves and fuel used by MSEs:
According to survey findings most users in the SME sector are still using traditional
stoves (metal and three stone fire place). Types of cooking stoves found to be used in
a descending order include traditional charcoal (61%), firewood (13%), sawdust (9%),
electricity (9%) and gas (9%).
Most chicken/chips fryers in the surveyed areas are mainly using sawdust and
traditional metal stove. Small scale street vending fish fryers are largely using the
traditional metal stove (size 14- 18 inches), while the large scale fish fryers at the Dar
es Salaam Integrated Fish Market Complex are using improved wood stoves. These
stoves were designed by Dr. Rweyemamu following the needs and preferences of the
users who wanted a stove that could deep-fry a large amount of fish within a shortest
possible time, and in the environment that is free of smoke and heat. The new stoves
technology has reduced the smoke pollution by more than 90%, while cutting down
the consumption of fuelwood by about 80 per cent.
The prominent women food vendors (mama lishe) and household women involved in
cooking related businesses use a heavy duty long lasting traditional charcoal stove
(tyre rim type). These households use charcoal to prepare, for example buns
(maandazi), rice cakes (vitumbua) and fried fish. Average monthly expenditure on
fuel is between TShs. 20,000 – 25,000.
The general adoption level of improved stoves in this group is still low. The main
reasons for low adoption include:
The large size improved stoves (14 – 18 inches and above) are rarely
produced. Apart from SEECO shop, the team did not find these stoves in the
visited trading centres. Artisans are making large size stoves for individual
orders only. Large size cookstove are required by this group because they cook
large amounts of foods every day;
Although SEECO is producing and selling large size improved stoves, most
users are not aware of its availability;
32
Intermediate Technology Development Group (technical brief).
59
The stoves are sold at prices not affordable by most users in this category;
When produced, the durability of improved charcoal stoves is questionable.
Food vendors are interested with stoves that will last long, according to them,
the improved “bell-bottomed” stove is not strong enough to handle the weight
of e.g. 10 – 15kg cooked rice.
Women textile producers (tie & dye and batik production) are largely using the
traditional three stone firewood stoves. This category is among the major consumers
of firewood. Charcoal in this category is used in very small quantities as compared to
firewood. This is due to the fact that, firewood is easily available and cheap at the cost
of TSh 1000 per cubic metre of firewood. According to this survey, this group is very
interested to get the improved firewood stove so that they could save energy. Their
request is that, since most of the participants in this sub sector operate in rented
premises, they would very much be interested to get good quality portable wood
stoves.
Tourist restaurants (Mbezi, Peacock) are mainly using gas and electrical cookers.
The reasons for using these types of cookstove as mentioned by respondents were:
Easy heat control a heat (i.e. the ability to increase/decrease amount of heat
required for preparing specific meals);
Poor standard (poor appealing) of improved charcoal/wood stoves to be kept
in tourist restaurants. Most tourist guests enter into the kitchen area to check
the hygienic standards of these restaurants;
Local restaurants visited (Moshi, MK, New Happy hotel) are using the combination
of electricity, gas and improved charcoal stoves.
In Dar es Salaam, there is emerging users of barbeque and bakery ovens. These are
operators located in most local and tourist along the beach restaurants who bake
bread, cakes and various types of meat. These are such as “Cine Club”, “Slip Way”,
“Best Bite”, “Bahari Beach”, Paradise Hotel in Bagamoyo, “Forodhani” in Zanzibar
etc.
There are many women food processors trained under the SIDO/UNIDO programme
who produces various snacks including wedding cakes. The “Wedding Cake”
business in the Dar es Salaam city is growing very fast. This group is a potential user
of TaTEDO ovens.
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11.0 ANALYSIS OF ADOPTION LEVEL OF IMPROVED
BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES AMONG THE
IDENTIFIED SUBGROUPS
11.1 Current Adoption level of improved bioenergy technologies
Adoption level of improved stoves is higher in the urban households as compared to
rural households. According to findings of this survey 81 percent of the urban
respondents have used at least one type of improved stoves. The following factors
contribute to high adoption rate:
Stove sizes required (9 – 14 inches) are available in the market;
Stove prices seems to be affordable to the targeted users;
Fuelwood (mainly charcoal) and stoves are purchased hence users are
interested to save fuel;
The rural surveyed areas are a different story. Fifty eight percent of the efficient
firewood stoves constructed at Ikwiriri were found to be non-functioning (Table 3.3i).
The stoves were either cracked and abandoned or completely swept away by the 2003
floods in the area.
In Ikwiriri, villagers still use three stones for cooking despite the families getting the
stoves constructed by TaTEDO. Similarly, a large number of urban households in Dar
es Salaam continue to use metal stoves after a more efficient stove has been installed.
Reasons for low adoption level (specifically for Ikwiriri) are amongst others:
Traditional fuel or stove (three stone firewood place) are not purchased (fuel is
readily available and easy to collect);
Clay soil used to construct efficient firewood stoves reported to be not suitable
because most constructed stoves (58%) cracked and collapsed;
Some of the women users complained about the cooking comfort with those
stoves. They said that the stove surface is too high for stirring foods like the
stiff porridge (ugali);
There are few artisans as compared to urban areas (particularly DSM). Even
the artisan groups trained by TaTEDO (women potters and men tinsmiths) are
no longer producing improved charcoal stoves. It is the feeling of the survey
team that these groups require more after training follow-ups to identify
constraining factors. According to them, poor clay soils (clay soil used to
produce ceramic liners cracked and collapsed even before put in the kiln),
expensive raw materials imported from Dar es Salaam and long pay back
periods from customers discouraged them.
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12.0 OTHER DETERMINING FACTORS FOR UPTAKE AND
ADOPTION OF STOVES AND OVENS
The majority of improved cookstoves built and sold in various outlets in Dar es
Salaam are for domestic cooking, often used by households. However, there are also
schools, colleges, hospitals, prisons, factories, sites for festivals (weddings, other
religious) where a large number of people may need feeding at any one time. Even in
commercial centers and roadsides, there are numerous snack bars, street stalls and
cafes selling cooked food and serving a large number of people throughout the day. In
such places the traditional domestic stove would not be suitable, even if several of
them were used together – they would be just too small to meet the demand which is
likely to be concentrated at particular times rather than regular.
It has been observed that the uptake and adoption of improved stoves and ovens
depends on the user‟s cooking requirements.
12.1 Level of Accessibility/Availability of Improved Stoves/Ovens
When asked if they have ever seen or used the improved stoves, urban households
responded as follows:
100 percent reported to have seen at least one type of the improved stove.
81 percent reported to have used at least one type of the improved stove;
19 percent reported to have seen the stove but not used.
The accessibility and/or availability level of improved stoves and ovens to targeted
users is in close relationship with needs and wishes of targeted groups and
beneficiaries, as well as the type of fuel available.
In the school survey it could be established that the adoption of improved institutional
cookstoves depended on some key factors such as availability of fuel and the price of
the fuel. Most schools would like to adopt improved cookstoves fired by fuelwood,
but the common question was on where or how to obtain the fuel. Fuelwood
marketing in the urban areas especially Dar es Salaam is not yet well developed.
Green Acres High School switched to institutional woodstoves after getting an easy
access to sawdust briquettes, while a school in Mkulanga district (Coast region) would
prefer to use three-stone fire place because the fuelwood is freely available from
nearby woodland.
12.2 Identification of Key Target Group and Beneficiaries of
TaTEDO Improved Stoves and Ovens
From the survey it could be evidently concluded that the key target groups and
beneficiaries who are most likely to benefit from TaTEDO‟s improved stoves and
ovens would include, rural and urban households, community centres such as schools
and training centres, MSEs (food vending, hotels and restaurants, and non-food
processing enterprises such as textile processors (tie & dye batik production).
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13.0 IDENTIFICATION OF POSSIBLE MODIFICATIONS OF
THE EXISTING PROTOTYPES
Needs and wishes of potential beneficiaries do at a large extent determine modification
aspects that should be considered for successful adoption of stoves. Durability of the
stove was the main aspect of concern expressed by most respondents.
Modification of the current TaTEDO improved stoves could be undertaken from two
large considerations, namely, the first targeting to improve charcoal stoves, and the
second aiming at the fuelwood stoves. Stove designs which are capable to cater for
places of large gatherings: Most micro and small scale entrepreneurs including schools
that form a potential market segment for institutional stoves expressed opinion that the
current stoves are unable to support larger pots. Current designs could be modified to
serve this group by using stoves with sturdy ceramic firebox and exterior metallic body.
Current ceramic liners could be reinforced with materials such as kaolin and
vermiculite or diatomite so that to withstand heat shocks when subjected to prolonged
higher temperature conditions.
To avoid the destruction of the perforated bottom section of the ceramic firebox which
permits combustion air into the burning charcoal bed, the option of using cast iron
grates could be considered especially for institutional stoves.
Methods for manufacturing larger size of ceramic liners should be developed, so that to
avoid the current size limitation which is between 9 - 14 inches.
The efficiency of current charcoal stoves could also be further improved by considering
fitting the stoves with a skirt which could direct more heat to the pot and reduce heat
loss to the surroundings. This could be done for both household and community stoves.
However, this modification should be carefully developed so as to reduce the emission
of poisonous gases, particularly carbon monoxide.
For wood burning stoves the modifications should involve provision of a chimney
system so as to reduce possible indoor smoke pollution which has substantial impacts
on public health. Associated health risks include acute respiratory infections (ARI) in
children, chronic obstructive lung diseases (such as asthma and chronic bronchitis),
lung cancer and pregnancy-related problems.
Heat lose through the body of institutional stoves could be significantly reduced by
using pumice based insulation materials, which have been developed by CPE
department and have been successfully used in some stoves. A stove with pumice-
base insulation materials has the body which can withstand higher temperatures in
ranges between 800 – 1000 ºC. Apart from saving heat loss and thereby increasing
energy efficiency of the stove, usage of these insulation materials provides the stove
with longer service life, since the exterior metallic part is not subjected to higher
temperatures.
The provision of a water heater to utilise the heat of escaping flue gases of the
institutional woodstoves is the option, which have been seen to be of preference to
most of users.
Improved ovens could also be fine-tuned by considering the inclusion of lightweight
insulation lining. This will also provide dual benefits, which are improving energy
efficiency and longer service life.
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When considering the insulation property of the stoves clay should not be regarded as
the best option, since technically it tends to absorb significant amount of heat. Thus,
for the constructed efficient brick stoves various insulation materials such as pumice,
sawdust, etc, should be considered for mixing with clay and moulding bricks. This
will also provide dual benefits as discussed in previous paragraphs.
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14.0 DEVELOPMENT OF STRATEGY FOR INCREASED
UPTAKE AND ADOPTION OF IMPROVED STOVES AND
OVENS
14.1 Strategies for increased uptake and adoption
According to survey findings and observations, the following were noted:
More follow-ups are required to stoves constructed and installed at various
institutions and households. Follow-ups are substantial part of a successful
dissemination. As noted earlier, most efficient firewood stoves constructed at
Ikwiriri are no longer functioning. Follow-up is required because, over time the
stoves tend to differ from the original design, so monitoring and quality control
is needed. Also, after-service follow-up is important in order to stimulate the
rate of adoption, modify the existing stoves and for continuous improvements.
TaTEDO (or its agents) should continuously provide after-sales follow-ups
because customer needs and preferences are not static;
Support to the users must be given high priority. People must cook food every
morning, afternoon and evening. A non functional stove, even for one meal,
results in dismantling improved stoves;
There is a need for artisans (stove constructors) to make sure that the
constructed efficient brick stoves are compatible with the cooking pots that are
available in the market. It was reported that some pots could not fit to the stove‟s
pot opening. The first pots were tailor-made pots produced specifically to fit into
the stove opening. As a result users could not replace these pots during the time
when the pots were no longer functioning (worn out). The strategy
recommended by users is to construct stoves that can accommodate all sizes of
cooking pots or in other words, the sizes of the pot holes should be suitable for
pots that are already in use. An indirect cost will be incurred if the stove
necessitates the purchase of new cooking utensils;
Solicit feedback from the users of the improved stoves and make sure that the
stoves continue to adequately address the needs of the rural and urban
households;
There is a need for TaTEDO to develop leaflets for stove fabricators specifying
user instructions (like user manual). User instruction manual for the best
performance of stoves (usage guidance regarding proper usage of stove for long-
life and amount of energy saved). This will minimize the level of ceramic liner
breakages, as a result of poor handling by the user (e.g. pouring water or
breaking charcoal on top of the stove);
More analysis on costing and pricing is required in order to look for possibilities
of reducing prices of some larger types of stoves and ovens which are out of
reach of most of the customers;
Need to develop quality control systems during fabrication of charcoal stoves, so
that the under grades are rejected before reaching the market.
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14.2 The Supply and Demand Chain Analysis
The improved stove supply/ demand chain map is a visual presentation of the way that
stoves flow through different channels from production sites to the markets. The map
is divided between the different functions that are carried out in getting the stoves
from production area to the end markets. Participants are divided into chains based on
their forward and backward linkages and their use of technologies that differentiate
them from one another.
14.2.1 Functions and Participants
Eight different functions were identified in the supply /demand chain within the Coast
and Dar es Salaam regions. These functions are (i) Research and Prototype
Development, (ii) Training, Extension, Demonstration & Enterprise Development,
(iii) Clay/ceramic liner making, (iv) Production (claddings & stove assembling),
(v) Subcontracting, (vi) Stove Repair, (vii) Regional Trade; and finally (viii) Retail
either through various intermediaries or directly to the final consumer.
14.2.1.1 Research and Prototype Development
The production of improved woodstoves in Tanzania dates back to colonial days. In
many of the early cookstove programs, little or no effort was made to examine the
need and preferences of stove users. Without their feedback, designers failed to
transfer certain values and functions of traditional stoves to the new models. Thus
early cookstoves were often designed by people with a great deal of enthusiasm but
with little technical background.
Different NGOs and Government institutions have undertaken research activities and
new improved stoves prototype development. These include:
Ministry of Water, Energy and Minerals (MWEM): The Ministry has been
involved in disseminating Dodoma and DUMA (CAMARTEC version)
stoves under the GTZ financed Special Energy Programme (SEP). Also
MWEM has been involved in disseminating Jiko Bora under IDA financed
Energy I project (1986-1989)
TaTEDO: TaTEDO assists stove producers and tried to improve efficiency of
the original MWEM stove and reduce cost. It has developed new charcoal
stoves prototypes, which have higher efficiency, more durable and cost less
than the jiko bora. (2001-2006)
Ministry of Community Development Women Affair and Children: Worked
close in collaboration the former Institute of Production Innovation (IPI) of
the University of Dar es salaam of the University of Dar es Salaam under the
supervision of Dr. Rweyemamu. For the period of 1990 - 1993 the Ministry
and IPI worked on the development of domestic coal stoves which were
intended to use the coal from Kiwira in Mbeya.
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Dar es
Salaam (principal researcher - Dr. Rweyemamu): In 2003 designed,
fabricated and supervised installation of efficient woodstoves made
66
specifically for fish fryers at Dar es Salaam Integrated Fish Market Complex.
He has also designed and developed other institutional stoves which are being
used in some schools and colleges in the country. The energy saving of these
stoves is between 60 – 80%.
The Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH). Its
responsibility is to coordinate various research and development programmes
on cookstove, aiming at stimulating and analysing the development of
indigenous technologies.
14.2.1.1 Training, Extension, Demonstration & Enterprise Development
Various institutions provide skills training to small-scale artisans. The purpose of the
training is to equip artisans to produce stoves that are not too costly, good quality,
better insulation and hence save energy, improve kitchen environment with the aim of
reducing smoke and its associated ill health and safety.
Different NGOs and government institutions provide training to artisans. This
includes:
Ministry of Water, Energy and Minerals (MWEM), undertook training for
more than 10 artisans on how to produce the stoves (Dodoma Stoves) - 1986
to 1989.
TaTEDO: Promotion activities through demonstration. Several
demonstrations have being carried out in various areas in both rural and
urban. It has undertaken training of stoves producers and trainers at its
Renewable Energy and Environment Centre located at Goba (Technical
training, advice and extension services). Also provides training in small
business management for artisans.
Ministry of Community Development Women Affair and Children: The
department of Technical and Self-Help Project from the Ministry of
Community Development Women Affair and Children, facilitates promotion
and dissemination of appropriates technologies through a number of ways
which inter-alia include:
a. Use of Appropriate Technology Centre (ATC): The ATC based at
Misungwi facilitate promotion and dissemination of technologies
mainly those used in rural areas. Both long and short courses are
offered. Technician, local artisans, women and communities in
general receive training in area like construction of biomass.
b. Work close in collaboration with The Department of Energy and
Petroleum Development, in undertaking training and promotion of
improved charcoal production and fuel saving stoves
The implementation of the project started in late1991.
As noted earlier, 65 percent of the artisans reported to have attended skills training
prior to starting business. Out of those 14.3 percent from the urban artisans and 100
percent from the rural artisans reported to have obtained training (together with initial
working tools) from TaTEDO.
The remaining 81 percent artisans acquired fabrication skills from other artisans
(friends or relatives).
67
It is important to remember that most customers complain about poor stove quality.
Although it seems that the large population of artisans have at least received skills
training, it might be that they are not fabricating the stoves according to the technical
requirements either due to lack of after-training follow-up by trainers, lack of quality
control system or accessibility to good quality raw materials.
It is also important to note that 88.8 percent of the surveyed population has only
attained primary level of formal education (Table 6.1)
Ceramic Liner Making
Only a few groups of artisans (9 percent of the surveyed population) are specialized in
ceramic liner production. Ceramic liner as an insulator is a most important component
for the improved stove. Liner makers are located near sources of raw materials (clay
soil), for example, in Dar es Salaam at Vingunguti (Sahara A group), Bunju and Goba
(SEECO workshop) areas. 61 percent of artisans interviewed purchase ceramic liners
from these two sources. Ceramic liner makers also reported that they sell the liners to
regional traders who distribute them to Tanga, Arusha, Zanzibar and Morogoro. (This
is a “System Node” i.e. they serve large numbers of stove fabricator artisans).
According to findings, most Ceramic liner makers are not equipped with the facilities
that could enable them produce high quality ceramic liners. Findings also reveal that
users of improved stoves complained about poor quality of ceramic liners (easily
cracking).
An average Ceramic liner workshop would require the following tools/ facilities as
indicated in Table 6.2.
The above table indicates that for a liner workshop to be complete in terms of having
necessary tools, it requires a minimum TShs 704,000 as an initial investment capital.
However, the research findings reveal that most artisans could not afford to have all
the required equipment.
Women Ceramic Liner Makers: The groups visited consist of 50 artisans/ potters; out
of them 14 (or 28%) are women.
Production (Claddings and Stove Assembling)
Several different types of stove fabricators were identified during the study,
performing different functions. The various functions include:
(i) Stove fabricating for contractors (Chain 2), 13 percent of the artisans were
found to perform this function;
(ii) Stove fabrication for onward selling using own efforts (Chain 3). 65
percent of the total surveyed population are in this category;
(iii) Stove fabrication and provision of repair services to customer (Chain 4).
22 percent of the total surveyed population are in this category; and
(iv) Integrated fabricator i.e. performing all functions i.e. from Ceramic liner
production to onward selling to final consumers (Chain 1), 8.6 percent of
the total population are in this category.
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Stove repair
Only 22 percent of stove fabricator artisans interviewed are performing repair services
an as after sales service. It was mentioned by stove users that this important service is
not adequate (it needs expansion).
14.2.2 Marketing Functions
Regional trade
From the production sites, different traders take up stoves and transport them to the
end markets. 13 percent of artisans reported to sell most of their stoves to regional
traders who then transport and sell them to customers in Arusha, Kilimanjaro,
Shinyanga, Tanga and Mbeya regions.
Retailer
Same as Regional Trader, retailers purchase stoves directly from artisans for onward
selling to consumer. Mot popular stoves as indicated by traders are “Bell-Bottomed”
and “Straight” sizes 10, 11, 12 & 14. The largest market for retailers is the urban
household.
Promotion techniques, those retailers mentioned include:
(i) Displaying of stoves at their shop‟s terraces; and
(ii) Provision of user guidance (i.e. how to use and care of the stove).
According to observations of the survey team, promotional strategies seem to be not
efficient. More support is required by traders in order to equip them with good selling
techniques.
Street Vendors
Street vending is a new selling mechanism, which is emerging nowadays. Few street
vendors can be seen walking around Dar es Salaam City looking for customers. A
“two plate Meza” is the most popular stove, which is sold by these vendors.
14.2.3 Technologies
Production
The technology development in stoves production is biased towards the one who can
afford it in terms of using the required equipment/ tools, required raw materials and
applying the required skills. Producing stoves by using the required technology (skills
& equipment), lead to high quality products. The study indicated that only 8.6 percent
are able to acquire and use modern skills and technology (refer the supply/ chain
map), thus they are capable of producing stoves of high standard and quality at least
as required by the market (these are SEECO Co. Ltd and some few individual artisans
/ integrated fabricator – referred as Chain 1 on the Chain map).
69
Though capital investments required for improved charcoal stoves fabrication are
relatively modest, but it was revealed during the survey that most enterprises could
not have access to capital. Table 6.2a indicate optimum investment capital and tools
that are required for a modest enterprise.
Table 6.2a indicates that for a workshop to be complete in terms of having necessary
tools it requires a minimum TShs 357,600 as an investment capital.
Sources of raw materials for stove production: The main sources of raw materials
for artisans are hardware (73 percent of respondents get inputs from hardware),
Aluminium industry (45.5 percent get aluminium sheets from this industry) and scrap
dealers (36.4 percent get their inputs in terms of scrapers from scrap dealer)
(Table 6.3).
It is important to note that, even though stove fabricators are required to buy their
raw materials from approved suppliers (hardware & aluminium industries), this
requirement is frequently overlooked and inferior stove materials are purchased from
scrap dealers.
Major constraints/ hindrances to artisans can be summarised as:
Access to finance;
Technical training on fabrication;
Marketing knowledge;
High production costs;
Poor production technologies;
Materials availability (ALAF no longer produce aluminium sheets but imports
from abroad).
Transport
Most of the sale by producers is done at the production sites. Regional Traders
transport stoves by inter regional buses and most of the retailers use bicycles as means
of transport.
14.2.4 The Chains
The team identified five main Chains through which stoves passes from production to
the end consumer. The chains are differentiated by the technologies that they use, the
sources of raw materials and the different functions that they perform. These Chains
are not intended to be all encompassing, but represent the majority of the different
kinds of relationships that are encountered.
Chain 1: is the integrated fabricator, having the following qualifications:
(a) Having most of the tools/ equipment required for the metal workshop as
indicated under table 4:3 (a);
(b) Applies good workmanship i.e. has the ability to fabricate stoves according
to the recommended technical requirements;
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(c) Has ability to purchase quality raw materials from reliable suppliers
(hardware & aluminum industries);
(d) Have formal registration; and
(e) Have permanent business premises.
The survey team met only a few artisans of this kind (i.e. apart from SEECO Co. Ltd.
only 4.3% of all artisans interviewed could be categorized as Chain 1 artisans).
Chain 2: is the subcontractor fabricator. Participants in this Chain are those who
received skills and business training from TaTEDO. Participants in Chain 2 have the
following characteristics:
(a) Their workmanship still requires to be perfected, so that they can be able
to produce good quality products and hence tap market opportunities.
(b) Have less capacity to procure good quality raw materials (still use a lot of
inferior scrap metal) & equipment/ tools;
(c) Operate under informal business environment and have no access to
permanent business premises (since they operate from any open space they
happen to find, they sometimes suffer being chased away by government
officials).
Chain 3: is fabricator artisan who, produce stoves for onward selling. Participants
in this Chain have similar issues/ challenges as participants in Chain 2.
Chain 4: is a fabricator artisan who provides repair services to his customer. As
said earlier in the report, only few (22%) of surveyed artisans perform this function.
Stove repair is an important service to the customer; therefore it is important that all
artisans are encouraged to provide repair services. Participants in Chain 4 have similar
challenges as their fellow artisans in Chains 2 & 3.
Chain 5: represents artisans who fabricate the “traditional metal stove”. Most users
who were visited (in Dar es Salaam) during this survey no longer use the traditional
metal stove, so our observation is that this Chain is fading away.
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14.2.5 Business Services in the Supply Chain
Many different business services are being provided to fabricator artisans by various
institutions as indicated in the Table below:
Function Services Business/Institution
Prototype Development Research & Prototype
Development
NGOs and Government
Institutions (TaTEDO,
Department of Chemical
and Process Engineering,
University of Dar es
salaam, COSTECH,
CARMATEC)
Enterprise Development Training, Extension,
Demonstration &
Enterprise Development
NGOs and Government
Institutions (TaTEDO,
Department of Chemical
and Process Engineering,
University of Dar es
salaam, COSTECH,
CARMATEC)
Fabrication (cladding &
stove assembling)
Selecting raw materials Ceramic liner production,
hardware, aluminium
industries, scrap dealers
Subcontracting Selecting & train artisans Artisans
Stove repair Artisans
Regional Trade Move to regional markets Transport
Wholesale & Retail Move to customers Transport
Taking into account that there are many business activities taking place in the supply/
demand chain, any intervention by TaTEDO or any other development organization
must take into consideration the effect that these will have on those businesses. In
addition, looking to the long term sustainability and success of any identified
solutions, TaTEDO or any other development organization must see how they can
involve and use the private sector to actually implement the solutions, by facilitating
their involvement.
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14.3 Supply Chain Dynamics
Tanzania is committed to free market economy, which means that private sector
should take the lead in creating income, wealth, employment and growth. The
government role is to be the regulator and facilitator of private sector development.
Micro, Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) in most sub sectors including the
improved stove sub sector are the emerging private sector in Tanzania. Though the
sub sector possesses high employment potential, it is largely informal, under-
performing and in need of considerable assistance to overcome disadvantages and
barriers. Since late 1990‟s there has been major policy changes that create enabling
environment for private sector to take charge of all productive activities. Various Non
Governmental Organizations including TaTEDO have recently played major roles in
supporting micro enterprises especially in rural areas to improve household incomes
and employment creation.
It is clear from the supply/ demand chain map, that TaTEDO interventions in the
target group through training, demonstrations and provision of market outlets through
subcontracting artisans will result into increased income and employment to artisans
as well as increased confidence in doing business and building track record for
accessing financial support from donors and other NGOs.
In most cases the quality of stove is dependent to the quality of the Ceramic liner;
therefore, interventions that will lead into “improved quality of Ceramic liners” will
impact the majority of artisans.
14.3.1 Driving forces
A number of different forces are driving the dynamics within the supply/ demand
chain. These forces range from technologies, availability of good quality raw
materials and application of required skills. The relationship of these forces and how
they impact on the decisions of the actors within the supply / demand chain provide
very important insights into the best kinds of activities that the support organizations
can implement to have impact on micro enterprises.
14.3.2 Points of Leverage
The points of leverage are those points in the supply/ demand chain where applying a
small amount of pressure will lead to a fairly large impact. This is extremely
important when trying to work with micro and small enterprises (MSEs), which are
very difficult to reach on an individual basis. There are generally three main sources
of leverage in the supply/ demand chain:
System nodes, or those points in the supply chain where a single firm is in
contact with a much larger number of firms;
Geographic clusters where there are large concentrations of targeted firms;
and
Policies, where a decision taken at a central level has a broad reaching impact
on a large number of firms in the supply/ demand chain
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System Nodes
Ceramic liner producers: Ceramic liner producers serve as important points of
contact within the supply/ demand chain as they each deal with large numbers of
stove fabricator artisans.
Geographical clusters
Most of the fabricator artisans are clustered into geographic areas working together
under voluntary informal organized groups. In this survey 17 groups were identified
representing 65 percent of the total population surveyed, 3 partnership businesses
(11% of the surveyed population) and 4 sole proprietor businesses (15%) (Table 7.1).
14.4 Analysis of Constraints and Opportunities
14.4.1 Analysis of Constraints
There are many constraints facing micro enterprises and the growth of the supply/
demand chain. Most constraints present opportunities for TaTEDO and other support
organizations for designing and implementing solutions.
CATEGORY CONSTRAINTS AFFECTED
ACTORS
Procurement
of Raw
Materials and
Inputs
Poor raw materials used for stoves fabrication
High selling price of some important raw
materials
Poor quality of ceramic liners led by clay soil
textures
Artisans
Artisans
Artisans, Users
Market
Development Lack of advertisement and promotion
initiatives
No users instruction manual for the best
performance of stoves (usage guidance
regarding proper usage of stove for long life
and amount of energy saved)
Lack of general information as to what the
user can expect on amount of energy saved
when using improved stove (i.e. improved
stove performance)
Stoves are not available in some areas, even if
the demand is so high
Artisans
Users
Users
Users
Technology /
Product
Development
Poor working tools
Poor stoves quality led by poor working tools
and raw materials used
Some stoves, such as double plate box and
double plate stand and ovens are not
affordable by the majority of customers
Low awareness of large size of improved
stoves
No records on energy consumption
Artisans
Artisans, Users
Users
Users
Users
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CATEGORY CONSTRAINTS AFFECTED
ACTORS
Business
Skills
Development
Poor/No business records (production, sales
records)
Inadequate knowledge and skills on
management of improved stoves and ceramic
liners business on commercial basis
Artisans and
traders
Artisans and
traders
Finance Low capital base
Non existence of financial institutions that
provide loan support to stoves artisans
Artisans
Artisans,
Operating
Environment/
Infrastructure
No access to permanent working place
Artisans and
traders
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
14.4.2 Analysis of Opportunities
CATEGORY TYPE OF CONSTRAINT PROPOSED
OPPORTUNITY FOR
INTERVENTION
Procurement of
Raw Materials
and Inputs
Poor raw materials used for
stoves production
High selling price of some
important materials
Poor quality of ceramic liners
led by clay soil textures
Organized into formal
groups and lobby for better
price of raw materials
Raw materials subsidies
Need more research on
quality clay soil
Improve liner making
technology and introduce
strict quality control
Market
Development Lack of advertisement and
promotion initiatives
No users instruction manual
for the best performance of
stoves (usage guidance
regarding proper usage of
stove for long life and amount
of energy saved)
Lack of general information as
to what the user can expect on
amount of energy saved when
using improved stove (i.e.
improved stove performance)
Stoves are not available in
some areas, even if the demand
is so high
Advertising and publicizing
improved stove performance.
Promote commercialization
and mass production of the
stoves.
Make stoves available
Encourage competition
between areas i.e. districts
Solicit feedback from the
users of the improved stoves
and make sure that the stoves
continue to adequately
address the needs of the rural
and urban households
Technology /
Product
Development
Poor working tools
Poor stoves quality led by poor
working tools and raw
materials used
Organized into formal
groups in order to gain
access to financial services.
Provide more technical
75
CATEGORY TYPE OF CONSTRAINT PROPOSED
OPPORTUNITY FOR
INTERVENTION
Some stoves, such as double
plate box and double plate
stand and ovens are not
affordable by the majority of
customers
Low awareness of large size of
improved stoves
No records on energy
consumption
training.
Provide more awareness
creation.
Provide public investment
funds for low income
household
To measure actual household
savings from improved
stoves
Business Skills
Development Poor/No business records
(production, sales records)
Inadequate knowledge and
skills on management of
improved stoves and ceramic
liners business on commercial
basis
Provide business training
Setting up stove centers;
training; involving women;
evaluation and follow-up;
use training; sponsoring and
advising small businesses"
Assisting and training private
and local artisans in the
production of improved and
efficient stoves
Finance Low capital base
Non existence of financial
institutions that provide loan
support to stoves artisans
Organized into formal
groups in order to gain
access to financial services
Support commercial
producers and sellers if the
mechanisms for feedback
and cooperation are planned
and developed.
Policy
Environment
Operating
Environment/
Infrastructure
High transporting costs
No access to permanent
working places
Organized into formal
groups in order to lobby for
permanent working places
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
It is important to note that, all of the proposed interventions are being done in some
degree. There is therefore a gap in each that needs to be tackled and overall there is
need for coordinated effort (integrated approach).
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Identified Opportunities
Apart from many factors that constrains the growth of the improved stove supply /
demand chain, there are also many positive factors that provide opportunities for
growth and hence strong reasons for TaTEDO and other support organizations to
focus their activities in the supply chains.
Some of the positive factors can be summarized as follows:
Availability of training, demonstration and enterprise development services
(TaTEDO, COSTECH, Department of Chemical and Process Engineering,
University of Dar es salaam);
Any intervention will have a longer-term impact since woodfuels dominate the
energy balance for Tanzania.
The policy environment (The National Forest Policy, National Environment
Policy, National Energy Policy) is supportive to efforts being undertaken by
various support organizations to the improved stove supply/ demand chain;
The sector‟s ability to utilize locally available raw materials (e.g. clay soil, rice
husks ash and sand) and its production does not require complex and
expensive tooling or high capital expenditure.
There are many geographic clusters, where artisans have organized themselves
into informal groups.
14.4.3 Proposed Leverage
Leverage points can be identified at four main areas:
1. Improved product quality through:
(i) Initiation of a long-term training and capacity building programmes as
well as after-training follow-up programmes to artisans and Ceramic liner
producers. The growth demand of improved charcoal stoves has created
employment opportunities and income generation in small artisan
enterprises;
(ii) Provision of credit facilities to artisans and Ceramic liner producers;
2. Introduction of Quality Control mechanisms to Ceramic liner producers (this is
an important component to the stove).
3. Introduce efficient firing kiln to improve quality of Ceramic liner
4. Lobby for access to permanent premises allocation for artisans
It is important to note that capital investments are modest (TShs. 357,000 for a metal
workshop and TShs. 704,000 for a liner workshop).
Improved stoves producers require a long-term commitment of donor and
implementing organizations like TaTEDO in provision of technical and managerial
assistance, e.g. surveys to determine user needs, advice during design of the stoves,
testing of materials, provision of loans, advice about budgeting, marketing and quality
control, and training programs in stove making. They can also contribute by
promoting stoves in publicity campaigns. The ultimate goal of a stove program should
be to reach self-sustainability of the production and distribution of improved
cookstoves.
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15.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
15.1 Summary of Constrains faced by SMEs in Tanzania and SME
development policy 2002
Generally, SMEs are confronted with unique problems including heavy costs of
compliance resulting from their size. Other constrains include insufficient working
premises and limited access to finance. In addition, Business Development Services,
namely services related to entrepreneurship, business training, marketing, technology
development and information are underdeveloped and not readily available. On the
other hand, SME operators lack information as well as appreciation for such services
and can hardily afford to pay for the services. As a result, operators of the sector have
rather low skill. Also, there is no umbrella association for SMEs. At the same time,
the institutions and associations supporting SMEs are weak, fragmented and
uncoordinated partly due to lack of clear guidance and policy for the development of
the sector.
In Tanzania the SME sector has been recognised as a significant sector in employment
creation, income generation, poverty alleviation and as a base for industrial
development. The sector estimated to generate about a third of GDP, employs about
20% of the Tanzanian labour force and has greatest potential for further employment
generation.
Based on the importance of this sector and its potential, the SME Development Policy
has been designed to revitalise the sector to enable it to contribute to the objective of
the National Development Vision 2025. The policy aims at revolutionising the SME
sector to make it a vibrant and sustainable agent of stimulation of growth of the
economy. In recognition of this, various interventions, including policies and
programmes have been initiated to develop the sector.
The overall objective of the SME policy is to foster job creation and income
generation through promoting the creation of new SMEs and improving the
performance and competitiveness of existing ones to increase their participation and
contribution to the Tanzanian economy.
Although the improved stove program looks very simple, in fact it is a very complex
process due to different characteristics like user variations (households, institutions,
SMEs) and family variations (size of family, shape of pots used), climatic variation
and various cultural and traditional beliefs. So, a careful national strategy should be
worked out involving all agencies presently implementing improved cook stove
programs. Nevertheless, the changing habits of the people for which they are intended
will be a steady process. Many more activities in dissemination and research have to
be continued in future33
.
33
Case stories on Improved Cook Stoves http://www.nepalnet.org.np/crt/ics_casestudy.htm
78
15.2 Proposed Recommendations for TaTEDOs Interventions
1
CONSTRAINTS SERVICES RESPONSIBLE
1 The legal environment
Most of operator do
not have business
licences
Assist the formation of legally
registered artisans‟ association
of producers. This can help
producers get organized and
mobilize finance
TaTEDO to link
artisans Business
Development
Service providers
2 Infrastructure and
operating environment
Most of operators do
not have approved
premises to conduct
their businesses
Provision of business
premises
Improving market stalls
Improving feeder roads
TaTEDO to lobby
for government
supportive services
3 Availability of quality raw
materials
Production of sub
standard products as
a result of unreliable
raw materials and
lack of working
capital
Access to finance or supplier
credit for raw materials
TaTEDO to link
producer
associations to
funding
organizations (e.g.
AREED, ADF);
TaTEDO to work
with University
researchers to
develop advanced
materials
4 Production tools and
equipment
Predominant use of
hand tools
Little capital
investment
Access to finance:
Loans to artisans that
are guaranteed by
artisans organization
TaTEDO link
producer
associations to
funding
organizations
5 Production skills (lack of
skilled artisans to do metal
claddings)
Poor quality control
of stoves and ceramic
liners (attributed by
poor firing, poor
handling by
producers and poor
handling by stove
users)
Low production
levels with low
returns
Access to technical skills on
production and repair of stoves
Improve production
Ensuring quality,
packaging,
transportation
TaTEDO to
provides Technical
Extension Services
to “Help artisans to
make what people
want to buy”.
6 Business and marketing
skills
Undefined
Access to business skills
services
Organization
TaTEDO to link
artisans to Business
Development
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1
CONSTRAINTS SERVICES RESPONSIBLE
organizational
structure of artisans
groups
Absence of records
keeping hence
difficult to establish
actual production and
marketing data
development
Marketing plan
Financial management
Production techniques
Services providers
(Business Care
Services, CSDI,
etc)
Access to markets
No established
marketing
arrangements
Producers make large
size stoves for
individual orders and
sell small sizes to
distributors within the
city.
Access to markets and market
information
Promotional campaigns
to consumers,
Clear benefits of
improved stoves need
to be seen by
consumers
Information on stoves
performance and
consumer responses
Government,
TaTEDO & other
donors
15.2.1 Marketing Strategies for Improved Stoves and Ovens
15.2.1.1 Targeting women
Since women are more responsible for cooking at the household, deliberate efforts
should be made to reach them with the improved cook stove/ oven. This can be
through their various gatherings e.g. at “Kitchen Party” ceremonies. The survey team
feel that this is one of the appropriate places to promote the improved stove/ oven.
During these ceremonies whereby the newly bride is prepared to become a good wife,
she is receiving kitchen related gifts from parents, relatives and friends. The survey
team estimate that there are more than 50 “Kitchen Parties” every week in Dar es
Salaam alone.
Improved stoves can also be promoted during various food processing related courses
and exhibitions.
It is important to note that the survey team does not suggest to exclude men and other
members of the family during promotional campaigns. Especially in the rural areas
where most women have no direct access to institutional credit or to an independently
disposable cash and information on new innovations, it is very important for stove
promoters to perform family presentations/ demonstrations. Although rural women
might be in disadvantaged position especially in decision process to buy the improved
stove, women and children are the ones who are responsible collecting firewood.
The entire process of marketing the improved stove/ oven should strongly be user
focused rather than technology focused. Customers are not buying a stove – they are
buying cooked food in other words they are buying the “satisfaction of needs” – they
want cooked food.
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When selling improved stove, one is selling the benefits accrued to it. These benefits
can be stated such as:
“Safety”
“Saves time”
“Smokeless”
“Clean” – display the stove with a good, clean pot (sufuria) on top of it.
“Low usage of fuel”
“Portable”
“Can handle traditional pots”
“Can cook traditional foods” etc.
“Provides comfortable cooking environment”
When promoting institution stoves (e.g. in schools) target school matron/patron and
when promoting to SME target the chefs.
15.2.2 Conclusions
An integrated approach of business and technical development services to artisans is
required (promotion of alliances amongst various actors in the supply/ demand chain).
As indicated in the above table, TaTEDO has a role to play in the whole cycle of
production and marketing of improved stoves.
There is a great need to work out and institute appropriate financing mechanisms and
organizational/ management structures, for example organizing Artisans‟ Cooperative
Societies, provide them with business support services and link them with donors/
NGOs who provide financial support services like the African Development
Foundation (ADF), AREED through E + Co and others;
REED
REED provides support to enterprises through a combination of extensive business
development services and seed financing‟. Together, this combination creates the
opportunities for the new business to test and refine their new enterprises to the point
where they will interest outside investors. This combination of entrepreneurial
mentoring and initial seed financing forms a missing link to sustainable development
creating a bridge from an idea to a capable commercial enterprise.
The REED Approach.
Successful enterprises are usually a combination of good business skill, a verifiable
demand for a particular good or service, and the financial resources to innovate and
take risk. Often, an entrepreneur will attempt to lunch a new venture without
addressing all three elements, which greatly lowers their potential for success
Working with E+Co and country partner, an entrepreneur with a business plan
meeting certain criteria can receive seed financing to start or expand a business. The
form of this seed finance depend both on the needs of the enterprise and its capacity to
repay a financial obligation. In some cases, the finance is provided as a loan to be
repaid over a term that matches the revenue projections of the new enterprise.
ADF
81
African Development Foundation (ADF) provides reimbursable grants to Community
Based Organizations (CBO) including, but not limited to, legally registered
cooperatives, economic interest groups, associations, micro and small businesses and
community development organizations.
82
16.0 REFFERENCES CITED
Arnold, J. E.M. (1991). "Community forestry - ten years", Review (Rome, FAO
CHAPOSA ( ) Dar es Salaam Charcoal Consumer‟s Study.
CHAPOSA (2002) Final Report CHAPOSA Research Project , Tanzania
De Montalembert, M.R., and J. Clement. 1983., "Fuelwood supplies in developing
countries, Forestry Paper No. 42 (Rome, FAO).
Edmund B (2001) Natural Resources for Whom and Why, Important of Village Based
Ergeneman A ( 2003) Dissemination of Improved Cookstoves in Rural Areas of the
Developing World: Recommendations for the Eritrea Dissemination of Improved
Stoves Program
htt:www. Nepalnet. Org.np/acs-case study.htm, Case Stories on Improved Cook
Stoves.
Kaale B.K and Sawe E.N ( 2002) Woodfuel Strategy,Tanzania
Malimbwi R. E et al (2002) Impact of Charcoal Extraction to the Forest Resources of
Tanzania. Kitulangalo Area, Tanzania.
Mkwawa.J (2003) Proceeding of the National Cookstove stakeholders Meeting,
COSTECH
Musendo, Z. (2001) Destroying Cheap Forests to Buy Expensive Water
Natural Resource Management in Rufiji IUCN_EARO; eb REMP-EGB Report.
Pesambili F, et al (2003 ) Sazawa charcoal Stoves Designed For Efficient Use of
charcoal
Raju, S.P.( 1961) “Smokeless Kitchens for the Millions” Christian Literature Society,
Madras, India. 1953, reprinted in 1961.
Renewable Energy Environmental News, No 155n 0856-6704.
Ringia O, (2004) Improvement of ISESPREC Logical Framework and development
of M & E systems. Final report TaTEDO/HIVOS, Dar es Salaam.
Saad S. Y (2002 ) Woodfuel and change in Urban Tanzania
Schultz, C.D. (1973) Indigenous Forest Inventory of Five Area of the United
Republic of Tanzania, Local volume, Vancouver, Canada.
Tanzania Forest Conservation and Management (Project at a Glance), June 2002
83
TaTEDO ( 1998), A Study on Factors Hindering Wide Adoption Level of Improved
Charcoal Stoves, TaTEDO, Tanzania.
TaTEDO (2003) Final Evaluation Report, TaTEDO, Dar es Salaam
.
TaTEDO (2000) Uboreshaji wa Tanuru Asili la Kichuguu-Udongo. Mwongozo kwa
wachomaji mkaa. TaTEDO Dar es salaam,
TaTEDO (2003) Integrated sustainable energy service for poverty reduction and
environment conservation programme
TaTEDO Annual Report 2000/2003, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,
The United Republic of Tanzania (2001) The National Forest Programme in
Tanzania 2001 –2010,
The United Republic of Tanzania , (2002),Tanzania‟s Poverty Reduction Strategy
Paper,
The United Republic of Tanzania, (1998 ) The National Forest Policy
The World Bank Report No 22743, January25, 2002
The United Republic of Tanzania, (1992) The National Energy Policy (Revised 2003)
The United Republic of Tanzania, Forest Act No 14 of 2002
The United Republic of Tanzania, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism,
Community – Based Forest Management Guidelines,NPC –KIUTA, Dar es salaam,
Tanzania
The United Republic of Tanzania,(1997) The National Environmental policy
The World Bank (2004), The World Gazetteer, Current Population Figures for Cities,
Towns and Places of all Countries.
World Bank Report, (2002) No 22743 – TA, FMP Project Appraisal
84
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I: TERMS OF REFERENCES
TaTEDO Intergrated Sustainable Energy Services for Poverty
Reduction and Environmental Conservation in Tanzania
Proposal for undertaking Demand/ / Supply Chain Analysis of Charcoal / Firewood
and Differentiation of Target Group
Submitted by: Napendaeli Sem
January 2004
85
Task 3.3:
DEMAND/ SUPPLY CHAIN OF CHARCOAL / WOOD
Objectives of the study:
The main objective is to study the existing charcoal/ firewood demand/ supply chain within
TaTEDO programme area and to analyse and determine the primary constraints and
opportunities that exists in the whole chain in order to lay the groundwork for identifying
support initiatives that can promote the development of the sub sector and recommend the
mostly appropriate method of assessing environmental impact associated with
charcoal/firewood production and use.
The study will comprise of eight (8) activities as follows:
1. Reparation and groundwork activity
a. Review of available literature and reports in order to gain insight om:
History of the wood fuel/ Charcoal sub sector;
Raw materials (sources /availability of firewood and wood used for charcoal
production);
Technology (machinery & tools) and processes;
Products (firewood/charcoal);
Distribution channels; and
Type of consumers.
b. Discuss with some key informants of the sub sector (persons very knowledgeable
about the sub sector). The discussion will be focused at finding problems,
opportunities, projections, markets, impact and potential for growth. The key
informants are:
TaTEDO staff (mission, objectives, priorities, current intervention in the
supply/demand chain of charcoal and firewood);
Government officials in the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism,
Forestry and Beekeeping Division and Ministry of Energy. (To get their
assessment of environmental impact associated with charcoal production and
use, supply and demand of charcoal/ firewood);
A small sample of woodcutters, charcoal burners, transporters, wholesaler/
retailer, end user (To get insight of the supply/ demand chains, factions,
actors, constraints, opportunities).
c. Define the sub sector parameters within the existing firewood/charcoal
supply chain:
Functions within the demand/ supply chain;
Actors at each function;
Technologies used at each function.
2. Research design
a. Design interview tools and train research assistants;
b. Conduct mock interviews to test the performance of interview tools;
c. Refine interview tools;
3. Data collection
Data will be collected from various respondents as follows:
86
a. Conduct interviews with various actors in the sub sector (demand/supply
chain) to determine flow of products, pricing structure, price trends,
fluctuations and added value during each stage. Determine workload,
employment creation, income generation and other effects (negative or
positive). Coverage to represent Coast (supply side) and Dar es Salaam
(demand side) regions.
b. Conduct interviews with consumers to determine the market potential:
Customer behaviour (social environment, cultural environment,
educational environment, economic environment);
Consumption patterns;
Purchasing patterns;
Size of market;
Distribution pattern.
c. Review regulatory and institutional environment affecting actors:
Conduct interviews with the government leaders & other organizations
supporting the sub sector to identify/assess:
The policy environment supporting or hindering development in the sub sector
(supply chain);
Environmental impact associated with charcoal production and use
The researchers will use the following techniques/ approaches to conduct interviews:
Focus group discussions (actors doing same activity);
Individual interviews (consumers. Govt. officials, support institutions);
Workshop with sub sector representatives (i.e. bring together key informants and
sector actors to participate in a one- day workshop).
4. Analysis of data The objective of this analysis is to determine the primary constraints and opportunities in the
sub sector, and to lay the groundwork for identifying support initiatives that can promote
the development of the sub sector.
The researchers will develop the sub sector map, analyse dynamics of the sub sector and
identify sources of leverage and broadly explore opportunities for TaTEDO interventions.
(i) Drawing of a sub sector map (a chain map of the different stages and the connections
between actors in the chain)
This map will present, in graphical form, all the major actors in the charcoal/firewood/ supply
chain. It will reflect the different market chains that take raw materials through their
production and distribution to the final consumers.
Procedures for drawing the map:
1. List all functions identified;
2. List actors performing each function;
3. For each function, identify alternative technologies and quality differences;
4. Check differences with respect to:
Products
Raw materials
Quality
Customers (export, local market, on spot sale)
Specialization
87
Suppliers
Vertical integration
Distribution channels
5. Map actors onto functions they perform;
6. Draw arrows to describe product flows among actors in the demand/supply chain;
7. Define principal channels;
8. Draw the map;
9. Review sub sector boundaries.
(ii) Analyze dynamics
There will be an analysis of constraints, opportunities, and potential support initiatives.
Opportunities and constraints might be in the areas of:
Market access and information
Input and supply
Technology and Product Development
Training and Technical Assistance
Regulatory (Policies e.g. licensing and taxes)
Finance (credit facilities)
Coordination amongst various support institutions (stakeholders)
(iii) Identify sources of leverage and broadly explore opportunities for TaTEDO
interventions
5. Narrowing down support initiatives
Work sessions with TaTEDO staff to narrow down support initiatives to those that TaTEDO
feels would be most appropriate to support directly. One of the key considerations in choosing
a support initiative should be its ability to have a “leveraged” effect. These support initiatives
tend to be more cost effective and can frequently provide a greater impact than support
initiatives provided to individual enterprises.
Then there will be a description of the projected impact of support initiatives.
6. Recommendations and conclusions
Might warrant creation of concept paper/proposal for donor funding.
7. Data verification on unclear points.
This will be based on comments raised on the draft report. It may warrant collection of
additional information.
8. Final data analysis.
9. Writing final report.
88
Task 3.4:
DIFFERENTIATION OF THE TARGET GROUPS
Preparation & groundwork activity and research design will be done simultaneously with task
3.3.
Also Task 3.3 will generate list of customers (different target groups and TaTEDO
beneficiaries).
In Task 3.4, in-depth customer information will be gathered to determine existing and
potential market for improved stoves and ovens, analyze current adoption level, identify key
target groups and beneficiaries and develop strategies for increased uptake and adoption for
each target group.
Data collection
Data will be collected from two types of respondents (current and potential users/customers of
improved stoves/ovens and manufacturers of improved stoves and ovens (existing and
potential)
1. Current and potential users /customers
The objectives are (i) to understand the current adoption level and (ii) to understand the
competition level that exists between improved stoves and the traditional charcoal stove.
(i) Current adoption level of improved bio energy technologies.
The following indicators will be tested:
Awareness of improved stoves and ovens
Level of acquisition (customer satisfaction & repeat customers)
Increase customer use of improved stoves and ovens
Customer satisfaction table:
Customer type (a) (b) (c)
Information to be
sought
Personal benefits Economic
benefits
Commercial
benefits
Status/presentation Reduces work load Profit margin
Ease of use Reliability Rapid stock
turnover
Guarantee Durability Reliability
Simplicity Cost-efficiency Attractive
packaging and
display
Affordable price Servicing Distribution
Distribution pattern Distribution
pattern
(iii) Competition:
Information will be gathered to determine the level of competition with similar types of
stoves and ovens available in the market. The above indicators will be tested for
comparison purposes:
2. Manufacturers of improved stoves and ovens (existing and potential)
89
i. Identify existing and potential target group (manufacturers);
ii. Gather information about disseminating the technology of improved stoves and
ovens;
iii. Assessing ways of developing the capacity of the target group to produce, market and
repair of the improved stoves and ovens.
Based on the above- collected information, the researchers will answer the following
questions:
i. What quantities of TaTEDO stoves and ovens can be sold?
ii. At what prices they can be sold
iii. Where can they be sold
iv. How can they be sold? (Terms of payment i.e. cash, credit, partial payment) and
v. When can they be sold?
vi. Acceptability of new renewable technologies.
Analysis of data
Analysis of opportunities and constraints identified
Analysis of strategies for increased uptake and adoption of improved stoves and
ovens for each target group
Recommendations for improved production and marketing strategies and conclusions
90
APPENDIX II: LIST OF TABLES (From PART TWO)
Table 2.1: Estimated number of improved bio-fuelled stoves disseminated in selected
sub-Saharan African countries in early 1990s
COUNTRY NUMBER DISTRIBUTED
Kenya 780,000
Burkina Faso 200,000
Niger 200,000
Tanzania 54,000
Ethiopia 45,000
Sudan 28,000
Uganda 25,000
Zimbabwe 10,880
Source: Renewable energy technologies as an option for a low-carbon energy future for developing
countries by Stephen Karekezi, Director AFREPREN.
Table 3.1: (a) Types of energy used; sorted by income level (a) URBAN AREAS HOUSEHOLDS
LEVEL
OF
INCOME
(per
month in
TShs)
No. of
respondents
TYPE OF ENERGY USED
Firewood Charcoal Kerosene Electricity Gas Sawdust Total
responses
Below
45,000
13 5 10 4 - - 2 21
45,000-
100,000
22 6 19 10 10 - 3 48
Above
100,000
11 4 8 2 5 4 - 23
Total
responses
46 15 37 16 15 4 5 92
Percentage
(%)
16 41 18 16 4 5 100
RANK 4 1 2 3 6 5
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Note: It is important to note that most users use more than one energy type, that‟s why total
responses is 92 while total respondents were 46
91
(b) RURAL AREAS HOUSEHOLDS
LEVEL OF
INCOME
(per month)
No. of
respondents
TYPE OF ENERGY USED
Firewoo
d
Charcoa
l
Kerosene Electricity Gas Sawdust Total
responses
Below 45,000 8 8 3 1 - - 1 13
45,000-
100,000
5 5 4 3 - - 1 13
Above
100,000
1 - 1 - - - - 1
Total
responses
14 13 8 4 - - 2 27
Percentage
(%)
48 30 15 - - 7 100
RANK 1 2 3 4
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Note: It is important to note that most users use more than one energy type, that‟s why total
responses is 27 while total respondents were 14
Table 3.1: (b) Different types of energy used by respondents - summary (a) Urban
S/N TYPES OF
ENERGY
NUMBER. OF
RESPONSES
PERCENTAGE
RESPONSES (%)
PERCENTAGE
OUT OF 46
RESPONDENTS
2 Charcoal 37 41 80.4
4 Kerosene 16 18 34.8
5 Electricity 15 16 32.6
1 Firewood 15 16 32.6
3 Sawdust 5 5 10.9
6 Gas 4 4 8.7
Total 92 100
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
(b) Rural
S/N TYPES OF ENERGY NUMBER. OF
RESPONSES
PERCENTAGE
(%)
PERCENTAGE
(%) OUT OF 14
RESPONDENTS
1 Firewood 13 48 92.8
2 Charcoal 8 30 57.1
4 Kerosene 4 15 28.5
3 Sawdust 2 7 14.2
5 Electricity - -
6 Gas - -
Total 27 100
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
92
Table 3.2: (a) Types of stoves used by urban respondents
S/N Types of stoves Number of
responses
Percentage of
responses (%)
Percentage (%)
out of 39
respondents
1 Bell- Bottom 28 42 71.8
2 Double plate-stand 12 18 30.8
3 Straight 5 7 12.8
4 Miguu mitatu 5 7 12.8
5 Traditional Metal 5 7 12.8
6 Sazawa 4 6 10.2
7 Efficient Bricks 2 3 5.1
8 Sawdust 2 3 5.1
9 Metallic firewood stoves 2 3 5.1
10 Efficient clay 1 2 2.6
11 Double plate box 1 2 2.6
12
Traditional open three stones -
-
0
Total 67
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Note: It is important to note that most users use more than one type of stove, that‟s why total
responses is 67 while total respondents were 39.
Table 3.2: (b) Types of stoves used by rural respondents
S/N Types of stoves Number of
responses
Percentage
(%)
Percentage (%)
out of 14
respondents
1 Efficient clay 11 39 78.6
2 Traditional open three
stones
7 25 50
3 Bell- Bottom 3 10 21.4
4 Miguu mitatu 2 7 14.3
5 Straight 2 7 14.3
6 Traditional Metal 1 4 7.1
7 Efficient Bricks 1 4 7.1
8 Sawdust 1 4 7.1
Total 28 100
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Note: It is important to note that most users use more than one type of stove, that‟s why total
responses is 28 while total respondents were 14.
93
Table 3:3 (a) Type and Prices of improved stoves
Type of stove Size (inch) Purchasing Price (TShs.)
1
Bell Bottom
9
10
11
12
14
18
1,300.00 - 1,400.00
1,400.00 - 2,000.00
1,700.00 - 3,000.00
2,000.00 - 3,500.00
2,500.00 - 6,000.00
30,000.00 -35,000.00
2 Straight 10 2,000.00 - 2,200.00
11 3,000.00 -3,500.00
3 Miguu Mitatu 10 2,000.00 - 2,500.00
11 2,800.00 - 3,000.00
4 Traditional Stove Metal 1,200.00 - 1,500.00
Rim 30,000.00 - 50,000.00
5 Double Plate Stand 10 15,000.00
12 20,000.00
6 Double Plate Box 10 26,000.00 - 35,000.00
14 30,000.00 - 35,000.00
7 Oven Kabati Normal Improved 175,000.00
8. Oven Kabati Small Normal 90,000.00
9. Oven Kabati Small with Jiko
Bora
95,000.00
10. Oven Kabati Double Jiko Bora 115,000.00
11. Oven Kabati Jiko Bora Large 190,000.00
12. Oven Round 125,000.00
13. Oven Sanduku Large Size 85,000.00
14. Oven Sanduku Medium Size 60,000.00
15. Sanduku Extra Large 200,000.00
16. Efficient Firewood Brick 25,000.00 – 90,000.00
17. Efficient portable firewood
stoves (clay & metal)
3,000.00 – 4,000.00
18. Efficient firewood metal
(fixed)
450,000.00
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Table 3:3 (b) Types and Prices of imported stoves (non-woodfuel)
S/N TYPE OF STOVE SIZE OF STOVE SELLING PRICE (TShs)
From Clock Tower shops:
1. Cooker with oven (INDESITY made in
Italy)
2 electric plates + 2 gas
stoves
675,000.00
2. Cooker with oven (VENUS made in
Korea)
2 electric plates + 2 gas
stoves
354,000.00
3. Cooker with oven (SIMTER made in
Italy)
1 electric plate + 3 gas
stoves
375,000.00
4. Gas cooker with oven (made in Italy) 4 gas stoves 575,000.00
From Kariakoo shops:
5. Electric Cooker (made in China) 1 plate 25,000.00 – 30,000.00
6. Electric Cooker (made in China) 2 plates 42,000.00 – 46,000.00
7. Electric Cooker (oven made in France) 2 plates 150,000.00 – 180,000.00
8. Electric Cooker (oven made in France) 4 plates 350,000.00 – 400,000.00
9. Electric Cooker (made in Japan) 1 plate 70,000.00
10. Electric Cooker (made in Japan) 2 plates 90,000.00
11. Gas Cooker (made in India) 3 plates 40,000.00 – 45,000.00
12. Gas Cooker (made in Japan) 2 plates 80,000.00
13. Kerosene stoves (made in Kenya) 1 plate 3,000.00 – 3,500.00
94
S/N TYPE OF STOVE SIZE OF STOVE SELLING PRICE (TShs)
14. Kerosene stoves (made in China) 1 plate 4,000.00 – 4,500.00
15. Kerosene stoves (made in India) 1 plate 9,500.00 – 10,000.00
16. Kerosene stoves (made in China) 3 plates 75,000.00 – 80,000.00
Used stoves (second hand) from Uhuru road:
17. Electric Cooker with oven (made in
Sweden)
3 plates 135,000.00
18. Electric cooker with oven (made in
Sweden)
4 plates 150,000.00
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Table 3.3 (c) Gross Margins
TYPE OF
STOVE
SIZE PRODUCTION COST
in TShs
SELLING PRICE in
TShs
GROSS MARGIN in
TShs
Bellbottom 9 1,000.00 1,300.00 – 1,400.00 300.00 – 400.00
10 1,000.00 – 1,500.00 1,400.00 – 2,000.00 400.00 – 500.00
11 1,400.00 – 1,600.00 1,700.00 – 3,000.00 300.00 – 1,400.00
12 1,500.00 – 1,800.00 2,000.00 – 3,500.00 500.00 – 1,700.00
14 2,400.00 – 4,000.00 2,500.00 – 6,000.00 100.00 – 2,000.00
18 15,000.00 – 16,000.00 30,000.00 – 35,000.00 15,000.00 – 19,000.00
Straight 10 1,000.00 – 1,600.00 2,000.00 – 2,200.00 800.00 – 1,000.00
11 1,600.00 – 1,700.00 3,000.00 – 3,500.00 1,400.00 – 1,800.00
Miguu mitatu 10 1,200.00 2,000.00 – 2,500.00 800.00 – 1,300.00
11 1,400.00 2,800.00 – 3,000.00 1,400.00 – 1,600.00
Double Plate
stand
10 10,000.00 15,000.00 5,000.00
12 13,000.00 – 15,000.00 20,000.00 5,000.00 – 7,000.00
14 25,000.00 30,000.00 5,000.00
Double Plate
Box
18,000.00 – 25,000.00 30,000.00 – 35,000.00 10,000.00 – 12,000.00
Traditional
Metal
Metal 800.00 – 1,000.00 1,200.00 – 1,500.00 400.00 – 500.00
Rim 20,000.00 – 25,000.00 30,000.00 – 50,000.00 10,000.00 – 25,000.00
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
95
Table 3.3: (d) Energy saving S/N Percentage of energy
saved (%)
Number of
Respondents
Percentage of
respondents (%)
1 0 3 9
2 17 1 3
3 25 2 5
4 29 1 3
5 33 6 17
6 40 1 3
7 50 9 26
8 60 1 3
9 67 6 17
10 75 2 5
11 80 1 3
12 83 1 3
13 88 1 3
Total (average) 46.2 35 100
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Notes:
1) The total number of respondents interviewed was 60; however 25 respondents could not
respond to this question due to various reasons. Some of them are still using the
traditional charcoal stove as the main cookstove, some are using the combination of
traditional and improved charcoal stove and did not kept records as to how much energy
is being saved as a result of using the improved stove, and some had never used the
traditional stove before so could not compare.
2) It is important to note that the figures provided are highly estimated as most
respondents are not keeping actual records of the amount of energy saved as a result of
using the improved stove. However; they all strongly suggest that they use much less
charcoal as compared to when they were using the traditional metal stove.
Table 3.3: (e) Durability Durability Number of
respondents
Percentage of
respondents (%)
Durable 23 44
Not Durable 30 56
Total 53 100
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
96
Table 3.3: (f) Sources of training by respondents in
Urban S/n Training
Institutions
Number of Respondents’
workshops
Percentage (%)
1 TaTEDO 3 14.3
2 Other artisans
(Relative/Friends)
17 81
3 Non response 1 4.7
Total 21 100
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Note: From the surveyed population, 81 percent of artisans reported to be trained by other
artisans. It is important to note that inadequately trained and inexperienced stove makers
make bad stoves; stove which does not have correct dimensions may use more fuel than
traditional stove and may be smoky and fail to light properly.
Rural
S/n Training
Institutions
Number of
Respondents’
groups
Percentage (%)
1 TaTEDO
5 100
2 Other artisans
(Relative/Friends) - -
Total
5 100
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Note:
The purpose of the training was that these groups of artisans are engaged in the promotion
and dissemination of the improved stoves in the villages. The Ikwiriri artisans were provided
with free acquisition of knowledge, technology, maintenance capability and initial working
tools.
Table 3.3 (g) Volume of stove production in the surveyed areas
S/N TYPE OF STOVE MONTHLY PRODUCTION
(AVERAGE PER WORKSHOP)
1. Bellbottom 192
2. Miguu mitatu 120
3. Straight 76
4. Double plate 40
5. Sazawa 220
6. Sanduku 44
7. Lanjoma berbecue 100
8. Lanjoma institution 52
97
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Note:
The data was gathered from 21 workshops.
It is important to note that these data are estimates as artisans do not keep accurate production
data (might be over estimated or under estimated).
SEECO produced 251 stoves from July through November 2003.
Five workshops subcontracted by SEECO produced 2,646 stoves from March through
November 2002 (an average of 294 stoves per month) and 44434
stoves from July through
October 2003 (average of 111 stoves per month).
Notes:
1. SEECO produces larger sizes stoves while subcontractors produces mainly sizes
9 to 14.
2. Data regarding market demand and production of improved stoves DSM is
largely absent. TaTEDO estimated monthly demand at more than 12,000
stoves35
.
Table 3.3 (h) Volume of sales in the surveyed areas
S/N TYPE OF STOVE SALES PER WEEK
1. Bellbottom 60
2. Miguu mitatu 10
3. Straight 20
4. Double plate box 2
5. Sazawa 14
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Note: Only 9 (nine) traders were contacted and interviewed.
Table 3.3 (i) Status of improved stoves at Ikwiriri
Number of stoves that are
functioning
Number of stoves that are
not functioning
Total number of
households/ institutions
visited
5 7 12
42% 58% 100%
34
Quantity produced by subcontractors has been largely reduced compared to previous year mainly due
to failure to meet quality requirements 35
A study on factors hindering wide adoption of improved charcoal stoves, March 1998
98
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Table 6.1: Level of Education of workers
Level of
Education
Number of
Responses
Percentage of
Responses (%)
Uneducated - -
Primary level 155 88.8
Secondary level 37 19.2
Total 192 100
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Note:
The 26 artisan‟s workshops visited had employed a total of 192 workers.
Table 6.2: Liner workshop tools, equipment and facilities
Name of tools/facilities QUANTITY UNITY
COST
(TShs.)
TOTAL
COST
(TShs.)
1 Clay soaking pit: 212cm long 140cm
wide x 78cm deep
1
60,000.00
60,000.00
2 Clay mixing pad: 195cm wide x
180cm wide x 10 thick
1
60,000.00
60,000.00
3 Heavy working bench made of
cement blocks and concrete table:
157cm long 117cm wide x 84cm high
1
50,000.00
50,000.00
4 Pottery wheels 2 50,000.00 100,000.00
5 Wheelbarrow 1 25,000.00 25,000.00
6 Spade 2 10,000.00 20,000.00
7 Hoe 2 1,500.00 3,000.00
8 Solulu (mattock) 2 2,000.00 4,000.00
9 Knives 2 200.00 400.00
10 Scrapers 2 500.00 1,000.00
11 Punch 2 2,000.00 4,000.00
12 Pan for ashes 2 2,000.00 4,000.00
13 Stuli (stool) 2 1,000.00 2,000.00
14 Plastic container 2 500.00 1,000.00
15 Moulds no.9, 10,11 and 14 6 1,500.00 9,000.00
16 Plastic sheets in metres 10 1,000.00 10,000.00
17 Pieces of sacks 3 200.00 600.00
18 Liner production workshop
(including firing kiln1030cm long x
598cm wide, roofed with corrugated
iron sheet gauge 3o including labour
1 350,000.00 350,000.00
Total 704,000.00
Source: TaTEDO
99
Table 6.3: (a) Optimum tools/ equipment requirement for a metal workshop Name of tools/facility QUANTITY UNITY COST
(TShs)
TOTAL
COST (TShs)
1 A piece of rail 2.5 meter long 2 10,000.00 20,000.00
2 A piece of car leaf spring 2 2,000.00 4,000.00
3 Cold chisel 2 1,000.00 2,000.00
4 Ball pen hammers (0.5) 2 2,500.00 5,000.00
5 Ball pen hammers (1.5) 2 3,500.00 7,000.00
6 Pliers 2 1,500.00 3,000.00
7 Tinsinps or metal sheet scissor (30) 2 18,000.00 36,000.00
8 Rivet snup 2 100.00 200.00
9 Compass (30cm diameter) 2 1,000.00 2,000.00
10 Hole punch 2 1,000.00 2,000.00
11 Centre punch 2 1,000.00 2,000.00
12 Measuring Tape (3metres) 2 2,500.00 5,000.00
13 Square 2 2,000.00 4,000.00
14 Brush (5cm) 2 500.00 1,000.00
15 Pan 2 1,500.00 3,000.00
16 Working bench (1.5 x 1m) - Mninga 1 x 6 2 50,000.00 100,000.00
17 Hacksaw handle 2 5,000.00 10,000.00
18 Hacksaw blades (from England) 2 700.00 1,400.00
19 Working shade 6m x 3m, roofed with
corrugated iron sheet gauge 30 including
labor
1 150,000.00 150,000.00
Total 357,600.00
Source: TaTEDO, February 2004
Table 6.3 (b) Investment capital and tools used by respondents in the surveyed areas Name of tools/facility QUANTITY
36 TOTAL
COST
1 Hammer 7,000.00
2 Wedge 5,000.00
3 A piece of rail 5,000.00
4 Scissor (for cutting metal sheets) 18,000.00
5 Punch 8,000.00
6 Spring 8,000.00
7 Tape measure 1,500.00
8 Rivet 2,500.00
9 Compass 2,800.00
10 Pliers 1,500.00
11 Knives 3,000.00
12 Nuts 200.00
Total 62,500.00
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Note: Very few artisans have other more expensive tools/ equipment such as molding machine
(TShs. 75,000) and folding machine (TShs. 450,000).
Average investment capital for artisans is only about 17.5 percent of the required capital.
36
Due to lack of record keeping quantities could not be estimated.
100
Table 6.3: Sources of Raw Material
Sources of raw
materials
Number of
responses
Percentage of
responses (%)
Calculating % by
number of
workshops
Hardware 16 47 73
Aluminium 10 29 45.5
Scrap dealers 8 24 36.4
Total responses 34 100 22
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
Table 7.1: Geographical Clusters
S/N Types of
Business
Number of
artisans’
workshops
Number of
workers/owners
Percentage of
Business (%)
1 Sole
proprietor
6 6 23
2 Partnership 3 6 12
3 Groups 17 180 65
Total 26 192 100
Source: Survey Findings, February 2004
101
APPENDIX III: CHAIN MAPS
102
Production
Main road trading
Dealer
Storage
Wholesale
Retail
Markets
IBEK & BEK
36%
3
Dealers
“System
Node”
4
Retail /
Wholesale
gross margin
17.6% ,
aggregate
290,000/=Integrated
production/
trading
4%
IBEK gross
margin
49.2%
aggregate
664,833/=
5
Bicycle Dealer
mark – up
40 – 50%
FUNCTIONS
Rural
HH
Rural
Centres
Urban
HHMSEs Institutions
Retailers
checkpoint
IBEK gross margin
63.8%, aggregate
30,000
2
10 – 20%80 – 90%
BEK
Gross margin 51%
Aggregate
1
TaTEDO: private tree nursery management,
Improved charcoal carbonization
RFPP: JFM practices, securing markets for
forests products, research, extension services
CHARCOAL SUPPLY/DEMAND CHAIN MAP
Services
103
Research & Prototype
Development
Training, Extension,
Demonstration & Enterprise
Development
Clay Liner making
Fabrication (cladding &
stove assembling)
Subcontracting
Stove repair
Regional Trade
Retail
Markets
Clay Liner markers
9%
ALUMINIUM
INDUSTRYHARDWARES SCRAP DEALERS
Stove repair
Traditional metal stove
4.3%
5
CARMATEC UDSM COSTECH
SMEs INSTHH
HH INST SMEs HH
Retail
Regional Trader
Subcontracted
Artisans
13%
2
Small-scale
Fabricators
65%
3
Integrated
fabricator
Good
Quality
4.3%
TaTEDO
SEECO
Co. Ltd
Raw Materials
Integrated
1
CHARCOAL STOVE CHAIN MAP
Retail
Stove repair
22%
Stove
fabrication
4
Research & Prototype
Development
Training, Extension,
Demonstration & Enterprise
Development
Clay Liner making
Fabrication (cladding &
stove assembling)
Subcontracting
Stove repair
Regional Trade
Retail
Markets
Clay Liner markers
9%
ALUMINIUM
INDUSTRYHARDWARES SCRAP DEALERS
Stove repair
Traditional metal stove
4.3%
5
CARMATEC UDSM COSTECH
SMEs INSTHH
HH INST SMEs HH
Retail
Regional Trader
Subcontracted
Artisans
13%
2
Small-scale
Fabricators
65%
3
Integrated
fabricator
Good
Quality
4.3%
TaTEDO
SEECO
Co. Ltd
Raw Materials
Integrated
1
CHARCOAL STOVE CHAIN MAP
Retail
Stove repair
22%
Stove
fabrication
4
104
APPENDIX IV: LIST OF PEOPLE CONTACTED
Name Working Area.
Eng. N. C. X. Mwihava Ministry of Energy and Minerals
Mr Fadhili Kileo Ministry of Energy and Minerals
Mr L.E Lyimo Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism,
Forestry and Beekeeping Division
Mr Florian Mkea Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism,
Forestry and Beekeeping Division
Mrs. Mugheni Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism,
Forestry and Beekeeping Division
Ms. T. Ntemo Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism,
Forestry and Beekeeping Division
Mr. Edward Shilogile Ruvu Fuel Pilot Project
Mr . Abeid Kindo Ruvu Fuel Pilot Project
Mr. Joseph P. Sondi Ruvu Fuel Pilot Project
Mr. Elibariki Former Consultant REMP Ikwiriri
Dr L. M. P Rweyemamu Department of Chemical and Process
Engineering, University of Dar es Salaam
Dr. M. L. Raphael COSTECH
Mr. Adam Max Msoma Kibaha check-point
Mr. Mohamed S Chande Forest Officer, Kibiti
Mrs. Makutika Ward Councilor, Kibiti
Mr. Mushi. Head Teacher, Ikwiriri Primary School.