sunlight-driven membrane-supported photoelectrochemical water...

Membrane-Supported Nanorod PEC H2 Production

SUNLIGHT-DRIVEN MEMBRANE-SUPPORTED PHOTOELECTROCHEMICAL WATER

SPLITTING

Nathan S. Lewis, Harry A. AtwaterHarry B. Gray, Bruce S. Brunschwig

Jim Maiolo, Kate Plass, Josh Spurgeon, Brendan Kayes, Mike Filler, Mike Kelzenberg, Morgan Putnam

California Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA 91125

LightFuel

Electricity

Photosynthesis

Fuels Electricity

Photovoltaics

sc

e

SC

CO

Sugar

H O

O

2

2

2

Energy Conversion Strategies

Semiconductor/LiquidJunctions

H2

O

O H22

SC

Fuel from Sunlight

QuickTime™ and aYUV420 codec decompressor

are needed to see this picture.

Photoelectrochemical

Cell

metal

e-

e-

O2

H2

O

H2

H2

O

e -

h+

Light is Converted to Electrical+Chemical Energy

LiquidSolid

SrTiO3


FTO slide printed with binary combinations of eight metals, pyrolyzed

to form mixed metal oxides.

Typical photocurrent map of a slide of metal oxides. The X-

and Z-coordinates give each spot’s identity, which is correlated with photo-catalytic activity. Here, combinations of Zn and Co in row #9 show photoanodic

current

Combinatorial Discovery of Nanorod MaterialsCombinatorial Discovery of Nanorod Materials


Lessons from PhotosynthesisLessons from Photosynthesis


Turner CellTurner Cell


2H2

O2

catalystanode

H2

catalystcathodeSolar PV & membrane

H2

O

O24H+

System ConceptSystem Concept


Why Radial Junction Solar Cells?Why Radial Junction Solar Cells?

•

Traditional device design requires long minority carrier diffusion lengths, and therefore expensive materials

p-type

n-type

hν

Traditional

single junction solar cell

Idealized radial junction

nanorod solar cell

~Ln

1/α

•

Radial geometry allows for high quantum efficiency despite short

minority carrier diffusion lengths

~Ln


Device ModelingDevice Modeling

Comparison of photovoltaic efficiency for (a) planar and (b) nanowire Si devices as afunction of absorber thickness and minority carrier diffusion length

B.M. Kayes, H. A. Atwater, and N. S. Lewis, J. Appl. Phys. 97

114302 (2005)

Relatively high efficiencies possible despite low diffusion lengths if depletion region recombination can be minimized


Structural Organization in NatureStructural Organization in Nature

RootForest

Stomata Leaf


Enables New MaterialsEnables New Materials•

High efficiencies possible despite low diffusion lengths=> Inexpensive materials

–

Cheaper traditional materials•

Silicon as a model system

–

Non-traditional, earth-abundant materials•

Tandem partners with silicon


Relaxes Catalyst Activity RequirementsRelaxes Catalyst Activity Requirements

Hydrogen Evolution Reaction


Why Macroporous Silicon?Why Macroporous Silicon?

•

Macroporous

silicon can be made from single-crystalline (100) silicon starting material.

•

Bulk-limited VOC can be calculated from the Shockley diode equation:

⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=

0

lnJJ

qkTV ph

OC


nanorod solar cell

Idealized macroporous

silicon model sample

Dp

ip

NLnqD

J2

0 =


Making MacroporesMaking Macropores

5% HF + 10 mM SDS


Macroporous SiliconMacroporous Silicon


I-V MeasurementsI-V Measurements


I-V Curves – 100 mW/cm2I-V Curves – 100 mW/cm2

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Testing a Nanorod Array Solar CellTesting a Nanorod Array Solar Cell

•

Characterize a working nanorod

solar cell–

Ready fabrication of nanorod

electrodes to put into

a working cell •

CdSe, CdTe

–

While not an ideal commercial material (toxicity, abundance), CdSex

Te1-x•

is diffusion length limited

•

has ideal bandgap

(~1.4 eV) •

allows for an early test of the theory


The Alumina TemplateThe Alumina Template

• Allows for dense, uniform array of rods

• Carefully controlled dimensions

• Easily removable template


Porous Alumina

CdSe

layer to prevent shunting (via sputtering)Titanium Back Contact (via sputtering)

CdSeTe

Nanorods(via electrodeposition)

Alumina template removed in 1 M NaOH

CdSeTe NanorodsCdSeTe Nanorods


•

Excellent control over the dimensions and composition of these rods is possible



•

Very uniform over relatively large area (a few cm2)



CdSeTe NanorodsCdSeTe Nanorods•

Use a liquid junction to make a photoelectrochemical

cell•

Measure current-voltage properties in the dark and light and compare nanorod

performance to an analogous planar electrode

•

Thin sputtered CdSe

layer to prevent shunting through back contact –

negligible contribution to performance


Why Radial Junction Solar Cells?Why Radial Junction Solar Cells?

•

Traditional device design requires long minority carrier diffusion lengths, and therefore expensive materials

p-type

n-type

hν

Traditional

single junction solar cell


nanorod solar cell

~Ln

1/α

•

Radial geometry allows for high quantum efficiency despite short

minority carrier diffusion lengths

~Ln


CdSeTe NanorodsCdSeTe Nanorods•

Spectral response:

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

External Quantum Yield

Wavelength (nm)

PlanarNanorod

•

As expected from IV curves, planar usually exhibits better quantum yields –

the above curves were chosen because their similar magnitudes allow for ease of shape comparison

•

Shape of the curve is more significant •

Nanorod

samples lose less quantum yield

in the red•

Since longer wavelength light penetrates deeper into the semiconductor, this is an indication that the nanorod

geometry is more effectively collecting the carriers


•

Nanorod

Array Growth Procedure

Porous Alumina

Conductive Catalyst Metal (via evaporation)

Mounting Wax

Supportive Nickel Substrate (via electrodeposition)

Silicon Nanorods

Alumina template removed in 1 M NaOH

Si NanorodsSi Nanorods


•

Silicon nanorod

array after template is removed

Si NanorodsSi Nanorods


Spatially resolved photocurrentSpatially resolved photocurrent

NSOM schematic SEM-NSOM Topography

Overlay

4-Point Probe

5 μm

10 μm

Al/Ag

Rwire

= 17.9 MΩ

RC

= 200 kΩ

ND

~ 5×1013

cm-3

λ=488 nm

•

Near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM) can measure nanowire photoconductivity as a function of excitation location.

•

Carrier collection lengths can be studied as a function of nanowire diameter, growth conditions, passivation, etc...

(1.18 μm diameter)

5 μm


Effective diffusion lengthEffective diffusion length

Charge continuity for electrons with effective, single-τ

recombination rate:

NSOM suggests minority carrier collection length is comparable to wire diameter.

10 μm

Pho

tocu

rrent

(pA

)

-200

200

Pho

tocu

rrent

(nor

m.) 1

-10 µm 10 µm

Charge transport by drift and diffusion:

( ) ( ) ( ) nn n n dxJ x q n x E x qD δμ ∂= +

Monitor terminal current as function of injection point:

0 0| |meas n x p xJ J J= == +

Ln,eff = = 1.9 µm ↔

τn,eff ≈

1 ns

Lp,eff = = 2.2 µm ↔

τp,eff ≈

4 ns

,n n effD τ

,p p effD τ

Al

200 mVbias

, |injn p x x phg I= =when

200 mVbias

neffn

n gnxJ

qtn

+∂

−∂∂

=∂∂

,

1τδδ

Vary τ

to match measured photocurrent profile:Wire position

Energy band diagram

Incr

easi

ng e

nerg

y


•

Low Trap State Density•

Stable in Ambient Conditions

•

Facile Interfacial Charge Transfer

Surface Requirements for Semiconductor Heterojunctions


hν

Traditional planar photovoltaic

~L

Idealized high aspectratio photovoltaic


Oxide Buffer Layer - Pattern FidelityOxide Buffer Layer - Pattern Fidelity

100 μm100 μm

10 μm 10 μm

H2

anneal

1000oC

No

oxid

e bu

ffer l

ayer

H2

anneal

1000oC

Oxi

de b

uffe

r lay

er

50 μm10 μm

An oxide buffer layer is critical for maintaining pattern fidelity during growth.

3 μm array, 500 nm Au, Tgrowth

= 1000oC, Pgrowth

= 760 Torr


Large Area Au-Catalyzed Si ArraysLarge Area Au-Catalyzed Si Arrays

100 μm


= 1000oC, Pgrowth

= 760 Torr, 30 min growth, 2 mole % SiCl4

in H2


Large Area Au-Catalyzed Si ArraysLarge Area Au-Catalyzed Si Arrays

30 μm

Nearly 100% vertically aligned, 75 μm length microwire

arrays over areas > 1 cm2.


= 1000oC, Pgrowth


in H2


Copper-Catalyzed Si Wire ArraysCopper-Catalyzed Si Wire Arrays

250 μm

15 μm

Copper produces wire arrays that are structurally equivalent to gold.

3 μm array, 500 nm Cu, Tgrowth

= 1000oC, Pgrowth


in H2


Si Wire Array JunctionsSi Wire Array Junctions

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•

Low Trap State Density•

Stable in Ambient Conditions

•

Facile Interfacial Charge Transfer



hν

Traditional planar photovoltaic

~L

Idealized high aspectratio photovoltaic


PCl5benzoyl

peroxide

or Cl2(g)

CH3

MgCl

Surface PassivationSurface Passivation

SiH

SiCl

SiCH3

Si(111)-CH3

0.38 nm

1 nm

Measured through STM,

T = 4 K


SEM of Chlorinated Si Nanorod ArraysSEM of Chlorinated Si Nanorod Arrays•

Chlorination with PCl5 is known to cause etching of silicon surfaces

Chlorinated 45 min

Chlorinated 10 min, then methylated

•

Functionalized surfaces appear rough, but etching is not destructive1 μm

2 μm


Electrical Performance of Methylated Silicon Nanowires

Electrical Performance of Methylated Silicon Nanowires

•

Methylated

wires (60 nm diameter)–

Sensitive to gate voltage –

Maintain higher conductance•

Hydrogen terminated surfaces–

Deteriorate

Haick, H.; Hurley, P. T.; Hochbaum, A. I.; Yang, P.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 8990-8991.

Nor

mal

ized

ave

rage

co

nduc

tanc

e

Ave

rage

intri

nsic

co

nduc

tanc

e

Gate voltage (V) Time (h)


Constructing the Pieces of a Solar H2 Fuel Generator

Constructing the Pieces of a Solar H2 Fuel Generator

Polymer Embedding of Si Rod ArraysPolymer Embedding of Si Rod Arrays

Si*O

*

PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane)

Large Area Rod Array RemovalLarge Area Rod Array Removal

•

Large area arrays (> 1 cm2) transferred in one piece.

•

Conformal coating from top to bottom of rods

115 μm

Top-down view Side view

Embedded Rod Pattern FidelityEmbedded Rod Pattern Fidelity

Rod diameter

(μm)

Shortest inter-rod distance

(μm)

Angle (θ, °)

Before removal

2.5 ±

2 8.6 ±

2 92 ±

9

After removal

4.6 ±

4 8.8 ±

3 94 ±

2

•

Inter-rod angle and spacing is constant before and after PDMS casting and removal

•

Apparent rod diameter differences due to examination of rod tips versus base

θ

Large Area Rod Array RemovalLarge Area Rod Array Removal

•

Large area arrays (> 1 cm2) transferred in one piece.

•

Conformal coating from top to bottom of rods

115 μm

Top-down view Side view


Regrown ArraysRegrown Arrays

Polymerization from Si Rod SurfacesPolymerization from Si Rod Surfaces

Allylated

Si

base Methylated

Si base

SiCH2

Ru*n

SiCH2

Ru*H

1st

generation Grubbscatalyst

SiCH2H

H H

polymer sheath grown around rods


•

1.23 V needed to electrolyze water

•

Requires a heterojunction or dual junction

•

Single absorber: band gap of 2.0-2.6 eV

that straddles the necessary potentials

•

Photoanode and photocathode absorbers:

Band gaps can better match the solar spectrum (1.1-1.4 eV)

Allows for greater flexibility in materials design

Efficiency could approach 25%

•

Optimal structure would have several light-

absorbing layers absorbing different portions

•

of the spectrum with an overall potential greater than 1.23 V

Dual Junction Nanorod ArraysDual Junction Nanorod Arrays


Fe2 O3 NanowiresFe2 O3 Nanowires


2H2

O2

catalystanode

H2

catalystcathodeSolar PV & membrane

H2

O

O24H+

System ConceptSystem Concept


ConclusionsConclusions•

Without massive

quantities (10-20 TW by 2050) of clean energy, CO2

levels will continue to rise

•

The only sufficient supply-side cards we have are “clean”

coal, nuclear fission (with a closed fuel cycle), and/or cheap solar fuel

•

We need to pursue globally scalable systems that can efficiently

and cost-

effectively capture, convert, and store sunlight in the form of chemical fuels

–

He that can not store, will not have power after four

•

Semiconductor/liquid junctions offer the only proven method for achieving this goal, but we have a great deal of fundamental science to learn to enable the underpinnings of a cost-effective, deployable technology

–

Nanorods, randomly ordered junctions to generate the needed potential

–

Catalysts to convert the incipient electrons into fuels by rearranging the chemical bonds of water (and CO2

) into O2

and a reduced fuel

D

Si M

e

A

I-

I3-

ACN

hυ

Loade-

e-e-

e-

D

Si M

e

A

EtOH

H2

O

Four Strategies

New RedoxCouples

NonaqueousSolvents

SurfaceModification

InexpensiveSemiconductor s

S2-

CdS M

e

S22-

sunlight-driven membrane-supported photoelectrochemical water...

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