TableofContents

TitlePageCopyrightPageAcknowledgementsDedicationForewordIntroduction

TheSilentServiceBuildingtheBoatsTheBoat:ATourofUSSMiami(SSN-755)TheBritishBoats:ATourofHMSTriumph(S-93)RolesandMissionsTheEndofHistory:SubmarinesinthePost-ColdWarWorldOtherPeople'sSubmarines

GlossaryBibliography

"Takesreadersdeeperthanthey'veevergoneinsideanuclearsubmarine."--KirkusReviews

ArareglimpseinsideaLosAngeles-class(SSN-688)nuclearsubmarine...

withTomClancyasyourguide.

OnlytheauthorofTheHuntforRedOctobercouldcapturetherealityoflifeaboardanuclearsubmarine.OnlyawriterofMr.Clancy'smagnitudecouldobtainsecurityclearanceforinformation,diagrams,andphotographstoofferthepublicatrueinsider'sview.Now,everyciviliancanenterthistop-secretworldandexperiencethedramaandexcitementofthisstunningtechnologicalachievement...theweapons,theprocedures,thepeoplethemselves...thestartlingfactsbehindthefictionthatmadeTomClancya#1bestsellingauthor.

ALSOINCLUDESMATERIALONSEAWOLF-ANDVIRGINIA-CLASSSUBMARINES

SUBMARINEincludes:

*Exclusivephotographs,illustrations,anddiagrams*Mockwarscenariosandweapons-launchprocedures*Aninsidelookatlifeonboard,fromcaptaintocrew,fromtrainingexercisestooperations

*Thefascinatinghistoryandevolutionofsubmarines

PLUS:TomClancy'scontroversialviewsonsubmarinertacticsandtrainingmethods

MostBerkleyBooksareavailableatspecialquantitydiscountsforbulkpurchasesforsalespromotions,premiums,fund-raising,oreducationaluse.Specialbooks,orbookexcerpts,canalsobecreatedtofitspecificneeds.

Fordetails,write:SpecialMarkets,TheBerkleyPublishingGroup,375HudsonStreet,NewYork,NewYork10014.

NovelsbyTomClancy

THEHUNTFORREDOCTOBERREDSTORMRISINGPATRIOTGAMES

THECARDINALOFTHEKREMLINCLEARANDPRESENTDANGER

THESUMOFALLFEARSWITHOUTREMORSEDEBTOFHONOR

EXECUTIVEORDERSRAINBOWSIX

THEBEARANDTHEDRAGON

SSN:STRATEGIESOFSUBMARINEWARFARE

Nonfiction

SUBMARINE:AGUIDEDTOURINSIDEANUCLEARWARSHIPARMOREDCAV:AGUIDEDTOUROFANARMORED

CAVALRYREGIMENTFIGHTERWING:AGUIDEDTOUROFANAIRFORCE

COMBATWINGMARINE:AGUIDEDTOUROFAMARINEEXPEDITIONARY

UNITAIRBORNE:AGUIDEDTOUROFANAIRBORNETASKFORCE

CARRIER:AGUIDEDTOUROFANAIRCRAFTCARRIERSPECIALFORCES:AGUIDEDTOUROFU.S.ARMYSPECIAL

FORCES

INTOTHESTORM:ASTUDYINCOMMAND(writtenwithGeneralFredFranks)

EVERYMANATIGER(writtenwithGeneralCharlesHorner)

SHADOWWARRIORS:INSIDETHESPECIALFORCES(writtenwithGeneralCharlesStiner,Ret.,andTonyKoltz)

CreatedbyTomClancyandStevePieczenik

TOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTERTOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:MIRRORIMAGETOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:GAMESOFSTATETOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:ACTSOFWAR

TOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:BALANCEOFPOWERTOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:STATEOFSIEGE

TOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:DIVIDEANDCONQUERTOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:LINEOFCONTROLTOMCLANCY'SOP-CENTER:MISSIONOFHONOR

TOMCLANCY'SNETFORCETOMCLANCY'SNETFORCE:HIDDENAGENDASTOMCLANCY'SNETFORCE:NIGHTMOVES

TOMCLANCY'SNETFORCE:BREAKINGPOINTTOMCLANCY'SNETFORCE:POINTOFIMPACTTOMCLANCY'SNETFORCE:CYBERNATIONTOMCLANCY'SNETFORCE:STATEOFWAR

CreatedbyTomClancyandMartinGreenberg

TOMCLANCY'SPOWERPLAYS:POLITIKATOMCLANCY'SPOWERPLAYS:RUTHLESS.COMTOMCLANCY'SPOWERPLAYS:SHADOWWATCH

TOMCLANCY'SPOWERPLAYS:BIO-STRIKETOMCLANCY'SPOWERPLAYS:COLDWAR

TOMCLANCY'SPOWERPLAYS:CUTTINGEDGE

ABerkleyBookPublishedbyTheBerkleyPublishingGroupAdivisionofPenguinGroup(USA)Inc.

375HudsonStreetNewYork,NewYork10014

Theviewsandopinionsexpressedinthisbookareentirelythoseoftheauthor,anddonotnecessarilycorrespondwiththoseofanycorporation,navy,or

governmentorganizationofanycountry.

Copyright(c)1993,2002byJackRyanEnterprises,Ltd.PublishedbyarrangementwithJackRyanEnterprises,Ltd.

Allrightsreserved.Thisbook,orpartsthereof,maynotbereproducedinanyformwithout

permission.Thescanning,uploading,anddistributionofthisbookviatheInternetorviaany

othermeanswithoutthepermissionofthepublisherisillegalandpunishablebylaw.

Pleasepurchaseonlyauthorizedelectroniceditions,anddonotparticipateinor

encourageelectronicpiracyofcopyrightedmaterials.Yoursupportoftheauthor'srightsis

appreciated.BERKLEYandthe"B"designaretrademarksbelongingtoPenguinGroup

(USA)Inc.

PRINTINGHISTORYBerkleytradepaperbackedition/November1993Berkleyrevisedmass-marketedition/January2002Berkleyrevisedtradepaperbackedition/May2003

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Clancy,Tom,1947-Submarine:aguidedtourinsideanuclearwarship/TomClancy;writtenwith

JohnGresham.--Berkleyrev.tradepbk.ed.p.cm.

Includesbibliographicalreferences.eISBN:978-1-101-00258-2

1.Nuclearsubmarines.I.Gresham,John.II.Title.

V857.5.C552003623.8'2574--dc21

2002044074

http://us.penguingroup.com

Theauthorgratefullyacknowledgespermissionforuseofthefollowingmaterials:

PhotographsprovidedbytheBritishRoyalNavy,(c)BritishCrowncopyright1993/MOD,reproducedwiththepermissionoftheControllerofHerBritanicMajesty'sStationeryOffice;allrightsreserved;

PhotographsprovidedbytheNewsPhotoDivisionoftheUnitedStatesNavy;allrightsreserved;

PhotographsprovidedbyJohnD.Gresham;allrightsreserved;

PhotographsprovidedbytheElectricBoatDivisionofGeneralDynamicsCorporation;allrightsreserved;

ForewordcourtesyofR.F.Bacon,copyright(c)1993byR.F.Bacon;allrightsreserved.

Thisbookisdedicatedtothefamilies,friends,andlovedonesofsubmariners,

whoreturnthatlove,aswellastheirloveofGodandcountry,bygoingdownintotheseainsteelboats.

Acknowledgments

Thereisapopularquotethatsays"Failureisanorphan...butsuccesshasmanyfathers."Ifthisbookandtheseriesthatitstartsturnouttobeasuccess,itwillbeduetothevisionandsupportofagreatmanypeoplethroughoutthedefenseandpublishingcommunities.Firstthereistheteamthathelpedmeputittogether.Inthefallof1987,IwasintroducedtoadefensesystemsanalystnamedJohnD.Gresham.Overtheyears,wehavehadmanylivelydiscussions,andwhilewemaynotalwaysagree,thedisagreementsalwayswerethoughtfulandinsightful.Thus,IwaspleasedwhenJohnagreedtoworkwithmeasaresearcherandconsultantonthisproject.BackingupJohnandmewasMartinH.Greenberg,theserieseditor.Marty'ssupportinconceivingthisbookandtheseries,aswellashisguidanceoftheentireproject,havebeenvital.LauraAlpher,theseriesillustrator,createdthewonderfuldrawingsthatresideinthesepages.ThanksalsogotoLieutenantCommanderChristopherCarlson,USNR,BrianHewitt,CindiWoodrum,DianaPatin,andRosalindGreenbergfortheirtirelessworkinallthethingsthatmakethisbookwhatitis.

Whenwestartedthisbook,popularopinionaroundthePentagonwasthatitcouldnotbedone.Ifanyonepersonchangedthat,itwasViceAdmiralRogerBacon,USN(Ret.).AsOP-02,hewasinstrumentalinopeningupthesubmarinecommunitytothepressandthepublicforthefirsttimesincenuclearsubsstartedoperating.Ourspecialthanksgotohim.Inaddition,RearAdmiralThomasRyan,USN(N-87),aswellasRearAdmiralsFredGustavson,USN,andRaymondJones,USN,allprovidedhigh-levelsupport.LieutenantsJeffDurandandNickConnallydidyeomanworkandtolerateddozensofill-timedphonecalls.IntheOfficeofNavyInformation,

LieutenantsDonThomasandBobRossjustkeptfindingwaystomakeithappen.SpecialthankstoRussEgnor,PatToombs,ChiefPettyOfficerJayDavid-son,andthestaffoftheNavyStillPhotoBranchforalltheirtoleranceandsupport.

UpatGroton,Connecticut,wewanttothankLieutenantCommanderRuthNoonan,USN,oftheSUBGRU-2publicaffairsofficeforherguidanceduringourvisit.AllaroundthebaseatGroton,theoperatorsofthevarioustrainersaretobethankedforallowingustotakepartinanumberoftrainingexercises.Thanksalsoshouldgotothepersonnelandstudentsofthesubmarineschool.AlsoatGroton,wewishtothankCommanderLarryDavis,USN,andthecrewoftheUSSGroton,whoopenedtheirboatuptous,despiteitsbeingtornopenformodificationsandweaponsloading.AndtoCommanderHoustonK.Jones,USN,andhiscrewonUSSMiami,wepaythecomplimentofcallingyou"razors."FromonesideoftheAtlantictotheother,thoseyouhavefacedinexerciseshaveonlyonethingtosay:"Whowerethoseguys?"ThanksalsotothecrewsofUSSGreenlingandUSSGatoforsharingtheirvaluabletrainingperiodswithus.

OneofthegreatpleasuresofdoingthisbookwastheopportunitytorekindleourfriendshipwiththefinefolksofHerMajesty'sNavy.RearAdmiralPaulFere,RN,andCommodoreRogerLane-Nott,RN,aretobethankedfortheirsponsorshipofourproject.HereinAmerica,ourwaywaspavedbyRearAdmiralHoddinott,RN,CommanderNickHarris,RN,andLeadingWRENsTraceyBarberandSarahClarke.AttheMinistryofDefence,CommandersIanHewitt,RN,andDuncanFergeson,RN,helpedgetustothemanyplaceswevisited.Mr.AmbroseMooreofthefleetpublicrelationsofficeinNorthwoodistobethankedforhisservicesastourguidetobasesintheU.K.WewouldalsoliketoextendourthankstothecrewofHMSRepulse,whoallowedusabriefvisitintotheworldoftheSSBNforce.Andfinally,ourwarmestthanksgotoCommander

DavidVaughan,RN,andthecrewofHMSTriumphfortheircourtesyandfriendshipoverseveralvisits.HerMajestycanbeproudofDavidandhismen,fortheyhavethesamestoutheartsasDrake,Nelson,andVian.

UpinNewYork,ourthankstoRobertGottliebandthestaffatWilliamMorris.AndatBerkleyBooks,weoweaspecialdebttooureditor,JohnTalbot.ThanksalsotoRogerCooperforhispatienceandsupportofourwork.OurpersonalthanksgotooldfriendsCaptainsDougLittleJohns,RN,andJamesPerowne,RN.ThanksalsotoRonThunman,JoeMetcalf,andCarlisleTrostforsharingtheirwisdomandexperiences.AndtoNedBeach,whotaughtusallto"runsilent...andrundeep."Andlastly,ourlovetoourfamiliesandfriends,whotolerateourtimeawayfromthem,sothatwemighttellourstoriestotheworld.

Foreword

ThetransformationofTomClancy'swonderfulfictionalaccountofsubmarininginTheHuntforRedOctobertotherealityofactualmodernnuclearsubmarinecapabilitiesandoperationsislongoverdue.Nowhebringsauniqueaccountofthenuclear-poweredsubmarine,avitalcomponentofnavalpower,tothepublicforthefirsttime.Thisbookexplainstheworldofunderseawarfare,fromhowpeoplelivewithinasteeltubeformonthsatatime,tothemanyarrowsasubmarineputsinthequiverofnationalmilitarypower.

Twiceinthiscenturysubmarinewarfarehasthreatenedtheexistenceofmajorpowers.Submarineshavealwaysbeenaflexibleandadaptablenationalasset,capableofmanyrolesandmissions.ThesubmarinesofWorldWarIandIIhadsomeinherentstealthandcouldsubmergetoconductattacks,butthispropertywaslimitedbyalackofsustainedpowerwhileunderthesea'ssurface.Theadventofnuclearpropulsionmadethesubmarineatrulystealthyplatform.Aso-calledstealthaircraftcanstillbeseenbythenakedeye.Anuclear-poweredsubmarineistrulyinvisibleandnotreadilydetectable.Itistheoriginalstealthmachineandcanremainundetectedindefinitely.Fromthisenduringcovertnessspringstheawesomepowerofthemodernsubmarine.Throughtheadvancesofballisticandcruisemissiletechnologythestrategicnucleardeterrencemissionandlandattackcapabilityhavebecomeanintegralpartofthismilitarypower.Fordecadestheprincipalmissionofasubmarinehasbeentosinkshipsandsubmarines.Today,thenuclear-poweredsubmarine'sabilitytoaffecteventsonlandisoneofitsdominantfeatures.

WithTomClancyasourtourguide,letusviewthesubmarine'shistory,itsmissions,thepeopleandtheirfamilies,thetraining,the

boatitselfwithallitscompartmentsandsystems,andconsiderwhatthesecando.Ifyouspendyearsonthebridgeofasubmarine,asIhave,youwillnoticehowthedolphinsthat"ride"thecrestoftheexhilaratinglybeautifulbowwavealongthetear-shapedsubmarinehulldosoatdifferentpositionsfordifferentclassesorshapesofsubmarines.Why?Ihavealwayswondered.Thistouryouareabouttotakewillcomeclosetoansweringsuchquestions,whichareinherenttothemystiqueofasubmarine.

Imaynotagreewithallofthepointspresentherein,butIdobelievethatuponcompletionofyourtouryouwillunderstandwhythesubmarineistheonlynavalplatformthatcombinesstealth,surprise,survivability,mobility,andenduranceinasingleunit.Theemploymentofthesecharacteristicsprovidesanationwithaformidablemaritimepower,whichshouldbeunderstoodbythepublic.

--ViceAdmiralRogerBacon,USNDeputyChiefofNavalOperationsforUnderseaWarfareJanuary1993

Introduction

Submarine.Theverywordimpliesstealthanddeadliness.Ofalltheconventionalweaponsusedbytheworld'sarmedforcesthesedays,noneismoreeffectiveordangerousthanthenuclearattacksubmarine(SSN).SinceitscreationintheUnitedStatessomefortyyearsago,theSSNhasbecomethemostfearedweaponintheoceansoftheworld.ThemodernSSNisastealthplatformwith70percentoftheworld'ssurfaceunderwhichtohide,itsendurancedeterminednotbyfuelbutbytheamountoffoodthatmaybecrammedintothehull,anditsoperationallimitationsdeterminedmorebytheskillofthecommanderandcrewthanbyexternalfactors.

Understandingthecapabilitiesofthemodernnuclear-poweredattacksubmarinerequiresacertainsophisticationonthepartofbothapotentialadversaryandavisitor.Visually,asubmarineistheleastimpressiveofphysicalartifacts.Itshulldoesnotbristlewithweaponsandsensorsasdosurfacewarships,andforonetoseeitsimposingbulk,itmustbeindrydock.Onthoseraremomentswhenasubmarineisvisible,thismostlethalofshipsappearsnomorethreateningthanahugeseaturtle.Yetdespitethat,thetruecapabilitiesofthemodernSSNaremosteasilyunderstoodintermsofmythorthemodernequivalent,asciencefictionmovie.Hereisacreaturethat,likeRidleyScott's"Alien,"appearswhenitwishes,destroyswhatitwishes,anddisappearsimmediatelytostrikeagainwhenitwishes.Defenseagainstsuchathreatrequiresconstantvigilance,andeventhen,thiswillbeineffectivemuchofthetime.Thustherealimpactofthenuclearsubmarineisasmuchpsychologicalasphysical.

InApril1982,theMondayafterArgentina'sseizureoftheFalklandIslands,IhappenedtohavelunchwithasubmarineofficerandsogotmyfirsthintofwhatanSSNcoulddo.TheRoyalNavy,myfriend

toldme,wouldverysoondeclarethatoneofitsboatswasintheareaofthedisputedrocks.Noonewouldbeabletodisputetheclaim,which,myfriendwenton,wouldprobablybefalse."Buttheonlywayyouknowforsurethatasubisoutthereiswhenshipsstartdisappearing,andthat'sanexpensivewaytofindout."Thisispreciselywhathappened,ofcourse.ThemerepossibilitythattheRoyalNavyhadoneormoreofitssuperblycommandedSSNsintheareaimmediatelyforcedArgentinatoreevaluateitsposition,andtheArgentineanNavy,aleadplayerinthedecisiontoseizetheislands,wassoonrenderedimpotentbyitsinabilitytoconfirm,deny,ordealwiththemerepossibilitythatanSSNmightbelurkinginthearea.

Asapracticalmatter,theFalklandIslandsWarwasdeterminedatthatpoint.Ownershipofanyislandisdeterminedbycontroloftheseasaroundit,andArgentinacouldnotcontrolthesea.TheRoyalNavy'sSSNspreventedthat,thefirststepintheRN'scampaigntoestablishitsownsea-controlposture,makingasuccessfulinvasionpossible.ThesinkingofthecruiserGeneralBelgranowastheunnecessaryconfirmationofwhatshouldhavebeenobvious.Whilethenuclear-poweredattacksubmarinemaynotbethemostusefulwarshipintheworldsinceitcannotperformeverytraditionalnavymission,itcandenyanadversarytheabilitytoexecuteanymissionatsea.

"Herebemonsters,"thechartsofancientmarinersusedtosay.Theyweren'trightthen,butcurrentcharts,especiallythoseonsurfacewarships,mightprofitablybemarkedtoshowthatoutsidethethirty-fathomcurve,yes,therebemonsters.Nuclear-poweredmonsters.

TheSilentService

EarlyHistory

Whentracingtherootsofthemodernsubmarine,oneisusuallyfacedwithanumberofdifferentplacestostart.LegendhasitthatAlexandertheGreatdescendedintotheoceanin332B.C.nearthecityofTyre,inaprimitivedivingbell.ThegreatmindofLeonardodaVinciissaidtohavecreatedaprimitivesubmersibleboatofwoodenframedesigncoveredingoatskins,withoarsprovidingpropulsionthroughwaterproofsweeps.ABritishcontributiontoearlysubmarineconceptscameinthelate1500sfromWilliamBourne,acarpenterandgunmaker.Itincludedtheconceptofdoublehullconstruction,aswellasballastandtrimsystems.ThefirstconceptforamilitarysubmarinecamefromaDutchphysicist,CorneliusvanDrebbel.Inadditiontoactuallybuildinganddemonstratingaprimitivesubmersible,heproposedadesignspecificallycreatedtodestroyotherships.

ItwastheUnitedStates(albeitstillcoloniesinrebellion)thatcreatedthefirstworkablemilitarysubmarinedesign.In1776,aYaleUniversitystudentnamedDavidBushnelldesignedtheappropriatelynamedTurtle.TheTurtlewasanegg-shapedsubmersibleboatthathadtheabilitytosneakuponaship,submergeundertheintendedvictim,boreadrillbitwithawaterprooftimebombattachedintothebottomofthehull,andescapebeforethebombwasdetonatedbyaclockworkfuse.Itwaspropelledbyahand-crankedscrew,andhadroomforoneoverworkedcrewman.

OnthenightofSeptember6,1776,SergeantEzraLeeoftheContinentalArmytooktheTurtletoattackHMSEagleoftheBritish

squadronblockadingBoston.Butwhenhemaneuveredunderneath,hewasunabletoattachhisbomb.Duringhisescape,hewasfollowedbyBritishsoldiersinarowboat.Frantic,hereleasedthebomb,which2explodedliterallyinthefacesofhispursuers.Thoughallpartiesescapedunhurt,itwasapromisingstarttothemodernmilitarysubmarine.

Thisearlysubmarine,theTurtle,wasusedin1776bytheContinentalArmytoattacktheHMSEagleoftheBritishblockadesquadronoutsideofBoston.

JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

AmoresubstantiveadvancewastheNautilus,designedbytheAmericanRobertFulton,whowouldgoontodesignthefirststeamboat.TheNautiluswasadistinctimprovementovertheTurtleinthatitcruisedundertheintendedvictim,towingtheexplosivebombortorpedo,asitwasthencalled,untilthebombcontactedthetargetanddetonatedwithacontactfuse.Thedesignwasanexceptionalsuccess,destroyinganumberoftargetvesselsintestruns.TheFrench,whoweresufficientlyimpressedtoawardFultonacontract,actuallyconsideredforatimeusingitintheplannedinvasionofBritain.By1804FultonwasdemonstratingtheboattotheBritish,whodespisedtheideaforitsunderhandednatureand,moreimportantly,itspotentialtosweepBritishshipsfromcoastalzones.Intheend,FultonreturnedtoAmericatobeginworkonhissteamboats.

TheCSSHunley,thefirstsubmarinetosinkanenemywarship,theUSSHousatonic,in1864.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

ItremainedfortheAmericanstocreateasubmarinethatwouldactuallysinkanenemyvesselinwartime.In1863asubmersibleboat

wasdesignedbyConfederatearmyofficerHoraceHunley.Hisboat,theCSSH.L.Hunley,waspropelledbyeightmenturningahand-crankedpropeller.Forarmament,anexplosivemineortorpedowassecuredtoalongsparprotrudingoutinfrontoftheHunley.TheideawasfortheHunleytoramthespartorpedointothesideofatargetship,whereitwouldbedetonated.

UnfortunatelytheHunleywasdifficulttohandle,andseveralcrews,alongwithherdesigner,werekilledduringtestdives.NeverthelessonOctober17,1864,theHunleyattackedtheUnionsteamcorvetteHousatonicintheharboratCharleston,SouthCarolina.IntheensuingattacktheHunleysanktheHousatonic,althoughsheherselfwasalsosunk.Asubmarinehadfinallydrawnbloodincombat.

OverthenextfourdecadesanumberofdifferentsubmarinedesignsevolvedinvariousEuropeancountries.Inthe1880sareallypracticaldesignwasbuiltinAmericabyanIrishimmigrant,JohnHolland.OriginallybackedbytheFenianSociety(anearlyNorthAmericanfreeIrelandsociety),itwasdesignedtoallowIrishseparatiststoattackunitsoftheBritishfleet.In1900HollandwonasubmarinedesigncompetitionheldbytheU.S.Navy.FromthiscontractcametheUSSHolland(SS-1),thefirstpracticalcombatsubmarine.TheHollandincludedsuchinnovativefeaturesasself-propelledtorpedoesfiredfromareloadabletube,abattery-poweredelectricmotorforsubmergedoperations,andanadvancedhullshapetoallowittomoveefficientlythroughtheseas.ThedesignwassosuccessfulthattheU.S.NavyeventuallyboughtatotalofsevenHolland-designedboats.Ironically,theBritishevenboughtsomeoftheHollandboatsfortheRoyalNavy.Holland'scompany,theElectricBoatCompany,continuestobuildsubmarinesaspartofGeneralDynamicsCorporation.

GermansubmarineU-58alongsideUSSFanning(DD-37)tohavehercrewremovedafterbeingforcedtosurfaceNovember17,1917.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

WorldWarI

TheperiodbeforeWorldWarIsawanumberofinnovationsinmilitarysubmarines.Thisincludedthedevelopmentofdieselengines,improvedperiscopesandtorpedoes,andthedevelopmentofwirelesstechnology,whichallowedthemtobedirectedfromshorebases.WithinamonthoftheoutbreakofWorldWarI,theGermanUnterseebootfleet,orU-boatsastheycametobecalled,weresinkingBritishnavalunitsintheNorthSea.Inonewell-knownincidenttheelderlyU-9sankthreeBritisharmoredcruisers,causingover1,400

casualties.Throughoutthewar,boththeAlliesandtheCentralPowerstookatollofeachother'swarships,especiallyintheGallipoliCampaignintheDardanelles.

DuringWorldWarItheGermansconsistentlyledtheworldintheproductionofnewU-boats.ButtheinternationalrulesconcerningattacksonmerchantshipskepttheGermansfromfullyutilizingtheirpotential.Germanyfearedthatunrestrictedsubmarinewarfare,withthepracticeofnotwarningthevictim,mightbringtheUnitedStatesintothewar.By1915theneedtoisolateBritainfromhersourcesofwarsuppliescausedKaiserWilhelmtodeclareunrestrictedsubmarinewarfareanactivepolicy.SoonGermansubmarinesweretakingahugetollofmerchantshippingandthreateningtowinthewaragainstBritainallontheirown.ButaftertheoceanlinerLusitaniawassunkbyU-20in1915,theUnitedStatesenteredthewaronthesideoftheAllies.ItwouldtaketwomoreyearsfortheAlliestowinthewarandbeatbacktheU-boatthreat.

SoimportantwasthesubmarineinWorldWarIthatawholenewformofnavalconflict,antisubmarinewarfare(ASW),wasborn.FromitcametechniquessuchastheconvoyandtheQ-ship(armedmerchantdecoy),aswellasweaponsandsensorssuchastheantisubmarinedetector(ASDIC/sonar),andthedepthcharge.AndsodeadlyhadtheU-boatsbeenthatGermanywasspecificallybannedfromhavingthemundertheTreatyofVersailles.ThevictorsofWorldWarIsplituptheremainingU-boatsforexaminationandtesting.ThatmighthavebeentheendofmilitarysubmarinesexceptthattheseedsofWorldWarIIwerecontainedintheTreatyofVersailles,andthemilitarysubmarinewouldcontinuetodevelop.

WorldWarII

Duringtheperiodbetweentheworldwars,submarinedevelopmentcontinuedatasteadypace.IntheUnitedStatesandBritaineffortswereconcentratedonthecreationoflong-range"fleet"submarinesdesignedtosupportthebattlefleets,whilenationssuchasJapan,Russia,andItalydevelopedsubmarinesmoreforcoastaldefense.OnceAdolfHitlerhadrisentopower,GermanysecretlybegantorebuilditsdreadedfleetofU-boats,indirectviolationoftheTreatyofVersailles.BythebeginningofWorldWarII,anumberofimprovementsweremadetothesubmarinesthemselves,suchastorpedoeswithmagneticfusesandsonars,andevensmallradarsets.AndinGermany,theUnitedStates,andEngland,navalleadershadevolvedveryspecificplansonhowtobestusetheseimprovements.

Bytheoutbreakofwarin1939,GermanyhaddeployedhersmallfleetofU-boatsatsea.Withinhours,theU-30sanktheoceanlinerAthena,signalinganotherroundofunrestrictedsubmarinewarfare.Withinafewweeksoftheopeningofhostilities,theU-boatshadsunkanumberofBritishwarshipsandmerchantvessels.TheBritishrespondedwithaseriesofpatrolsbytheirownfleetofsubmarines,damagingseveralGermancruisersandsinkingseveralU-boats.Inaddition,mindfulofthedamageinflicteduponmerchantshippinginWorldWarI,theBritishimmediatelyinstitutedasystemoftransatlanticconvoysandbegantobuilduptheirASWforces.ButGermanfortunessoaredwiththecaptureofFranceandNorwayin1940,andoncetheseprizeshadbeenwon,U-boatscouldbebasedmuchclosertotheconvoylanessupplyingBritain.TheBattleoftheAtlanticwasonandwouldnotbecompletelydecideduntiltheendofthewarin1945.

U-185sinkingbythesternafterbeingbombedbyplanesfromUSSCore(CVE-13)inthecentralAtlanticonAugust24,1943.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

TheBattleoftheAtlanticwasabattleofstatistics:tonnageandnumbersofshipssunkversusnumbersofU-boatsavailableandsunk.ForAdmiralKarlDonitz,theGermanU-boatcommander,itwasabattletogetthegreatestnumberofU-boatspossibleoutontotheconvoyroutes.Todothisheimplementedwhatwerecalledwolfpacktactics,settingalargenumber(tentofifteen)ofU-boatsontoa

convoyallatthesametime.Forawhile,particularlyduring1941and1942,thetacticsworked.NolessafigurethanSirWinstonChurchillwasreportedtohavesaid,"TheonlythingthattrulyworriedmewastheU-boatmenace."Hehadmuchtobeworriedabout,forAdmiralDonitz'sU-boatforcealmostwonthewarbystarvingGreatBritainintosubmission.

USSBarb(SS-220),aWorldWarIIU.S.fleetsubmarine.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

TheBritishfoughtbackthough,usingadvancedtacticsandequipmentsuchasradar,escortcorvettes,andfrigates,anddevelopingthesmallescortcarrier.

Inaddition,theBritishhadtheultimatesecretweapon,Ultra.UltrawastheBritishprogramtopenetrateGermancommandcommunications,protectedbytheEnigmaciphersystem.Earlyinthewar,withvaluablecontributionsfromthePolesandtheFrench,Englandbegantoreadanever-growingflowofGermanmessages.By1941,throughacombinationofincredibletechnicalanalysisandoutrighttheftofGermancipherkeybooksandcapturedEnigmaequipment,theBritishwereabletoreadvirtuallyeverymessagesentandreceivedbytheU-boats.UltraallowedtheBritishtoroutetheirconvoysaroundknownwolfpacksandtostartaggressivelyhuntingtheU-boatswithaircraftandso-calledhunter-killergroups.By1943thebalancehadturneddecisivelyinfavoroftheAllies.DespiteanumberofGermaninnovationssuchasthesnorkel,homingtorpedoes,andantisonarcoatings,thebattlewaseventuallywonbytheAllies.

InthePacific,submarinesactuallywonamajorcampaignagainstmerchantshipping.InDecember1941ImperialJapaninitiatedawarofconquestagainsttheAllies.Atthestart,thingswentverypoorlyfortheUnitedStates.WithmostoftheirbattleshipforcesunkoroutofactionafterthebombingofPearlHarbor,theonlywaytheAmericanscouldstrikebackwaswiththeirwell-developedforceoffleetsubmarines.Ittookawhiletogetrolling,especiallywheneighteenmonthswereneededtorepairaseriesoffaultswiththeAmericanMark14torpedoanditsmagneticfuse,butbylate1943theAmericansubswerebeginningtomakearealdifferenceintheamountofmaterialgettingtoJapan'swarindustries.UnderthecommandofAdmiralCharlesLockwood,theAmericanboatswerestartingtostarveJapanintosubmission.Inaddition,theyweretakinganincreasingtollofJapanesewarships.

Bytheendofthewarin1945,AmericanfleetsubshadsunkaboutathirdofalltheJapanesewarshipsdestroyed,andoverhalfofthemerchantships.Thesesuccessesdidnotcomewithoutcost.Overfifty

U.S.boatshadtheirepitaphwritteninthewords"overdueandpresumedlost."AlongwiththeboatswentsomeoftheverybestoftheU.S.skippers,menlike"Mush"MortonofUSSWahoo,"Sam"DealeyofUSSHarder,andHowardC.GilmoreofUSSGrowler.OveralltheU.S.submarineforceshadthehighestpercentageoflossesofanybranchoftheU.S.Navy.TheAmericansubforcesquietlypaidinbloodandboatsfortheirvictory,andearnedforthemselvesanicknamethatwouldstick:thesilentservice.

TheEarlyColdWarYears

AlmostassoonastheAllieswontheirvictoryovertheAxispowers,anotherconflict,moresinisterincharacter,startedupbetweentheSovietUnionanditsformeralliesinthewest.DuringthewartheRussianshadbuilttheworld'slargestforceofsubmarines.WiththecomingofwhatcametobeknownastheColdWar,theycontinuedtobuildevenfurther.Forthenextforty-fiveyearsthewesternallies,formedintoNATO,livedindeathlyfearthattheUSSRwouldflooditsforceofoverthreehundredsubmarinesintothesealanes.Thisthreat--thattheRussianscouldrepeatorevenbettertheperformanceoftheGermansduringtheworldwars--generatedthemainColdWarnavalmissionoftheNATOforces,antisubmarinewarfare.

Thefirstdecadeoftheeffortwasaccomplishedprimarilybyforceofnumbers.Despitethehopesthatadecisivesubmarinetechnologywouldbefound,nonewas.ImprovementsinsubmarineandASWtechnologywouldevolveslowly.Themajorbottleneckwasintheareaofpropulsion.Simplyput,noneofthedifferentpropulsiontechnologies--diesel,hydrogenperoxide,orgasoline--hadeverprovidedthesustainedhighunderwaterspeedsneeded.Theanswertothisproblem,though,wasabouttobefoundintheUnitedStates.

TheNuclearRevolution

TheAmericanpropulsionbreakthroughcamefromanunlikelysource,adiminutiveU.S.NavycaptainnamedHymanG.Rickover.AssignedafterthewartotheNavy'sengineeringbranch,hewasamongthefirsttorecognizethepossibilitiesofcreatingsmallnuclearpowerplantsthatmightbeinstalledinsubmarinesandsurfaceships.Withthesereactors,shipsmightsteamtensofthousandsofmileswithoutrefueling.Forsubmarinesinparticular,itwouldmeanfreedomfromhavingtocometothesurfacetoobtainairforthedieselengines.InRickover,andhisnewlycreatedofficeofDirector,NavalReactors(DNR),theNavyhadfoundtheperfectblendofengineer,politicalinsider,andbureaucrattobringthefirstnuclearshipstofruition.

SubmarineswereRickover'sfirstpriority,andacontractwasletintheearly1950sforconstructionoftheUSSNautilus(SSN-571)bytheElectricBoatDivisionofGeneralDynamics.Utilizingapressurizedwaterreactortoproducesteamforturbines,thedesignwassuccessfulbeyondthewildestdreamsofnow-AdmiralRickoverandtheNavy.Consideringthatshewasonlyaproof-of-conceptvesselorprototype(theU.S.Navyhasalwaysconsidereditssubmarineprototypesfleetunits,notresearchvessels),albeitarmedwithafullsuiteofweaponsandsensors,theachievementsofNautilusandhercrewwerestaggering.TheydominatedvirtuallyeveryNATOexercisetheyparticipatedin.Inaddition,in1957NautilusbecamethefirstshiptotransittheArcticfromthePacifictotheAtlantic,openingawholenewareaforsubmarineoperations.

USSNautilus(SSN-571).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

USSSeawolf(SSN-575).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

CrewmembersofUSSSkate(SSN578)ondeckduringArcticoperationsinMarch1959.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTOBYLIEUTENANTMEADER

USSSkate(SSN-578).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

USSTriton(SSN-586).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

USSSkipjack(SSN-585).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

FollowingtheNautiluscameasecondprototype,theUSSSeawolf(SSN-575),poweredbyaliquidsodiumreactor.Designedtoachievehigherpoweroutputwithinasmallervolume,thereactorprovedtroublesomeandwaseventuallyreplacedwithoneofthepressurizedwatertype.Inaddition,theUnitedStatesundertookproductionofasmallclassofnuclearboats(six)basedonthedesignoftheNautilus.Namedforthefirstunitoftheclass,theUSSSkate(SSN-578),theyprovidedavastbaseofexperienceforoperatingnuclearsubmarines,

aswellasbeingextremelyusefulfleetunits.

SkateherselfmadehistorybybeingthefirstsubmarinetosurfaceatthegeographicNorthPole.OtherprototypessuchastheUSSHalibut(SSN-587)andtheUSSTriton(SSN-586)exploredthepossibilitiesofusingnuclearsubmarinestolaunchcruisemissiles,andoperatingasaradarpicket(toextendradarcoverageforaircraftcarriergroups).In1960Tritonmadehistorybybecomingthefirstsubmarinetocircumnavigatetheglobesubmerged.UnderthecommandofoneoftheU.S.Navy'sbest-knownsubmariners,CommanderEdwardBeach(bestknownforwritingthenavalclassicRunSilent,RunDeep),TritonduplicatedthecourseofnavigatorFerdinandMagellansomefourcenturiesearlier.

TheearlyU.S.nuclearboatswerelimitedtoatopspeedofabout20knots,submergedorsurfaced.1Theseearlyboatshadbeenbuiltaroundconventionalhullformsandwerethuslimitedbythehorse-poweroftheirreactorplantsandthedragfromtheirhulls.BythistimetheUnitedStateshadexperimentedwithateardrop-shapedprototypediesel-electricsubmarine,theUSSAlbacore,whichwasabletoreachsubmergedspeedsofover30knots.2CombiningthehulloftheAlbacorewithRickover'snuclearpowerplant,anewclassofunderseahunterwasborn.USSSkipjack(SSN-585),theleadofasix-boatclass,wenttoseaasthefastestsubmarineintheworld.By1960theU.S.NavyhadafleetofnuclearsubmarinesandahugeleadontheUSSRandGreatBritain,whichhadstartedtheirnuclearsubmarineprogramslater.

USSGeorgeWashington(SSBN-598).OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

AlongwiththeSkipjacks,anotherprototypeboatwasdiscreetlyconstructedtoexplorethepossibilityofaquietSSNdesignedspecificallytohuntothersubmarines.NamedtheUSSTullibee(SSN-597),shewasthefirstSSNtohavealargesphericalsonararrayinthebow,torpedotubesamidships,andaquietturboelectricdrivesystem.Andthoughshewouldhaveahistoryofengineeringproblemsthroughouthercareer(shewasderisivelyknowninGrotonasBuilding597),sheintroducedfeaturesthatwouldbeoneveryotherclassofSSNtheUnitedStateshasbuilt.

APolarisA-1missileislaunchedfromthenuclear-poweredfleetballisticsubmarineUSSGeorgeWashington(SSBN-598).

OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

USSPermit(SSN-594).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

USSEthanAllen(SSN-608).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

PolarisGoestoSea

Eversincethedevelopmentofthefirstatomicweapons,theU.S.

NavyhadsoughttodevelopaweaponsystemthatwouldallowittohavearoleinAmerica'snucleardeterrencemission.InitiallytheNavyusedcarrieraircraftthatcoulddelivertheearlynuclearweaponsonone-waymissionstotheirtargets.WhattheNavyreallywantedwastomergethenewtechnologiesofballisticmissiles,smallerthermonuclearweapons,inertialguidancesystems,andnuclearsubmarinesintoasingleweaponsystem.TheprogramwascalledPolaris,anditbecamethetopU.S.navalweaponsdevelopmentprogramofthe1950s.PushedaggressivelybyAdmiralArleighBurke,theU.S.ChiefofNavalOperations,andmanagedbyanauthenticprogrammaticgeniusinRearAdmiral"Red"Rayborne,theprogrammovedforwardatanamazingpace.Bythelate1950sasmall,reliablemissileknownasthePolarisA1wasreadytohaveaplatformbuiltforit.Theproblemwasthatsubmarineconstructiontakestime,andtheUnitedStateswantedtodeploythePolarisby1960.

Toaccomplishthis,AdmiralRickoverhadElectricBoatsplitoneoftheSkipjacksunderconstruction(shewastheoriginalUSSScorpion)justaftofthesailandinsertaplugcontainingsixteenPolarislaunchtubesaswellasallthemissilelaunchcontrolsandmaintenanceequipment.ChristenedtheUSSGeorgeWashington(SSBN-598),shewouldbethefirstofafive-boatclassoffleetballisticmissile(FBM)submarinesthatwouldbecomethemostpowerfuldeterrenceforceinhistory.WhentheGeorgeWashingtonsuccessfullytest-firedtwoofthePolarisA1missilesonJuly20,1960,offCapeCanaveral,Florida,thesystembecameoperational.LaterthatyearsheleftonthefirstofwhathasbecomeoverthreethousandFBMdeterrencepatrols,eachlastingroughlysixtytoseventydays.Aftereachpatrol,theonboardcrewswitcheswithasecondcrew,alternatelyknownas"blue"and"gold,"sothatthehighoperationaltempoes(timeonpatrol)canbemaintained.SosuccessfulhasthefleetballisticmissileprogrambeenthatitisreportednoU.S.FBMboathaseverbeentrackedforany

duration.Thusthesilentserviceenteredaneweraandaddedtotheiralreadyformidablereputation.Withinayear,asecondbatchoffivemissileboats,ledbytheUSSEthanAllen(SSBN-608),wasonorder.

UnderwaterfiringofaPolarisA-3missile.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

USSLafayette(SSN-616).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

TheQuietRevolution

FollowingtheSkipjackandGeorgeWashington-classboats,theUnitedStatesembarkeduponanewdirectioninnuclearsubmarinedevelopment.Itwasdecided,afterananalysisofearlySovietnuclearboatcharacteristics,thathighspeed(over30knots)wasnotnecessarilydesirable.Submarinestravelingathighspeedmakeagreatdealofnoise,whichcanbeheardbyothersubmarinesandsurfacevessels.ThusdivingdepthandquietnessratherthanspeedwouldbecomethequalitiesthatcharacterizedtheAmericansubmarinedesignsofthe1960s.

Thefirstofthenewdeep-diving/quietboatswastobetheUSSThresher(SSN-593).Unfortunately,duringrectificationtrialsoffNantucketin1963,theThresherwaslostwithherentirecrewaswellasseveralcivilianandU.S.Navy"riders."Intheinvestigationthatfollowed,itwasdeterminedthatabrazedpipingjointinthe

engineeringspacesmayhaveweakenedduringtheshocktrialsandburst,causingmassivefloodingthatpreventedtheboatfromsurfacing.TheSubsafeprogramwaslaterinstitutedbytheU.S.Navy,whichdevelopedthedeep-submergencerescuevehicle(DSRV)torescuethecrewofasunkensubmarine.Theclasswascontinued,namedafterthenextboatinline,USSPermit(SSN-594).

APoseidonmissileislaunchedfromthenuclear-poweredfleetballisticmissilesubmarineUSSJamesMadison(SSBN-627).OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

TheForceExpands

Asthe1960sdrewon,theU.S.Navybeganavastexpansionofitsnuclearsubmarineprogram.Theplanwastobuildanadditionalthirty-oneSSBNsaswellasanewclassofattacksubmarines.Theballisticmissileboatswouldbearmedwithanewgenerationofballisticmissile,thePolarisA3,witha2,500-milerange.InadditiontheSSNsweretobearmedwiththeSUBROC,asubmarine-launchedrocketwithafifty-milerangeandanucleardepthchargecapableofdestroyingenemysubmarines.AllthiswaspartofthemilitarybuilduporiginallyproposedbyPresidentJohnF.KennedyandcarriedoutbytheadministrationofPresidentLyndonB.Johnson.FirstonthelistwerethenewFBMboats,or"boomers,"astheywerebeingcalled.

Thenuclear-poweredfleetballisticmissilesubmarineUSSLafayette(SSBN-616).OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTOBYD.PAYSE

StartingwiththebasicplanoftheUSSGeorgeWashington,thedesignerssoughttoinstallallthequietingtechnologythathadbeenincorporatedintothePermit-classboats.InadditiontheymadethemissilesectionlargeenoughtoaccommodatenotonlythenewPolarisA3missilebutanewmissilethatwouldhavesuperiorrangeandmultiplewarheads,thePoseidonC3.Namedfortheleadboatintheclass,USSLafayette(SSBN-616),theseboatsweremostimpressivefortheirnumbersbuilt--thirty-oneinall--andtheirstealth.AndwiththeabilitytoupgradetheirmissilebatterytothePoseidonC3whenitcameonlineinthe1970sandtheTridentC4inthe1980s,theseboatsweregoingtohavealongservicelife.(Asthisbookgoestopress,

aboutathirdoftheLafayette-classboatsarestillinservice.)

AftertheLafayetteprogramwasunderway,theNavyturneditsattentionstotheproblemofanimprovedattackboat.Again,analysisofthesubmarinesbeingproducedbytheUSSRshowedthatdeep-divingquietboatswerebest.TheleadboatofthenewclasswasUSSSturgeon(SSN-637).MuchliketheLafayette-classnuclearballisticmissilesubmarines(SSBNs),thisclasswascharacterizedbyarelativelylargeproductionrun--thirty-sevenunits--andreducednoisesignature.Thisimprovementdidnotcomewithoutcostthough,asthetopspeedoftheSturgeon-classboatswasdowntoaround25knots.3Neverthelesstheyprovedtobesuperbboatswithexcellentcapabilitiesandwere,alongwiththePermit-classandSkipjack-classboats,thebackboneoftheU.S.attacksubmarineforce.

AerialviewoftheElectricBoatDivisionofGeneralDynamicswiththenuclear-poweredfleetballisticmissilesubmarineUSSMichigan(SSBN-727)underconstructiononthepier.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTOBYWILLIAMWICKHAM

Inthemidstofallthisgrowthandsuccessinthesubmarineforcecameatragedy.In1968oneoftheSkipjack-classboats,theUSSScorpion(SSN-589),wentmissingwhilereturningfromaregularpatrolintheMediterranean.ForthefirsttimeinmodernU.S.submarineoperationsthewords"overdueandpresumedlost"were

usedtoinformtheworldofapossibleSSNlossduringnormalpatroloperations.

USSSturgeon(SSN-608).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

USSLosAngeles(SSN-688).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Whiletheexactmethodoflocationisstillnotopenlyknown,itappearsthattheU.S.seabed-basedsoundlistening(SOSUS)networkheardanexplosionfromScorpion.Laterthatyearasurveyexpedition,utilizingthebathyscapheTrieste,locatedthewreckneartheAzores,relativelyintactontheseabed.Itwasconcludedherlossmayhavebeenduetoaninternalexplosion,thoughtheexactcausehasneverofficiallybeenannounced.4

Onamorepositivenote,theNavybuiltseveralnewprototypesubmarinestoexplorenewpropulsiontechnologies.TheUSSGlenardP.Lipscomb(SSN-685)wasdesignedtolookagainintothefeasibilityofusingaturbine-electricdrive,whiletheNarwhal(SSN-671)carriedaprototypereactorusingnaturalcirculationratherthanpumps,whichcanbeverynoisy,tomovecoolantthroughthereactorsystem.Whiletheydidprovideusefuldataforfuturesubmarinedesigns,neitherboatwasconsideredtobeparticularlysuccessful.Withthislackofapropulsionbreakthrough,thestagewassetforthefightoverthedesignofthenextgenerationofnuclearsubmarines.

Nuclear-propelledstrategicmissilesubmarineUSSOhio(SSBN-726),duringseatrials.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTOBYWILLIAMGARLINGHOUSE

TheNewGenerationofBoats

Inthelate1960s,theU.S.intelligencecommunitybegantoreceivedisturbingindicationsthatthenuclearsubmarinesoftheSovietUnionhadmuchhigherperformancecapabilitiesthanpreviouslythought.AdebatebrokeoutbetweenAdmiralRickoverattheNavalReactorsBranchandtheNavalSeaSystemsCommand(Navsea)overthedirectionofthenextgenerationofattacksubmarines.Rickoverfeltthatwhatwasneededwasaquiet,high-speed(over35knots)attacksubmarineabletosupportthecarrierbattlegroupsdeployedbytheU.S.Navy.NavseawassupportiveofadesigncalledConform,utilizinganaturalcirculationreactor,whichwouldrecoverthespeedlossofthePermitsandSturgeons(downfrom30knotsto25knots)andimprovetheradiatednoiselevels.5EventuallyRickoverwonout,andatwelveshipclass,itsleadboattobenamedUSSLosAngeles(SSN-688),wasplanned,withElectricBoatastheprimecontractor.V

LEFT:FirstlaunchofaTridentC-4missilefromUSSJohnC.Calhoun(SSBN-630).OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

BELOW:USSOhio(SSBN-724).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

TheLosAngeles-classboatsdeliveredtheirpromiseofhighspeedaswellasbeingthequietestattacksubmarinesevercreateduptothattime.Thepricetheypaidforthatspeedwasthattheirhullswerethinned;theycoulddiveonlytoaboutthree-fourthsthedepthoftheSturgeonandPermitclasses(approximately950feet/300meters).6Inadditionhabitabilitysuffered,withagreaterpercentageofthecrewhavingtorotatebunks(called"hotbunking").Finally,theNavyandElectricBoathadsignificantfinancialandprogrammanagementproblems,alongwithadesiretoexpandtheclassmorequickly,leadingtoasecond-sourcecontractforconstructiontoNewportNews-Tenneco.Inspiteofthis,thefirstLosAngeles-classboatscameonlineinthelate1970sandimmediatelysetnewstandardsforquietoperationsandspeed.Somesixty-twoLosAngeles-classboatswouldeventuallybecontracted,makingiteasilythelargestclassofnuclearsubmarineseverbuilt.

Inadditionawholenewseriesofsubmarineweaponscameonlineinthelate1970sand1980s,includingthenewMod4andADCAPversionsoftheMark(Mk)48torpedo;theUGM-84Harpoonantiship

missile;andthreeseparateversionsoftheR/B/UGM-109Tomahawkmissilefornuclearlandattack,antishipuse,andconventionallandattack.Allofthesenewweapons,combinedwiththeadditionofaverticallaunchsystemandstowagefortwelveTomahawkmissilesontheLosAngeles-classboats,suddenlymadeU.S.SSNscapableofawholerangeofmissionsthatAdmiralRickoverhadnotdreamedofwhenhefirstpushedthroughtheproposalforNautilusinthe1950s.

Thenewclassofboomerwassomewhatclearertodesign:theprimarycriterionwasstealth.Whenthefirstboatofthenewclass,theUSSOhio(SSBN-724),appeared,shewasreportedtoradiatelessnoisethanthesurroundingoceanandsurfacetraffic,makingtheOhiosthequietestsubmarinesevertotaketosea.Anothermajorimprovementwasthenumberofmissilescarried.AllpreviousSSBNsproducedbytheUnitedStateshadsixteenmissiletubes.TheOhioclasshastwenty-fourmissiletubes,withadiameterlargeenoughtoaccommodatenotonlytheTridentC4missile(thereplacementforthePoseidonC3),butalsotheTridentD5missile.TheTridentD5hadsignificantimprovementsinbothrangeandaccuracy,makingitthemostpowerfulcomponentintheU.S.nucleararsenal.UnderthetermsoftheSTART-IItreatysignedin1991,thebulkoftheU.S.strategicnuclearstrikepowerwillbecarriedontheOhios.

TheNextGeneration

Withthecomingofanewseriesofarmslimitationtreaties(theSTARTseries),theUnitedStatesdoesnothaveanyplanstobuildanewclassofSSBNs.Infact,theOhioswerebuiltwithenoughgrowthpotentialintheirdesignthatservicelivesofthirty-fivetofortyyearsareentirelypossible,andifreplacementsarerequired,theywon'tbeneededuntilaroundtheyear2015.

Attackboatsareanotherthingentirely.Afollow-ontotheLosAngelesclasshasbeenplannedforsometime,andtheleadboatofthenewclass,USSSeawolf(SSN-21),isduetocomeonlineinthelate1990s.TheSeawolfdesignmakesgoodvirtuallyalltheshortcomingsoftheLosAngeles-classboats,particularlyintheareasofdepth(backtoapproximately1,300feet/400meters),habitability(improvedcrewcomfort),andweaponsload(acombinationoffiftyweapons).7Suchthingscomeataseverecostthough,bothinmoneyandsize.Seawolfishuge,over9,100tonsdisplacement,makingitthelargestattacksubmarineintheworldotherthantheRussianOscar-classguidedmissileboats.Andwithacostatthiswritingofover$2billionpercopy,theSeawolfproductionruniscurrentlylimitedtoonlytwounits.

AsproductionoftheLosAngelesandOhioclasseswindsdown,andwiththeSeawolfprogrambeingterminatedearly,thefutureoftheU.S.nuclearsubmarineforceisindoubtforthefirsttimeinforty-fiveyears.WhathasbeenthepremierweaponssystemoftheColdWarnowseemstobeasysteminsearchofamissionandanaudience.Wewillexplorethefuturelateron,butfirstlet'slookatthepresent,andwhatthetaxpayershaveboughtforthemselvesandtheirsilentwarriors.

BuildingtheBoats

Itsoundssosimple:buildingtheboat.Yetthisisaprocessthatstartsyearsbeforethesubmarineentersthefleet.Remember,in1969theU.S.NavywasconsideringthedesignoftheLosAngeles-classsubmarines,whichbegantoenterthefleetsomesevenyearslater.Eventoday,ifyoucouldorderone(thelineisbeingshutdowntoproducetheSeawolf-classboats),ittakessixyearsfromcontractsigningbytheNavalSeaSystemsCommand(Navsea)inArlington,Virginia,untilthecompletedboatiscommissionedintotheforce.ThisprocessstartsinthesteelmillsoftheeasternUnitedStatesandthecomputersoftheElectricBoatDivisionofGeneralDynamics.ItalsostartsinthecitiesandtownsofAmerica,wheretherawmaterialsforthecrewsareborn,raised,andeducated.Letustakeaquicklookathowitisalldone.

TheSharpEdge--TheCrew

It'shardtoseparatethesteelandelectronicsoftheboatfromthefleshandbloodofthemenwhowillserveashercrew.Inamannerofspeaking,thecrewisapartofthatmachineheadedtosea.Isupposeifrobotscoulddothejobofmen,theywouldhavetakenoverthesubmarineforcebynow.Butthedaywhenarobotcansurvivetheshockofanexplosion,therushoffloodingwater,andhavethecunningofamanisstillyearsaway.Anduntilthatdaycomes,menwillgointotheseainthesteelcylinderscalledsubmarines.

Wherethecrewcomefromis,quitesimply,everywhere.From

everytownandvillage,fromthelargestinnercity,thesuburbs,andtheruralcountryside.Whatmotivateseachofthemisprobablyalittledifferent.ForAdmiralChesterNimitz,theWorldWarIICommanderinChiefofthePacificandhimselfanearlysubmariner,itwasthedesiretoseeabodyofwaterlargerthanthemudpuddlesofwestTexas.Forsomewhowantsubmarines,itisthedesiretoworkononeofthemostpowerfulandsophisticatedpiecesofmachineryeverbuilt.OthersseetheNavyandthesubmarineserviceasawayoutofthepovertyanddespairofwhateversituationtheymayhavebeenborninto.Whateverthereasons,theyhaveallcometotheNavytofindsomethingtobuildtheirlivesaround.

Let'ssaythatayoungmanwhohasgraduatedfromhighschoolwishestojointheNavyand"seetheworld"fromthevoyagesofasubmarine.Thatyoungman(sorry,ladies--menonlyonsubsatthetimethisbookisbeingwritten)wouldprobablyapplyathislocalrecruitingoffice.Fromhereheistransportedtothelocalpersonnelrecruitingdepotforbasictraining.Someweekslater,hemovesontohisspecialty--electronics,sonar,machinery,etc.--or"A"school,whichgiveshimtheskillsnecessaryforhisjobwhenhejoinstheboat.Ifhehasdecidedtoselectnuclearpowerashisspecialty,hegoestosixmonthsofnuclearpowerschool(NPS)inOrlando,Florida,followedbysixmonthsoftrainingononeofthenuclearreactorprototypes.Assumingthathehasselectedsubmarinesashisservice,theyoungrecruitisnextheadedtothehomeofthesubmarine,theU.S.NavySubmarineBaseinGroton,Connecticut,toattendSubmarineSchool.Subschoolteachestherecruitthebasicsofwhatheneedstoknowaboutlifeaboardsubmarines.Fromherehemovesontothecrewofaboatforhisfirsttour,whichwillprobablylastacoupleofyears.

OneoftheadvantagesthesubmarineservicehasinattractingthecreamoftheNavy'snewrecruitsismoney.Ordinarilyanewsailorwhoselectsnuclearpowerashisspecialtywouldbegiventherankofseamanapprentice,butthesubmarineserviceimmediatelymakesa

newrecruitapettyofficer.Thisisimportantbecauseofthepaydifferential.Whileitmightnotlooklikemuchofadifference,itcanbeenoughtoletayoungmangetmarriedsothathecanstartandsupportafamily.Thesubmarineserviceasksmuchoftheyoungmenwhodrivetheirboats,andtheneedforeverysailortohaveahomeandsomeoneinitisacornerstoneoftheirtradition.

U.S."Dolphin"submarinelogo.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Onceaboardhisfirstboat,thenewcrewmember'sfirstmajorcareertaskwillbetoqualifyforhis"dolphins,"whichcertifieshimasasubmariner.Fromthere,heisexpectedtotakehisqualificationboardsandmoveupthepromotionladder.Afterthisfirsttour,ifhechoosestoreenlist(andmanydo)hewillprobablybegiventheopportunitytomovetooneofthevariousschoolsasaninstructor.ThismightbeatoneofthereactorprototypesorthefirefightingschoolinNewLondon.Whereveritis,hewillbeaskedtoputbackintothenewrecruitssomeoftheknowledgeandexperiencehehasgained.Andthisisthecyclethathewillfollowformostofhiscareer.

Qualifyandearnpromotion,thatisthekey.Eventuallythesubmarinermightbegiventhechancetobecomeawarrantofficer,orperhapsgotocollegetobecomeanofficer,or"mustang,"astheyareknownintheNavy.Forthosechoosingtoremainasenlistedmen,the

ultimatehonoristomaketherankofmasterchief,whoisusuallygiventhetitleChiefoftheBoat,orCOB,onasubmarine.Thispositionisconsideredtheequivalentoftheexecutiveofficer(XO),inchargeoftheenlistedmenonaboat.Thesearefrequentlywell-educatedmenwithgraduatedegrees.Andtosaythatthecommandingofficers(COs)ofsubmarinesrespecttheiropinionsissomethingofanunderstatement.IfanythingsetourserviceapartfromthatoftheformerSovietUnionduringtheColdWar,itwasthecohesionor"glue"thatournoncommissionedofficersprovidedtheNavy.TheyarethekeepersofwhatcorporateAmericamightcallcorporatememoryortribalknowledge,orwhatintheNavytheyjustcalltradition.

Therouteofanofficerissomewhatdifferentfromthatoftheenlistedmen.Forstarters,theNavyisratherparticularaboutwhogetstodrivetheirnuclearboats.SowhiletheNavymightbesatisfiedwithapsychologyorhistorymajordrivinganF-14TomcatorAegiscruiseraroundtheblock,fortheirnuclearofficerstheywantengineers.Or,morecorrectly,universitygraduateswithhardsciencedegrees.Thereareseveralwaysforayoungmantogetintothiscareerpath.CertainlythemostconventionalrouteistheU.S.NavalAcademyatAnnapolis,Maryland.TherealsoistheReserveOfficersTrainingProgram(ROTC)inplaceatmanyU.S.collegecampuses.Thisfour-yearprogramhelpsprovidetuition,books,andasmallmonthlystipendtohelpsupporttheyoungman,whoiscommissionedanensignwhenhegraduates.ThefinalwayforcollegegraduatesisjusttovolunteerthroughtheOfficersCandidateSchool(OCS)program.Inthiscasetheywillbeputthroughathree-monthtrainingprogram,hencetheirnicknameof"ninety-daywonders,"afterwhichtheyarealsocommissionedasensigns.

ThefirststepontheroadtobecomingaU.S.NavysubmarineofficerstartswithselectionbytheDirector,NavalReactors(DNR-NAVSEACode-082E).Thisinvolvesaseriesofpersonalinterviews

withtheDNR(afour-staradmiralnoless)toassessthecandidate'stechnicalknowledgeandabilitytohandlestress.WhenAdmiralRickoverusedtohandletheseinterviews,thequestionstookonasometimesbizarreandpersonalnature,butaspeopleinthesubmarinecommunitywilltellyou,itseemstohaveproducedaverycapablecorpsofsubmarineofficers.AtthispointthenewsubmarineofficerheadsofftoayearatNPSandthereactorprototypeschools.

Oncethisiscompleted,hewillbesenttotheSubmarineOfficersBasicCourse(SOBC)atGroton,Connecticut.SOBCtakesthreemonthsandisroughlyequivalenttotheenlistedmen'sSubmarineSchoolcourse.UponcompletionoftheSOBC,hefinallyisassignedtohisfirstboat,wherehewillprobablyspendthenexttwotothreeyears.Muchlikehisenlistedcounterparts,hewillspendmuchofhistimestandingwatchesandqualifyingforhis"dolphins."Hewillalsobeassessedinhisabilitytohandleandleadthemenassignedtohisdivisionandwatches.Evenatthisstageofayoungofficer'scareer,heisbeingtestedforhisabilitytocommandaboatinthefuture.Duringhisfirstsubtourhewilltaketheengineer'sexam,againsupervisedbypersonnelfromDNR.Thisisacriticalexambecauseitisthefirstmajorstay/leavecriterion,allowinghimtostayinsubmarinesorpointinghimtosomeotherpartoftheNavy.Successmeansthattheofficerisnowqualifiedtobeassignedaschiefengineerofaboat.Fromherehewillprobablydoashoretouronstaffatasubsquadronorasaninstructoratoneoftheschools.Healsowillprobablyhavebeenpromotedtolieutenantbynow.

Aftertheshoretourtheofficer,nownotsoyoung,returnstothesubmarineschoolatGrotonforanothersix-monthtrainingcourse.Thisone,knownastheSubmarineOfficersAdvancedCourse(SOAC),isdesignedtoprepareandqualifytheofficerasadepartmenthead--engineering,navigation/operations,weapons,etc.--onaboat.Itisalsooneoftherequiredstepsontheroadtocommandofaboat.Nowtheofficerheadsbacktoaboatforhisthree-yeardepartment

headtour.Bynowaseniorlieutenant,heisreadytoscreenforthebigstepontheroadtocommandofhisownboat,becominganExecutiveOfficer(XO).AfterhehasscreenedforXO,hisnexttrainingcourseisthethree-monthProspectiveExecutiveOfficers(PXOs)course,whichqualifiestheofficerforhistourasExecutiveOfficerofanSSNorSSBN.IfhesuccessfullycompleteshisXOtour,hewillprobablyheadforashoretour,possiblyinoneofthemanyjointbilletsthatareconsideredsoimportanttothecareerofAmericanmilitaryofficers.Fromhereheisselectedfortherankofcommander,screensforcommand,andheadstotheProspectiveCommandingOfficers(PCO)courseand,finally,tocommandofhisownboat.

Thislaststep,thePCOcourse,shouldnotbethoughtoflightly.MuchhasbeenmadeoftheU.S.Navy'sfixationwithnuclearreactorsafetywhenselectingskippers.Agoodrecordwithpowerplantsiscertainlyoneofthemajorselectioncriteriaforcommand.TheNavyfeels,probablywithgoodreason,thattheymusthaveaperfectoperatingrecordfortheAmericanpublictoallowthemtocontinueoperatingshipsandsubmarineswithnuclearpower.Withthissaid,though,itisthePCOcoursethatactuallyqualifiesamantocommandoneoftheU.S.Navy'sboatsandnotthescoresonhisengineeringexams.

ThePCOcoursewascreatedin1946byJamesForrestal,thenSecretaryoftheNavyandlaterSecretaryofDefense.Itallowsthesubmarineservicetohavetotalautonomyintheselectionandtrainingofitssubmarineskippers.Certainly,advancedtrainingprogramslikeTopGun--forU.S.NavyandMarinefighterpilots--RedFlag--forU.S.AirForceaircrews--andtheNationalTrainingCenter--forU.S.Armyunits--arebetterknowntothepublic,butthesubmarinePCOcourseiseasilytheequalofanyofthese.SuccessfulcompletionofthePCOcourseismandatoryifamanisevertocommandaU.S.nuclearsubmarine.AnotheraspectofthePCOcoursethatisnotgenerallyknownisexactlywhatthecurriculumconsistsof.Fortherecord,each

course,whichisapproximatelysixmonthslongandenrollsbetweentenandtwelveofficers,teachesthemthetacticalandoperationalintricaciesofcommandingaU.S.nuclearsubmarine.

Duringtheensuingsixmonths,theprospectiveCOwillpracticeapproachesandfiresomethinglikefivetoseven"live"(exercise)weapons(Mk48s,HarpoonandTomahawkmissiles)underavarietyofconditions.Thecoursecurriculumisbothwideandvaried,withimprovementsandchangesbeingmadeaftereachandeverycourse.ThechallengefortheinstructorsofthePCOcourseisthatinjustadozenyears,theyhavegonefromacoursewithonlyoneprimaryweapon(torpedoes)andmission(ASW),tohavingthebroadestrangeofmissions--ASW,antishipping,mining,strikewarfare,intelligencegathering,etc.--andweapons--torpedoes,missiles,andmines--intheentireU.S.Navy.Andasinthesubmarinequalificationcoursesofothercountries,especiallytheRoyalNavy'sPerishercourse,anymiscueormistakecanbereasonenoughforanofficertobedisqualified.

Attheendofthesixmonths,ifhehascompletedallaspectsofthecourse,andiftheinstructorfeelsheisbothqualifiedandready,thePCOstudentgraduates.Atthismomenthewillhaveachievedthegoalofeverysubmarineofficer,commandofhisownboat.

BoatConstruction

LetmetrytogiveyouthecondensedversionofhowanImprovedLosAngeles(688I)isbuilt.

ThefirststepintheprocessisfortheNavytodecidethattheywanttobuildaboat.ThisdecisionismadeintheUnderseaWarfareOfficeoftheOfficeoftheChiefofNavalOperations(OPNAV).Until

recentlythisofficewasknownasOP-02andwasheadedbyViceAdmiralRogerF.Bacon,USN.InNovember1992,throughanOPNAVreorganization,thisofficewasrenamedN-87andisnowheadedbyRearAdmiralThomasD.Ryan,USN(Director,UnderseaWarfareDivision).Itisherethattherequirementsforsuchboatsareestablishedandtherequestforproposalisdeveloped.Thisisusuallydoneinbatchesor"flights"ofboatstoaparticularshipyard.Forourpurposes,wewillassumethatthebuilderistheElectricBoatDivisionofGeneralDynamicsCorporation.TheiryardatGroton,Connecticut,wouldsubmitabidtoCode92(attacksubmarines)atNavsea,andafteraseriesofnegotiations,thecontracttobuildtheboatwouldbeawarded.Fromherethefundingfortheboatwouldhavetobesubmittedinthepresident'sdefensebudget,approvedbyCongress,andthemoneyallocatedinthefederalbudget.

Oncetheboathasbeenapproved,theactualprocessofconstructionbegins.Thefirststepintheprocessistoorderitemswithlongleadtimes,likethenuclearreactor,andheavymachinery,likereductiongearsandturbines.Thereactor,inthiscaseaGeneralElectricS6G,isorderedandsuppliedasapieceofgovernment-furnishedequipmentbyCode-082EatNavsea,theOfficeoftheDirectorofNavalReactors(DNR).

Ayearortwolater,whentheseitemsbegintoshowupatElectricBoat--knownsimplyintheNavyas"EB"--theactualconstructionoftheboatbegins.Thefirststepistheconstructionofthepressurehull.EBmanufacturesitsownpressurehullbarrelsectionsinaspecialfacilityatQuonsetPoint,RhodeIsland,whichtakesthree-inch-thickhardenedsteelplatesandworksthemintothecurvedsections.Thesectionsarecarefullyweldedtogethertomakeupthebarrelsections,whicharebargedtotheEByardatGroton.TheworknowproceedstothehugebuildingshedatEB.Herethehullsectionsareweldedtogetherintoasinglelongcylindertoformthepressurehull.Itismiserablework,withthemetalofthebarrelsectionshavingtobe

heatedto140degF/64degCjusttoprepareforwelding.Eachsectionisthenhand-weldedtothenextbymenoftenonthevergeofheatprostration,exhaustion,anddehydration.MenmustdothisworkbecausenomachinecandothejobtothestandardsofNavseaandDNR,andeventhisworkmustbecheckedbyNavyinspectorsarmedwithmirrorsandX-raymachines.Theindividualsectionsofthehullarepackedwithitemsthataretoobigtoinstalllater,suchasthereactor,torpedoandverticallaunchsystem(VLS)tubes,andtheturbines.

TheUSSTopeka(SSN-754)islaunchedattheElectricBoatyardatGroton,Connecticut.ELECTRICBOATDIV.,GENERALDYNAMICSCORP.

Oncethecylinderofthepressurehullisfinished,itismoveddowntheproductionwaytohavethemachinerymounts,trimtanks,andinternaldeckstructureinstalled.Nowmoreandmorecomponentsoftheboataredeliveredtotheyard.Alsoduringthistimethefirstelementsoftheprecommissioningunit(shipsandsubmarinesareknownas"PCUs"beforetheyarecommissionedas"USS")crewbegintoarriveatEB.ThesearetheNavypersonnelwhowillfirsttakethenewboattosea.Usuallytheinitialcadreiscomposedofafew

officers,includingthecommissioningCO,andanumberofchiefs.Theirjobwillbetooverseethefinalfittingoutoftheboat,aswellasbeingtheNavy'srepresentativestoEBforthecommissioning.Eventuallytheendsofthehullaresealedwithendcaps,andthesuperstructureisinstalled.

Whenthelastoftheheavystructuresliketheconningtower/fairwaterareinstalled,andthehullisdeclaredwatertight,itistimetorolltheboatoutofthebuildingshedandlaunchit.Bythistime,thePCUcrewhasbeencompletelyassigned,workingdaytodaywiththeEBpersonnel.Oncetheboatislaunched,itistowedtoadockwheretherestofthesub'sequipmentwillbeinstalledandtested.Thiscantakebetweensixandeightmonths,anditismademoredifficultbythepooraccesstotheinterioroftheboatatthistime.Sincethedesignofthe688Ismakesnoallowanceforhardpatches--pointsonthehulldesignedtobecutopen--everythinghastofitdownthehatchesleadingintotheinteriorofthesub.

Testing/Shakedown

FromtheNavy'spointofview,thenewboatreallycomestolifewhenthereactorispoweredup,ormade"critical,"forthefirsttime.Priortothis,thereactorfuelelementshavebeenloadedandaseriesofmechanicalandelectricaltestsmade.Beforethereactorisallowedtogocritical,everyelementofthepropulsionsystemwillhavebeentestedunderreal-worldconditionsforasubstantialperiodoftime.Duringafinaltest(knownasaReactorSafeguardExamination),whichissupervisedbypersonnelfromDNRandcertifiedpersonallybytheDNRhimself,thecrewistestedtoaffirmthattheymeetthestandardssetdownoverfortyyearsagobyAdmiralRickoverwhentheNautilusfirstmadereadytogotosea.Andfortherestofthe

boat'sservicelife,aDNRteamwillperiodicallybesentdowntotheboatforacontinuingseriesofOperationalReactorSafeguardExaminations(ORSEs).

Bythistimetheprecommissioningcrewhasgrowntothepointthattheycantaketheboatoutforherinitialsea,orAlfa,trials,inwhichamixedNavy/EBcrewwilltaketheboatoutintotheAtlanticforaseriesoftestruns.Thesetestsarealwayscarefullymonitoredandescorted,andthroughoutthehistoryofthenuclearpropulsionprogram,thethreeDNRs(AdmiralRickover,AdmiralMcKee,andAdmiralDeMars)haveeachembarkedoneverynewnuclearsubmarinetopersonallysupervisethefirstseaperiodoftheAlfatrialsthemselves.ThispersonalaccountabilityandresponsibilityonthepartofallthreeDNRs,aswellastheirperfectsafetyrecord,hasgonealongwayinbuildingconfidencewiththepublic,theCongress,andtheadministrationintheU.S.Navy'sabilitytosafelyandsuccessfullyutilizenuclearpoweratsea.

Commissioning:IntotheFleet

WhenEBhasfinishedbuildingtheboattothecontractspecifications,itistimetofinishtrainingthecrewandturningtheboatintoawarship.Thisprocesstakesseveralmoremonths.Itincludesweaponsandtacticaltraining,emergencyproceduresdrills,navigationtraining,andactualweaponsfiringsattheAtlanticunderseatestandevaluationcenter(AUTEC)rangedownintheBahamas.LocatedinthewatersoffAndrosIsland,thisisaninstrumentedrangewheresubmarinesandtheircrewscanpracticetheprocessofoperatingtheirboatandlearningto"fight"it.Somewhereduringthisprocess,theboatandhercrewpassthepointwheretheybecomeonegreatwarmachine.

Almostsixyearsafterthecontractwasfirstsigned,thefinalstepintheprocesstakesplace.OncetheNavyhasdeterminedthattheboatisinallwaysreadytoenterthefleet,acommissioningdateisscheduled,withtheceremonytobeheldeitherinGrotonorNorfolk.

Onthisdaytheboat'snamebecomesofficial,thecrewof"plankowners"(theoriginalcrewatthetimeofcommissioning)isset,andthePCUsubmarinebecomesaU.S.Navysubmarine.Usually,high-rankingNavyandpoliticalfiguresgivespeeches,thecommissioningcaptaingetstospeakafewwordsaboutwhatthisdaymeanstohimandthecrew,andthen,ataspecialmomentintheceremony,thecommissioningpennantisbrokenoutandthecrew,adornedintheirbestNavywhites,rushesaboardandmanstheboatforthefirsttimeinherofficialNavycareer.

Atthispointtheboatactuallyentersservicewiththefleet.Butifthecrewthinktheyhaveseenthelastofthebuilder'syard,theyaremistaken.Aftertheboatgoesonitsinitialshakedowncruise,itissentbacktotheyardforwhatisknownasthePostShakedownAvailability(PSA)period.Thisinvolvestakingtheboatbacktotheyardandfittingallofthenewequipmentmodificationsthathaveevolvedsincetheinitialcontractwassigned.Inaddition,anywarrantyrepairsthathavebecomenecessarywillbedoneatthistime.FollowingthePSAperiod,itwillbetimetoheadouttohernewhomeportandthefirstrealmissionsforthefleet.ThereprobablywillbeonlyoneortwoofthesebeforetheCOgetswordhisreliefisbeingsent.Andwhenthecommissioningcaptainleavestheboat,shereallydoesbelongtothefleetandthestringofmenwhowillcommandandsailher.

HomeBases8

Onceaboathasbeencommissionedintothefleet,itwillbeassignedtodutyatoneofthesubmarinebasesscatteredthroughouttheUnitedStates.Thesebaseshavethejobofprovidingadministrativeandmaintenancesupporttoaboat,aswellasprovidinghousingandsustenancetohercrew.TheirfacilitiesrangefromtheultramodernTridentfacilitiesatBangor,Washington,andKingsBay,Georgia,totheturn-of-the-centuryNewEnglandcharmsofGroton,Connecticut.Forthecrewsoftheboats,theseplacesmeanhomeandfamily.Let'slookatthem.

PacificFleet

OutinthePacificareanumberofbasessupportingnuclearsubmarineoperations.TheseincludePearlHarbor,Hawaii;BallastPointinSanDiego,California;andBangor,Washington.ThemostmodernoftheseisthehugebaseatBangor,designedtosupportoperationsoftheOhio-classSSBNsandtheirTridentmissiles.ItislocatedonWashington'sPugetSound,nestledintothetreesofKitsapPeninsula.Builtinthe1970sspecificallytosupportTridentoperations,thisisahugefacilitywithroomtosupportasquadronofeightOhio-classsubmarines.CurrentlythisisSubmarineSquadron(SUBRON)17.ThosewhohavehadthepleasuretoserveatBangorhaveoftencalleditoneofthemostcomfortableandmoderndutystationsintheentireU.S.Navy.AlsolocatedatBangorisSubmarineGroup(SUBGRU)9.ItsupervisesallofthesubmarineactivitiesinthePacificNorthwest,includingthepermanentfacilitiesforbasing,overhaul,andreworkatBremerton,Washington.Technically,SUBRON17atBangorisalsosubordinatetoSUBGRU9.

DowninSanDiegoisthesubbaseatBallastPoint.Whilethepermanentfacilitiesatthislocationarenotasdevelopedasotherbases(itisliterallycarvedintothesideofPointLoma),itislocated

adjacenttotheimmensenavalfacilitiesinSanDiego,andconsideredbythesubcrewsandtheirfamiliesagreatplacetobebased.

ThoughthepermanentfacilitiesatBallastPointarenotaswelldevelopedasBangorandsomeoftheotherbases,ithasanamazingarrayofsubmarinetenders,floatingdrydocks,andothersupportshipstoprovideinfrastructureforthemanyboatsandsubmersiblesbasedthere.ThemajorsubmarineorganizationlocatedatBallastPointisSUBGRU5,whichhasanumberofsubordinateunitsinadditiontoseveralattachedSSNsandatender.ThefirstisSubmarineDevelopmentGroup(SUBDEVGRU)1,whichisequippedwithseveraltendersandarescueship,aswellastworesearchsubmersiblesandthetwoDSRVrescuesubmarines.AlsosubordinatetoSUBGRU5areSUBRON3,withnineSSNsandatender,aswellasSUBRON11,withsevenSSNsandatender.

FartheroutinthePacificisthesubmarinebaseatPearlHarbor.MostofthefacilitiesatPearlHarbordatebacktoWorldWarII,whenthePacificsubmarineforceunderwentahugeexpansiontosupporttheoffensiveoperationsagainstJapan.TodaythebaseisstillvitaltosubmarineoperationsinthePacific.TheheadquartersorganizationforthePacificfleet,Commander,SubmarineForce,U.S.PacificFleet(COMSUBPAC)isbasedherewithatenderforwarddeployedatGuam.SubordinatetoCOMSUBPACatPearlHarborareSUBRON1witheightSSNsandSUBRON7withtenSSNs.ThislargeconcentrationofsubsisdesignedtosupportU.S.NavyoperationsinthewesternPacific,andboatsfromPearlHarborwillfrequentlybeassignedtosupportcarriergroupsastheyrotatethroughthePacificandtheIndianOcean.

AtlanticFleet

ThedeepestrootsoftheU.S.submarineforcesarebackintheAtlantic.Hereiswheretheboatsarebuiltandtested,andwheremostoftheinstitutionalinfrastructureexists.Thisisalsowherethedeepestcutshaveoccurred,andwillprobablycontinuetobemadeinthemonthsandyearstocome.ThewinningoftheColdWarhasnotbeenkindtothesubmarineforceintheAtlanticfleet,andalreadyonemajorbaseatHolyLoch,Scotland,withitsassignedSUBRON14(nineSSBNsandatender)hasbeencompletelycloseddown.Asthesubmarineforcecontinuestodrawdown,itissometimesironictothinkthattheAtlanticSSN/SSBNforce,whichdidsomuchtokeepthepeaceandwintheColdWar,willbedecimatedbythevictorytheyweresohelpfulinforging.

TheheadquartersforCommander,SubmarineForce,U.S.AtlanticFleet(COMSUBLANT)islocatedatthesprawlingU.S.navalfacilityinNorfolk,Virginia.FromhereCOMSUBLANTcontrolsthelargestforceofSSNsandSSBNsintheU.S.Navy,atanumberofdifferentfacilities.FarthestfromhomeareSUBGRU8andSUBRON22(onesubmarinetender)basedatLaMaddalena,Sardinia.Thoughtheydonothaveanysubmarinesdirectlyattached,thesetwounitsdirectlysupporttheveryactiveU.S.submarineoperationsintheMediterraneanSea.

Closertohome,theAtlanticSSBNforceiscontrolledbySUBGRU10atKingsBay,Georgia.ThisincludesSUBRON16withthelastoftheTridentI/C4-equippedLafayette-classboats.AlsounderSUBGRU10atKingsBayisSUBRON20,withaforceoffiveorsixOhio-classSSBNsandtheirTridentmissiles.EssentiallyduplicatingthefacilitiesatBangor,Washington,KingsBayisanotherofthenewgenerationofsubbasesdevelopedinthelate1970sandearly1980s.Whilethepermanentfacilitiesarequitenice,sayingthatKingsBayisaporkbarrelbaseissomethingofanunderstatement.Calledthe"JimmyCartermemorialsubmarinebase"bymanypeopleinthesubmarineforce,itissomethingofaconcessiontothepowerofthe

StateofGeorgia,especiallytoSenatorSamNunnandformerpresidentJimmyCarter.

TheothermajorfacilityontheAtlanticcoastisthesubbaseatGroton,Connecticut.Let'sgotherenowandgettoknowmoreabout"thehomeofthedolphins."

Groton--HomeoftheDolphins

IfyoudriveortakeatrainnortheastfromNewYorkCity,youwillcomeeventuallytothequietseacoasttownofGroton,Connecticut.HereinthislittleNewEnglandseaportyouwillfindtheinstitutionalwomboftheU.S.submarineforce,theU.S.SubmarineBase.WithinafewmilesofthisbaseistheEBbuildingyard,aswellastheschoolsandfacilitieswherevirtuallyeveryU.S.submarinerwill,atsometimeoranother,spendtime.ThemostimportantorganizationbasedhereisSUBGRU2.Basedinahandsometurn-of-the-centurybuildingonthewaterfront,itisthecommandorganizationforallattacksubmarinesontheAtlanticcoast.CurrentlyitiscommandedbyRearAdmiralDavidM.Gobel,USN.ThisincludesSUBRON2withtenSSNs,twosupportships,andthenuclear-poweredresearchsubmarineNR-1;SUBRON10withfiveSSNsandasupportvessel;andSUBDEVRON12withsixSSNs.InadditiontotheGroton-basedunits,SUBRON2alsocontrolsSUBRON4inCharleston,SouthCarolina(tenSSNsandatender),aswellasSUBRON6(sevenSSNsandatender)andSUBRON8(tenSSNsandatender)inNorfolk,Virginia.

AsyoustrollalongtheGrotonwaterfront--andIrecommendthatyouhaveanescort--youwillseealmostthefullrangeofSSNsintheU.S.Navy,fromtheoldPermit-classboatscurrentlyundergoingdecommissioning,tothenewest688I-classboatsliketheUSSMiami

(SSN-755).Attimesitisaplaceofbizarrecontrasts,asthebeautyoftheNewEnglandcoastlinemergeswiththelow,dark,ominousshapesoftheboats.OfparticularinterestisthedockleadingtotheboatsofSUBDEVRON12.Thisistheunittaskedwithevaluatingnewequipmentandtacticsthatwillbeutilizedbytherestofthesubmarineforce.Forexample,USSMemphis(SSN-691)iscurrentlyevaluatingthefirstofthenonpenetratingmastperiscopesystemsthatwillprobablybecomestandardonallnewsubmarinesbuiltbytheUnitedStates.

IfyouwalkupthehillyoucometothepartofthebasethathousesthevariousfacilitiesoftheSubmarineSchool.AstheprimarytrainingpipelineforvirtuallyeveryU.S.submariner,itisheldinspecialreverencebythemenoftheU.S.submarineforce.Inthesprawlofdormitory-stylehousing,classrooms,andotherbuildingsaresomeofthemostsophisticatedtrainingdeviceseverdesigned.NotonlydothesefacilitiessupporttheSubmarineSchoolwithitsnewofficerandenlistedrecruits,theyalsoprovideperiodicrefreshertrainingforsubmarinecrewswhentheyareinport.Manyoftheskillstaughtinthesetrainersarecalledbrittleorperishable,sincetheymaybeforgottenifnotpracticedregularly.

Onewholebuildingisdevotedtoshipcontroltrainers,whereofficersandmencanlearnhowtocontroleverytypeofsubmarineintheU.S.inventory.Thetrainerscanteachyoueverythingfromhowtodo"anglesanddangles"--maneuveringthehelmsmanandplanesmancontrolconsoles--totheever-popular"emergencyblow."Thetrainersresemblethoseusedtoteachfighterpilots,andareexactreplicasofthecontrolroomsofthesubstheyrepresent.

Anothertrainerthatwillstuntheuntrainedobserveristhe"buttercup,"orfloodingtrainer.Thisisessentiallyahugeswimmingpoolwithareplicaofasubmarinemachineryroominside.Fromacontrolroominthesideofthetrainer,instructorscanteachagroupofmeninreal-worldconditionshowtocontrolfloodingcasualties

rangingfrompinpointleaksinpipestoahugeleak,over1,000gallons/3,375litersperminute,inamainseawaterflangeconnection.Theideaistocontrolaseriesofleaksaroundthetrainerthatcanfillitinjustamatterofminutes.Thetrainingscenariosassumethefeelingofafranticfightforsurvival,andthecrewsthattakethecourseloveitfortheconfidenceitbuildsandhateitforthediscomfortitgenerates.Iftheydoitright,thewaterwillberoughlyuptotheirwaistsif,andwhen,theyfinallycontroltheflooding.Ishouldsaythatthewaterforthistrainercomesfroma20,000-gallonstoragetankandisverycold.

OfallthetrainersatGroton,noneismoreimpressivethanthefirefightingtrainerinthenewfacilityatStreetHall.ThisnewfacilityisapositiveresponsetothefirefightingcasualtiesincurredontheUSSBonefish(SS-582)andtheUSSStark(FFG-31)duringthe1980s.Wherepreviouslyfirefightingtrainingwasconductedinsidealargesewerconduitfilledwithblazingdieselfuel,itisnowconductedinastate-of-the-arttrainerthatcansimulatevirtuallyeveryfiresituationandconditionthatasubmarinesailormightencounter.Thetrainerreplicates,muchlikethefloodingtrainer,anengineroomonanSSN.Placedstrategicallyaroundthetrainerareaseriesofpropaneburnersdesignedtosimulatehydraulicoil,fueloil,electrical,andinsulation(calledlagging)fires.

AfirefightingteamfromtheUSSGato(SSN-615)practicestheirskillsinthefirefightingtrainerinStreetHall,SubBase,Groton,Connecticut.JOHND.GRESHAM

AfterthecrewsdonNomexjumpsuitsandselectbreathinggear--eitherahose-fedcompressedairmaskfromtheEmergencyAirBreathing(EAB)systemorawalkaroundbreathingsystemcalledanOxygenBreathingApparatus(OBA),whichusesachemicalcartridgetogenerateoxygenfortheuser--thedrillsbegin.Withalltheburners

lit,thetemperatureclimbsrapidlytowardthetrainingmaximumof145degF/67degC,andthereisadecidedhowlfromthefire.

Firefightingteampractice.Notetheteamleader,whoisusinganavalinfraredthermalimager(NIFTI)todirecttheteam'sefforts.JOHND.

GRESHAM

Traininginstructorsareconstantlysupervisingthetraineestomakesuretheirequipmentisfunctioningproperlyandtheyarebreathingregularly,forabove130degF/58degC,thepartofthebrainthatmakesahumanbreatheautomaticallyshutsdown,forcingthetraineestobreatheconsciouslyontheirown.Inaddition,theinstructorsaddchemicallygeneratedsmoke,whichcanreducevisibilitydowntoabout6inches.ItislikesomethingoutofDante'sInferno,andwhileitisexcitingtowatch,eventheknowledgethatitisadrillcannotpreventfeelingsofterror.

Tofightthesimulatedfires,thetraineesareequippedwithavarietyoffireextinguishers,firehoses,andanewthermalimagingdevicecalledNIFTI(NavyInfraredThermalImager--pronounced"nifty").ThisBritish-builtdeviceallowsasailorto"see"afirethroughthesmokebytheheatsignatureofthefire.SosensitiveistheNIFTIthatahumanbodycanbelocatedbylookingfortheheatofhumanmetabolism.Thefireextinguishersaredesignedtofightavarietyofdifferentfires.ThenewAFFFextinguishers,whichthrowasoapyslurry,arethemostpopular.Finally,thereareanumberoffirehosesthatcanbeusedtofightthesimulatedfires.

Allinall,theStreetHallfacilityisamodelofhigh-fidelitytraining,andsimilarfacilitiesarebeingbuiltatothernavalbasesaroundtheUnitedStates.

Allofthesetrainersareveryexpensivetobuild,operate,andmaintain;inatimeofdecliningfunding,theyarenaturallythetargetsofthosewhowouldcutthedefensebudget.Nevertheless,IwouldcontendthatitisbettertodecommissionanSSNortworatherthangiveupthevaluabletrainingthatthesefacilitiesprovidetotheforce.ForwhileitistoughtogetthemoneytooperateandmaintainanassetlikeaLosAngeles-classnuclearsubmarine,thesubisjustamassofmetalwithoutthemenqualifiedtooperateandfighther.Thefacilities

atGrotonandotherbasesareatributetotheoldsayingthatgoes,"Ifyouthinktrainingisexpensive,tryignorance!"

TheBoat:ATourofUSSMiami(SSN-755)

TheImprovedSSN-688Design

OfallthenuclearsubmarinesdesignedbytheUnitedStates,nonehasbeenthesubjectofmorepoliticalinfightingandcontroversythantheLosAngeles(SSN-688)class.Thedesignhasitsrootsinaseriesofincidentsthatoccurredinthelate1960s,rightatthetimetheUnitedStateswastryingtodecidejustwhatkindofnuclearattacksubmarine(SSN)tobuildtoreplacethehighlysuccessfulSturgeon-classboats.Theinfightingbeganwiththedesireofthen-DirectorofNavalReactors(DNR)ViceAdmiralHymanG.Rickovertobuildahigh-speed(over35knots)9submarinecapableofdirectlysupportingthefleetofaircraftcarriersthatrepresentedthebackboneofAmericanseapower.

TheU.S.NavyorganizationchargedwithactuallydevelopingthespecificationsanddesignforthenextgenerationofSSN,theNavalSeaSystemsCommand(Navsea),favoredadesigncalledConformthatwouldnotbeasfastasRickover'sdesign,butwouldhavetheadvantageinareassuchashabitabilityandquieting.

Intheend,thedecisiveeventthatswungthesituationinRickover'sfavorwassomethingknowntodayastheEnterpriseincident,whichwasashocktotheU.S.Navyandintelligencecommunities.Inearly1969thecarrierUSSEnterprise(CVN-65)andherescortslefttheirbaseinCaliforniaforawarcruisetoVietnam.Assheleftharbor,U.S.nationalintelligencepickedupmessagetrafficindicatingthattheSovietUnionwasgoingtodispatchaNovember-classSSNtointerceptthecarrierandhergroup.Inanattempttoestablishonceand

foralljusthowcapablethefirst-generationSovietSSNswere,thetopbattlegroupwasprovidedwithaircoverfromASWaircraftandthentoldtooutruntheNovember.Itdidnotquiteworkoutthough,asthepresumablyslowerRussianboatwasabletomatchspeedwiththeEnterprise.At30knotsthegamewascalledoff.WhenwordreachedWashington,D.C.,itcausedrapidreassessmentofjusthowcapabletheRussianSSNsreallywere.

Upuntilthatpoint,itwasassumedthattheNovemberswereonlycapableofspeedslikethoseoftheNautilusandtheSkates,around20knots.Yetherewasonedoing50percentbetterthanthatandnoteventrying!Andwhatdidthismeanaboutthenewergenerationboats,suchastheVictorIandIIclasses?Inaddition,thereweremountingindicationsthattheSovietswereworkingonanewclassofdeep-diving(over2,000feet/700meters),extremelyhighspeed(over40knots)SSNs.

Infact,theperformanceoftheNovemberswasduetotheextremelackofradiationshielding.Muchlikeahotrodthathasbeenstrippedofeverythingthatweighsitdown,theRussianboatsimplydidnothavetohaularoundthereactorshieldingthateveryothercivilizednationconsideredessentialtothegoodhealthandsafetyoftheirsailors.TheNovember'ssuperioritywasbasedonamisinterpretationoftheinformation,buttherewasnowaytoknowthatatthetime.AndRickoverwasnotamantoletslipanopportunitythatwouldhelpjustifyhispointofview.ThroughhisnetworkofNavyandcongressionalsupporters,hepressuredtheNavytokillConformandbuildaclassofhishigh-speedfleetboats.Intheendhewonauthorizationforatwelve-boatclassofhisfleetsubmarines,thoughtohelpgaincriticalbudgetauthorizationvotesinCongress,hebrokewiththelongstandingNavytraditionofnamingsubmarinesafterseacreaturesandinsteadnamedthemforthehomecitiesofthetwelvecongressmenwhoswungtheirvotesinhisfavor.(Rickoverisallegedtohavesaid,"Fishdon'tvote!")

Thefirstboatoftheclass,theLosAngeles(SSN-688),wastobetheembodimentofhisideasofspeedandpower,butfromtheverystart,itwasaseriesofcompromises.Itissaidthatacamelisahorsedesignedbyacommittee,andtheLosAngeleswasnoexceptiontothatrule.ThefirstproblemhadtodowithfittingthemassiveS6Gpowerplantintoahullwiththedimensionsneededtoachievethe35-knotspeedsspecifiedbyRickover.Quitesimply,thereactorwasgoingtocomein600to800tonsoverweight.Thismeantthatoneormoreofthekeyspecificationsoftheboat--torpedotubes/weaponsload,habitability,radiatednoiselevel,speed,sensors,ordivingdepth--wasgoingtohavetobereduced.Thecompromisewastothinthehullandlimitthedivingdepthofthenewboatstoaboutthree-fourthsthatoftheSturgeonsandPermits(950feet/300meters).Inadditiontherewouldbesomeseverecompromisesinhabitability,forcingevenmoreofthecrewtohotbunk.Asitwas,therewasverylittlereservebuoyancy(around11percent)andlessgrowthpotentialthaninanyotherSSNeverdesignedbytheUnitedStates.

OncethedesignoftheLosAngeleswasfinalized,therewasthematterofselectingaprimecontractor.TheNavychosetheElectricBoatDivisionofGeneralDynamicsCorp.,despitetheirhavingsubmittedabidthat,inretrospect,wasnotcapableofrecoupingeventhecostsofbuildingthefirstgroupoftwelveboats.Clearly,ElectricBoatwas"bettingonthecome"--thattheycouldrecovertheirlostprofitsfromconstructionofboatsbeyondthefirsttwelveunits.Unfortunately,theydidthisatatimeofrelativelyhighinflationandrecessionintheeconomy,andthetermsofthecontractbegantomakeitimpossibleforElectricBoattobreakevenonthefirstboats.ThenaNavyinspectionofweldsfoundthatanumberoftheboatshadeitherfaultyormissingweldsoncriticalpartsofthepressurehulls.Thismeantanumberoftheboatshadtobecompletelyrebuilt,furtherincreasingcoststoElectricBoat.IntheendtheU.S.NavyhadtobailoutElectricBoatandpaythecostsoftheoverrunsontheFlightI

boats.ThisbailoutcausedamassivescandalthatwoundupcostingGeneralDynamicsthesole-sourcecontractforthesubsaswellascausingtheindictmentoftheElectricBoatyardmanageronbriberycharges.TheNavygottheboats,butatamassivecosttothetaxpayers.

Onthepositiveside,whattheNavyandtaxpayersdidgetwerethefastest,quietest,mostcapableSSNseverbuilt.Ontrials,thenewboatsprovedtobeallthathadbeenhopedforthem.Andin1976,whentheLosAngeleswascommissionedandsentonpatrol,sheclearlymarkedthebeginningofaneweraofattackboats.Partofthiscamefromtheimprovedsensorsuite.Forthefirsttime,anintegratedsonarsuitewasincludedinthedesignoftheboatfromtheverystart.Inaddition,shewasamongthefirstboatstobeabletotakeadvantageofthenewfamilyofsubmarineweapons,theMk48torpedoandtheUGM-84Harpoonantishipmissile,thatwerecomingonlineatthattime.ThuswhattheUnitedStatesgotwiththeFlightILosAngeles-classboatswasanextremelycapablecamel.V

USSMiami(SSN-755)JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

USSMiami,externallayout.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

LogoofUSSMiami.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

ThismighthavebeentheendoftheLosAngelesstoryexceptforthesuddenchillintheColdWarthatoccurredinthelate1970s.AfterthedownturninEast-Westrelations,theNavygotanauthorizationforadditionalunitsoftheLosAngelesclass.AndwhenRonaldReaganwonthepresidencyin1980,theconstructionofadditionalsubmarinesaspartofthe"600-shipNavy"clearlymeantmoreLosAngeles-classboats.Intheseboatsweretogosomeoftheimprovementsthathadbeenplannedfortheclassearlyon.StartingwiththeUSSProvidence(SSN-719),thetypedesignationchangedtoFlightII.TheFlightIIboatshadanumberofimprovements,particularlyintheareaofweaponsstowage.OneoftheproblemswithU.S.SSNshadbeenthelimitednumberofweapons(aroundtwenty-four)thatcouldbecarriedintheirtorpedorooms.AndwiththeadditionofHarpoonandthenewfamilyofUGM-109Tomahawkcruisemissiles(antishipandlandattackversions),itwasgettingtoughertoplananappropriateweaponsload.Togetaroundthis,atwelve-tubeverticallaunchsystem(VLS)forTomahawkcruisemissileswasaddedtotheforwardpartoftheboat,whereroomhadbeenleftforthemintheoriginaldesign.

AlmosttwodozenoftheFlightIIboatswerebuilt,andtheircruisemissilefirepowerprovedquiteusefulduringOperationDesertStorm

in1991.TheFlightIIswerealsothefirstmajorgroupequippedwiththenewanechoic/decouplingcoatingdesignedtoreducetheeffectivenessofactivesonars,aswellastoreducethenoiseradiatedbytheboat.EventuallyalloftheLosAngeles-classboatswouldberetrofittedwiththiscoating.AnothermajorimprovementwasthatbeginningwiththeFlightIIboats,theS6Greactorswerefittedwithanewhigh-outputreactorcore.ThisallowedtheFlightIIboatstomaintaintheirhighspeed(over35knots)despitetheadditionaldragimpostedbythenewcoating.

ThefinalevolutionoftheLosAngeles-classboatswastheversionknownastheImprovedLosAngeles(688I).Thisversionofthebasicdesignwouldbefitted(inadditiontotheVLSsystemfromtheFlightIIboats)withthenewBSY-1combatsystem.Thissystem,whichtiesalloftheboat'sweaponsandsensorstogether,wasdesignedtoovercometheproblemsassociatedwithtrackandtarget"hand-off"betweenthesensorandfirecontroloperators.Inaddition,the688Iwasmodifiedtosupportunder-iceoperations.ThisincludedstrengtheningthefairwatersothatitcouldbeusedasapenetrationaidthroughArcticice,aswellasmovingtheforwarddiveplanesfromthefairwatertothehull,nearthebow.Finally,thebasicboatdesignwasenhancedwithanumberofquietingimprovements.Ithasbeenopenlystatedthatthe688IsarealmosttentimesquieterthanthebasicFlightIboats.

Allinall,the688IisthefinestSSNroamingtheoceanstoday.Whileitdoeshaveshortcomings,divingdepthandhabitabilitybeingmostnotable,itstillhasthebestsinglemixofmobility,weapons,andsensorseverfittedtoasubmarine.AndwhilethenextgenerationofSSNswillmakeupfortheshortcomingsoftheLosAngelesclass,itwillbeatanenormousprice.Inanycase,theU.S.Navyhadbettergetusedtothem--theyhaveorderedatotalofsixty-twoboatsintheclass.AndwiththeretirementoftheentirePermitclass,aswellasplannedearlydecommissioningofmostoftheSturgeons,itisentirelylikely

thattheyear2000willseetheU.S.NavyoperatingfiftytosixtyLosAngeles-classboatsandprobablyjusttwoorthreeSeawolfs.

RIGHT:TheexecutiveofficerofUSSMiami,LieutenantCommanderMarkWooten,USN.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

LEFT:ThecommandingofficerofUSSMiami(SSN-755),CommanderHoustonK.Jones,USN.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

USSMiami:OurGuidedTourBegins

Forourguidedtourofa688I,wewillprofiletheUSSMiami(SSN-755),thethirdU.S.Navyvesseltobearthename.ThepreviousMiamisincludedadouble-endedgunboatthatfoughtduringtheCivil

War,andaCleveland-classlightcruiserduringWorldWarII.ThecruiserMiami(CL-89)earnedsixbattlestarsduringherserviceinthePacificduringWorldWarII,andfoughtinsuchactionsastheMarianas,LeyteGulf,IwoJima,andOkinawa.ThecurrentMiamiwasbuiltattheElectricBoatDivisionyardofGeneralDynamicsatGroton.ShewaslaunchedNovember12,1988,andwascommissionedJune30,1990.SheisassignedtoSUBDEVRON12basedatNewLondon.Sheissome362feetlongand33feetindiameterandhasacrewof13officersand120enlistedmen.

USSMiami,externallayouttopview.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

ThetwelvehydraulicallyoperateddoorsoftheMiami'sverticallaunchsystemforTomahawkcruisemissiles.Notethepressurecapstoprotectthemissiles.JOHND.GRESHAM

HercaptainatthetimeofthiswritingisCommanderHoustonK.Jones,USN.HeisagraduateoftheU.S.NavalAcademy(classof1974),andthisishisfirstafloatcommand.HeisgenerallyconsideredtobeoneofthetopU.S.skippersinthesubforcetoday,notonlybyhisfellowofficersbutbythecaptainsoftheboatsoftheRoyalNavyandotherNATOnationsthathehasmixeditupwithduringvariousexercises.HisexecutiveofficerisLieutenantCommanderMark

Wootten,USN.HeisagraduateoftheUniversityofPennsylvania(classof1978),andisonthetracktoobtainasubmarinecommandhimself.

Miamiisfortunateinthatsheisthefirstofthe688IstobefittedwithacompleteBSY-1combatsystemandalltheothergoodiesplannedfortheclass.Theotherboatsofthegroup,startingwiththeUSSSanJuan(SSN-751),havelesscapablepreproductionversionsofthesystemandthuswillhavetoawaitrefitstomoveuptothefull688Istandard.Inaddition,Miamiisreportedtohavedone37knotsoutontrialswithherhigh-outputreactorcore.Sheisafast,smart-lookingboatwithanexcellentrecordthusfaronexercisesandpatrols.Let'sgoaboardandtakealookforourselves.

Hull/Fittings

Asyouwalkacrossthegangplankontotheboatthefirstthingthatstrikesyouisthestraightandlevelnatureofthehull.Severalthingsaccountforthis.Firstandforemostisthefactthatformostofitslength,theLosAngeles-classboatisaperfect33-foot-diametertubeofsteel.Thisisafunctionofherhighspeedrequirement.Long,narrowhullshavelessdragthantheteardrop-shapedhullsthatcanbeseenonearlierU.S.orBritishboats.Andwhilethisdoesmakeforafasterboat,ithassomeadverseeffectsonhandlingduringoperations.Inaddition,itiseasytotellthatMiamiisequippedwiththeMk32VLSsystem,sinceitissittinglevelinthewater.TheearlierFlightIboats,becausetheyarenotequippedwiththeVLS,alwayshaveapronounced"noseup"attitudewhentheyrideonthesurface.

ThecoatingofdecouplingtilesonthehulloftheUSSGroton(SSN-694).Theindividualtilesaregluedtothehulltoformacarpetof

rubberaroundit.NotethesafetytrackontheTB-16shroud,whichcrewmembersondeckhookonto.JOHND.GRESHAM

Anotherthingthatyouimmediatelynoticeisthelongshroudrunningdownthestarboardsideofthehull.ThisisthehousingforthevariouspartsoftheTB-16passivetowedarraysonar.Alongtheshroudrunsatrackthatallowspersonnelondecktosecurethemselvestothehull,ifsurfaceoperationsarerequired.Asyoustepontothehull,youimmediatelynoticethatitseemstobemadeupofaseriesoftilesorbricks.Andwhenyousteponthem,theyseemto"give,"muchlikethepaddingunderacarpet.Thisistheanechoic/decouplingcoatingdesignedtodefeatactivesonarsaswellasreducethenoiseemittedbytheboat'sinternalmachinery.Itcoverstheentirehullexceptforthehatches,controlsurfaces,andsonardome/windows.

ForwardtowardthebowarethetwelvehatchesfortheVLSmissilelaunchtubes.Theouterdoorsorcapsforthefourtorpedotubesarelocated,twotoaside,belowthewaterline.Alongthetopofthecasing,alignedalongthecenteraxisoftheboat,arethreehatches.Theonejustforwardofthefairwateristheweaponsloadinghatch.Here,usingaspecialsetofloadinggear,thevariousweaponsfiredfromthetorpedoroomareloaded.Twomorehatchesaftofthefairwateraresetasideforthemoremundanejobofpersonnelaccess.Bothareequippedtoactasairlocksintheeventthatarescuesubmarineneedstolockon,orasawayforswimmerstoleavetheboat.Theafthatchleadsintothemachineryspacesaftofthereactorcompartment.Entryintothisareaisstrictlycontrolled.Theotherhatch,justaftofthefairwater,isthemainentrypointintheforwardpartoftheboat.

Thehulliscomposedofaseriesofringsorbarrelsections,weldedtogetheratthebuildingyard.The33-foot-diameterhullisitselfapproximately3inchesthickandcomposedofHY-80high-tensilesteel.Ateachendofthe360-foot-longhullisahemisphericendcap,whichisweldedontothecylinderformedbythebarrelsections.Themainballasttanksareattheforwardandaftendsofthehull,withthe

sonardomemountedforwardandthepropulsionsectionanditscontrolsurfacesmountedaft.Inaddition,smallervariableballasttanks,whichareusedtomaintainthetrimoftheboat,arelocatedinsidethehull.

LosAngeles-classsubmarineonthesurface.ELECTRICBOATDIV.,GENERALDYNAMICSCORP.

Onefinalthingthatcomestotheviewer'seyeisthedetailworkdonebythedesignerstominimizeanytypeofflownoisefromthehull.Allofthefittings,calledcapstans,usedtosecuretheboattothepierforwardofthefairwateraremountedalongthecenterline,sothat

theyarealreadyindisturbedwaterandwillnotcauseanyothernoiseontheirown.Noexpenseissparedtomakethehullcleanofanythingthatmightdisturbthewaterflowandcreatenoise.Eventhehugeseven-bladedpropeller,madeofaspecialbronzealloy,isspecificallydesignedtopreventanddelaytheonsetofcavitation.

Sail/Fairwater

Ifweweretomovetothetopofthefairwater,wecouldjustsqueezeintothetinybridgearea.Itisextremelycrampedandhasonlythemostbasicofnavigationalaidstosupportgettinginandoutofharbor.Inthepast,submarinecaptainsactuallyusedtofighttheirsubmarinesfromthisposition.Butwiththeadventofnuclear-poweredsubs,whichspendmostoftheirtimeunderwater--Miamiis,infact,morestableandfastersubmergedthansurfaced--thispositionhasbecomelessimportant.

Justbehindthebridgepositionarethemastscontainingthevarioussensorsfortheboat.TheseincludetheattackandsearchperiscopesaswellastheESM,radar,andcommunicationsmasts.Someofthesemastsactuallypenetratethehullandprovidetheboatwithitseyesandelectronicearstotheworldtopside.Inaddition,afloatingantennaisreeledoutfromapointontheafterpartofthefairwatertoprovideMiamiwithaccesstotheVeryLowFrequency(VLF)andExtremelyLowFrequency(ELF)communicationschannels.Ittrailsoutseveralthousandfeetbehindtheboatonceshehasdivedandstabilized.Inthefloorofthebridgepositionisasmallhatchleadingdownsomethreestoriesintothecontrolroom.Asyoufinallydropintothehull,youareintheportsidepassageway,justforwardofthecontrolroom.

TheMk18searchperiscopeinthecontrolroomoftheUSSMiami.

JOHND.GRESHAM

Controlroom,USSMiami.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

TheMiami'smissionstatusboard,locatedinthecontrolroom.Thisboardistobefilledinandmaintainedbytheofficerofthewatch.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Theautomaticplotreadoutinthecontrolroom,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM

ControlRoom

Walkingthefewfeetaftintothecontrolroomyouareimmediatelystruckbythefactthattheairiscleanandfreshandtheroomisbrightlylit.Andwhiletheroomisfullofbusypeopleandpackedwithgear,itisnotreallyconfining.Onepopularmisconceptionisthatifyouareclaustrophobic,youwillnotbeabletoliveandworkonasubmarine--onthecontrary,theveryfactthatoverahundredmenareworking,eating,andlivinginthisconfinedmetaltubecanbereassuring.

Inthemiddleofthecontrolroomisaraisedplatformwiththeperiscopesinthemiddleofit.Theforwardpartisthewatchstationfortheofficerofthedeck(OOD).HerehehasfullviewofallofMiami'svariousstatusboardsaheadofhim,accesstotheperiscopesbehind,aswellasfirecontroltohisrightandshipcontroltohisleft.ThesearetheweaponscontrolconsolesfortheBSY-1combatsystem,whichistheheartoftheMiami'sfightingpower.Theshipcontrolareaisintheforwardcornerontheportside.

PlottingtableusedaboardaLosAngeles-classsubmarine.Eachboathastwoofthesetablesinthecontrolroom.JOHND.GRESHAM

Thenavigationandplottingareasareattherearofthecompartment.Downtheportsideofthecontrolroomarethevariousnavigationalsystems,includingthenewNavstarglobalpositioningsystem(GPS)receiver.Itismostnoticeablebythegapthatitsitsin.Wherebeforetherewasarackofnavigationalequipmentthattookup4to6cubicfeetofvolume,theGPSsystem,whichgivesathree-

dimensionalnavigationalfixaccuratetowithin9feet/3meters,isawondertakinguponlyabout60cubicinches.Itderivesitsaccuracyfromaseriesoftwenty-foursatellitesoperatinginlowearthorbit.Thereadoutsshowtheexactlatitudeandlongitude,aswellasanumberofdifferentusefulfunctions.SoaccurateistheGPSsystemthatsomeU.S.NavyshipcaptainshavebeenabletomakeblindapproachestopiersinheavyfogusingonlyGPSasareference.TheonlylimitationtoGPSisthattheMiamimustraiseamast,suchasthesearchperiscope,toobtaina.fix.Tomakeupforthis,Miamialsohasaship'sinertialnavigationalsystem(SINS)thatkeepsconstanttrackofthesub'spositionthroughanadvancedthree-dimensionalgyroscopesystemthatsensesrelativemotionfromaknownstartingpoint.ProperuseofSINSwithperiodicGPSupdateshelpskeeptheMiamiwithinafewhundredfeetofitsplannedtrackatalltimes.

Periscopesinthecontrolroom,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM

Theplottingarea,aftoftheperiscopes,hasapairofautomatedplottingtables,thoughmostofthemovementsareplottedbyhand.Despitewhatonemightthink,mostoftheplottingofMiami'smovementsisdonemanuallybyajuniorofficerorenlistedman,ontracingpaperoverastandardnavigationalchart.Scatteredthroughoutthepassagewaysareaseriesofuprightsteelboxessecuredtothebulkheads.Theycontainseveralcompletesetsofchartswhichcovertheentireworld,aswellasdetailedchartsforspecificareastowhichtheMiamimightbetasked.Inadditiontothenavigationalinstrumentsandplots,thereareanumberofinstrumentsassociatedwiththeMiami'sabilitytoworkundertheArcticicepack.Theseincludedevicestoobtainverticaltracesofthebottomandicefloes,aswellas

variousinstrumentstomeasuretemperatureandwaterdepth.

Theperiscopesaremountedsidebyside,withtheType2attackscopetoportandtheMk18searchscopetothestarboard.TheType2isabasicopticalperiscopewithnoadvancedopticsandonlyasimpledaylightopticalcapability.ThemajorityoftheperiscopeworkisdonethroughtheType18.ItisthemostadvancedperiscopecurrentlyfittedtoaU.S.sub.Inadditiontoitsstraightopticalcapabilityithasalow-lightoperatingmode,whichcanbeprojectedontoanumberoftelevisionmonitorsaroundtheboat.Itisalsoequippedwitha70mmcamerafortakingperiscopephotos,aswellasthereadoutsfortheElectronicSupportMeasures(ESM)receivermountedontopoftheType18mast.ItalsohasanantennafortheGPSreceivermountedonit.Thisisatrulygreatscope,capableofalmostanyactivitythatmightbeaskedofaperiscope.Themastsforthetwoscopesgoupthroughthefairwater;theymaybecoatedwitharadar-absorbingmaterial(knownasRAM)tokeeptheirradarsignaturedown.

Theshipcontrolarea,locatedintheforwardportsidecorner,hasthreebucketseats--withseatbelts--aswellasroomforanotherpersontostand.Normallyitismannedbytwoenlistedpersonnelwhooperatethedivingplanesandrudder(calledtheplanesmanandhelmsman),andthedivingofficerandthechiefofthewatchcontrollingtheballastandtrim.Theplanesmanandhelmsmanarefacedwithaircraft-stylecontrolwheels,andsitfacingabankofcontrolreadoutsandinstruments.Thereisnoviewofthesurroundingseaandeveniftherewere,itwoulddolittlegood.Atdepthsoverafewhundredfeetverylittlelightpenetrates,andtheseabecomes,asJacques-YvesCousteaucallsit,"adarkandsilentworld."

LEFT:Asailoroperatingthediveplanes.Tohisrightisthesteeringcontrolstation.JOHND.GRESHAM

RIGHT:ShipcontrolstationofaLosAngeles-classsubmarine.Thecontrolwheelsgovernsteeringanddiving.Thecenterconsoletelegraphordersthespeedoftheboat.JOHND.GRESHAM

Thehelmsman,planesman,anddivingofficermantheshipcontrolstationoftheUSSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM

Justbehindtheshipcontrolareastandsthedivingofficer,whoisactuallyorderingtheplanesmanandhelmsmanwhattodoandwhen.TohisleftisthepositionwheretheCOBmaysit,thoughotherswillfrequentlydrawdutythere.Thisiswherethecontrolsforthemultitudeofvalves,tanks,andotherequipmentrequiredtodiveandsurfacetheboatarelocated.Eachmancontrolseithertherudderandbowplanes,orthehorizontalstabilizer.Two-mancontrolhasbeenahallmarkofU.S.designphilosophyforgenerations,andMiamiisnodifferent.Foreveryprimarysystemthereisabackup,usuallywithamanualoperatingmode.Mostnoticeableoftheseareapairofmushroom-shapedhandleslocatedatthetopoftheballastcontrolpanel.Thesearethemanualvalvestoconductwhatisknownasan

emergencyblow.Intheeventtheboatneededtoget"ontheroof"inahurry,thepersonattheballastcontrolpanelwouldactivatethesetwohandles.Thesevalves,whichrequirenopowerofanykind,sendhigh-pressureairdirectlyfromtheairbanksintotheballasttanks--whenthathappens,you'reheadedupfast.EarlyAmericanSSNsdidnothavethisfeature,andthislackwasfelttobeacontributingcauseofthelossoftheThresherin1963.

Divingtheboatisnotthecrashdiveof1950ssubmarinemovies.Infact,itisacarefullycontrolledandbalancedprocedurethatresemblesaballetdancedbyanelephant.First,thecaptainordersanypersonneldownfromthebridge,andtheclosingofallhatches.Oncethatisdone,thedivingofficerlooksoverthestatusboardtotheleftoftheshiphandlingstationstoverifythatallhatchesandventsaresealed,andthattheairbankshaveanappropriatereserveofairpressure.Thisdone,thedivingofficeropenstheventsatopeachballasttanktoallowameasuredamountofwaterintothetanks.Thisisjustenoughtomaketheboatslightlyheavierthanthesurroundingwater(callednegativelybuoyant).Asthisishappening,thedivingofficerorderstheplanesmentoput10to15degreesofdownangleontheboat,usingthebowandsterndivingplanes.Atthisstagetheboatbeginstosettle.Alltold,thisprocessnormallycantakefromfivetoeightminutes.

ALosAngeles-classnuclearsubmarinebreaksthesurfaceduringanemergencyblowdrill.ELECTRICBOATDIV.,GENERALDYNAMICSCORP.

Theballastcontrolpanelgovernstheballastandtrimtanks,whichallowtheboattosurface,dive,andremainneutrallybuoyant.JOHND.GRESHAM

Initiallythedivewillbeheldupwhenadepthof60feet(periscopedepth)hasbeenreached.Atthispointthedepthwillbemaintainedwiththediveplanesandtheforwardmotionoftheboat.Duringthistimethedivingofficerwillhavethechiefofthewatchpumpwaterinandoutofthetrimtankstomaketheboatneutrallybuoyantandbalanced.Inaddition,thecaptainwillprobablyorderaseriesofchecksonallofthecompartmentsoftheboatforwatertightintegrity,anddoachecktoseeifanymachineryismakingabnormalnoises,orifanyobjectsarelooseorimproperlystowed.Nextthecaptainwillprobablyorderaseriesofextremedivingexercisescalledanglesanddangles,whicharedesignedtodiscoverifanythingisstillimproperlystowed.Theoldhandstakeaperverseprideinbeingabletowalkandkeepacupofcoffeefromspillingduringhigh-angledives.NowtheMiamicangetdowntocruising.

Anoperator'sviewoftheballastcontrolpanelonboardtheUSSMiami.Intheupperleftaretheemergencyblowhandlesdesignedtosurfacetheboatinanemergency.JOHND.GRESHAM

Someoftheinstrumentsthatwouldbeseenbythehelmsmanandplanesmanwhile"driving"theUSSMiami:(lefttoright)dive/bankangle,heading,anddepthtokeel.JOHND.GRESHAM

Maneuveringa6,900-tonsubmarineissomethingthatisdonewithsubtletyandaminimumofrapidaction.Aslowanddelicatetouchontheplanesandruddersisrequiredtopreventunwantednoise.Ifyou

desiretochangespeed,yourotateaknobcalledanEngineOrderTelegraph,whichsendsaninstructionbacktotheengineroomtoeitherincreaseordecreasethepowertothepropellershaft.Thelackofprecisionmightsurprisesomepeople,asthereareonlyForwardandReverse,withchoicesforAllStop,OneThird,TwoThirds,Full,andFlank.Inspiteofthis,theprecisionthatyoucanmaneuvertheboatwithisamazing.Infact,theOODcanordertheprecisenumberofpropellerrevolutionsor"turns"requiredtomaintainanyspeedrequired.

Shipcontrolconsole,USSMiami.Theplane/ruddercontrolwheelisseentotheleft,withtheautomaticdepthcontrolandengineroomtelegraph(speedcontrol)tothelowerright.JOHND.GRESHAM

Theoneproblemwithdrivinga688Iisthatittendstobeslightlyunstableatsomedepthsandspeedsettings.Thisispartlyaproductofthe688I'shullshape,whichisoptimizedforspeed,andpartlyfromtheforwardplacementofthefairwater.Normallyonlylight

correctionswillbenecessarytokeeptrackingbutonemustbereadyforanysituation,includingcombatmaneuvers,whichcanbecomedownrightviolent.

Runningunderwateris,ifnothingelse,probablythesmoothestridethatyouwilleverknow.Oncetheboatistrimmedandlevel,thereislittleornosensationofmotion,andyoufeelasifyou'rewalkingthroughthebasementofabuilding.Thereis,infact,afeelingofbeingonverysolidground.Veryreassuring,andveryquiet.Infact,quietisthenameofthegameinthisbusiness.Whenthesubisrunningunderwater,nobodyraisestheirvoice,slamsahatch,orevendropsthetoiletseathard.Afteratime,youbecomehushedandsilent.Somuchthebetter.

Surfacingtheboatisanexerciseinitself,asthereisnomorevulnerabletimeforasubmarine.Partofthisisbecauseasurfacingboatmakeslotsofnoise:therushofcompressedairfromtheairflasksintotheballasttanks;thenoiseofthehullexpandingfromthedecreasedwaterpressure,calledhullpopping.Allthisnoisemakestheboatpartiallydeafandblind,sospecialprecautionsaretaken.Thefirstthingthedivingofficerdoesistohavetheplanesmenattheshipcontrolstationsbringhertoperiscopedepth.Atthispointthesearchperiscopewillberaisedtodoavisualcheckforanysurfacevessels,aswellassonarlisteningforanysurfaceorsubsurfacecontacts.Oncethecaptainisconfidentthatalliscleartopside,hewillorderthedivingofficertoblowcompressedairfromtheairflasksintotheballasttankstogivetheboataslightlyupward,orpositive,buoyancy.Withinseveralminutestheboatwillsurface,andthecaptainwillestablishabridgewatchuponthefairwater.

Onceonthesurface,youimmediatelynoticetherollingoftheboatinthesurfaceswells.Itisanironictruththatthesamehulldesignthatprovidessuchasmoothrideinthedepthsoftheoceanrollsratherdrunkenlyinamildsurfaceswell.Whileitisnotparticularlyuncomfortable,whencomparedtotheamazingstabilityoftheboatat

depth,thedifferenceseemsenormous.Whilerunningonthesurface,itisessentialthatthebridgewatchmaintainaconstantlookoutforanysurfacevessels.Sinceasubmarineisashardtoseeasitis,submarinersarealwaysconcernedaboutbeingrunoverbyaroguesupertankerorliner,andarecautioustoavoidfishingvessels,especiallythoseusingdriftnets.

Communications/ElectronicWarfareSpaces

Thecommunicationsshackislocatedforwardofthecontrolroomalongtheportsidepassageway,andisnotableforthesecuritywarningspostedonthedoor.ItisincrediblyvitaltotheoperationsofMiami.Packedintothattinyspaceisalloftheradiotransmissionandcryptographicgearthatisrequiredtosendandreceivemessages,rangingfromoperationalcombatorderstopersonal"familygrams."

LEFT:Oneofthebathythermographprobesthatcanbelaunchedbythe3-inchsignal/decoyejectoroftheUSSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM

RIGHT:NotionalviewofaBSY-1firecontrolconsoleanalyzingthevelocityofsoundinthewateratvariousdepths.Thedataisgeneratedthroughlaunchingofabathythermographfromthe3-inchejectortube.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Theradioequipmentcoversabroadspectrumoffrequencyrangesfromultra-highfrequency(UHF),highfrequency(HF),verylowfrequency(VLF),andextremelylowfrequency(ELF).Inaddition,thereisequipmentdesignedtoallowtheMiamitocontactcommunicationssatellites,aswellasunderwatertelephoneequipmentcommonlyknownasGertrude.Mostoftheradioequipmentistiedtosophisticatedencryptiongear(calledcrypto)designedtomakeitimpossibleforanyonebutanAmericantoreadthemessagetraffic.

Thisparticularpointhasnotalwaysbeensosecure,asthediscoveryoftheWalkerfamilyspyringshowedin1985.Foroverfifteenyears,

aNavypettyofficer,alongwithhisfamilymembersandafriend,helpedtheSovietUnionacquirethekeystothevariouscryptosystemsusedbytheUnitedStates.ThismeantthattheSovietshadaccesstovirtuallyallourmajorcryptosystemsfrom1969to1985,whentheringwasfinallyapprehended.SincethattimetheNationalSecurityAgency,whichischargedwiththedesignandsecurityofcryptosystems,hasapparentlyrebuilttheU.S.familyofencryptionsystemsandallegedlychangedtheproceduresthatallowedJohnWalkerandhisfamilytoputsomuchofournationalsecurityatrisk.

ThemostinterestingofthesesystemsaretheELFandVLFsystems,whicharemainlyusedascommandandcontrolsystemsforsubmarines.TheirspecialpropertyisthatthesignalsfromELFandVLFsystemscanpenetratethewatertobepickedupbytheantennatrailedfromtheportsideofthefairwater.Moreoftenthannot,becauseoftheirrelativelylowrateoftransmission(ELFworksataboutonelettercharactereveryfifteentothirtyseconds;VLFisfastenoughforteletypecommunications),theyareusedtocuesubmergedsubmarinestocometoperiscopedepth,andpokeoneoftheircommunicationsmastsuptogetasignalfromasatelliteorUHFchannel.

Itisstandardonsubmarinestominimizeanyactualtransmissionfromtheirradiosystems.AlwaysloomingoverthesubmarineforcearethememoriesofwhattheAlliedASWforceswereabletodototheU-boatsinWorldWarII,becauseoftheirknowledgeoftheGermanEnigmaciphersystem.ThepenetrationsofU.S.systemsbytheWalkerspyringhaveonlyreinforcedthebeliefthattransmittingwitharadioisaninvitationtoafuneral.Thusitisonlyoccasionallywhentheyareclosetoapotentialenemythattheywillsendmessages.Toasubmariner,onlysilenceisafriend.Anynoise,acousticorelectronic,isanenemy.

AnothermethodofcommunicatingwiththeoutsideworldisfortheboattoejectaSLOT(Submarine-LaunchedOne-WayTransmitter)

buoyfromitsforward3-inchsignalejectorlauncher.Locatedinasmallcompartmentforwardthatdoublesastheship'spharmacy,itresemblesatinytorpedotube.Thefirststepistorecordamessage,suchasacontactreport,onthebuoy'srecorder.Thebuoyisthenfiredintothewater,whereitwaitsaperiodoftime,saythirtyminutestoacoupleofhours,thensendsoutahigh-speedbursttransmissionthatcanbepickeduponaspecialsatellitecommunicationschannel.

InadditiontolaunchingSLOTbuoys,the3-inchejectorcanbeusedtolaunchbathythermographstomonitorthermallayersinthewater,aswellasseveraltypesofdecoyssuchasnoisemakersandbubblegenerators.Asecond3-inchejectorisaftintheengineeringspaces,andbothunitscanbecontrolledandfiredfromapanelinthecontrolroom.

KeepingtrackoftheelectronicnoisesanSSNencountersisthejobofMiami'sElectronicSupportMeasures(ESM)suite.TechnicallythesuiteismadeupofaradarandelectronicsignalreceiverknownasWLR-8(V).Thisisusedtomonitortheradarandradioemissionsinoperationalareas.Inaddition,theMiamiisequippedwithaBPS-15surfacesearchradartoassistinshiphandlingandnavigation.Allthesesystemshavetheirantennasmountedonretractablemasts,whichcanberaisedwhiletheboatisatperiscopedepth.

TheplacementoftheMiami'sforwardsonararrays.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

AN/BSY-1CombatSystem

AttheveryheartoftheMiami'scombatpoweristhenewBSY-1(pronounced"busyone")submarinecombatsystem.Allthesensor,firecontrol,andweaponssystemsoftheFlightIandIILosAngeles-classboats,aswellasafewnewitems,aretiedtogetherintoasinglesystemcontrolledbyabatteryofUYK-seriescomputersrunningalmost1.1millionlinesofAda(thedefensedepartment'ssystemsprogramminglanguage)computercode.DevelopedbyIBM,withHughes,Raytheon,andRockwellassubcontractors,BSY-1representsthefirstuseofwhatisknownasdistributedprocessorarchitecture.Allofitistiedtogetherbyadatahighwayknownasadatabus,whichisbecomingsomethingofastandardonweaponssystemssuchastheF-18Hornetfighter/bomberandthePatriotsurface-to-missilesystem.

Thismeansthatinsteadofhavingonelargecomputerrunningallthesensorandcombatfunctions,acentralcomputerhandsoutprocessingassignmentstoothercomputersrunningcodedesignedtohandleaspecificjoblikeacousticprocessingorcruisemissilemissionplanning.Inthiswaythedistributedsystemactuallyrunsfasterthanalargersinglecomputerwould.ItalsomakestheBSY-1systemeasiertoupgradeandbetterabletooperateinadegradedordamagedcondition.

MountingoftheMiami'stowedsonararrays.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

OtherthantheracksofUYK-7,UYK-43,andUYK-44computersburiedinthecomputercompartments,themostvisiblesignsoftheBSY-1systemaretheconsolesinthesonarroom,forwardofthecontrolroom,alongthestarboardpassageway.HerefourmannedsonarconsolesprovidetheMiamiwithherearstotheunderwaterworld.IntotheseconsolestheBSY-1systemfeedsinformationfromthevarioussonarsystems.TheMiami'smainsonarsystem,almostidenticaltotheBQQ-5DsystemonearlierLosAngeles-classboats,isactuallyacollectionofmanydifferentsonarsystems,including:

*Thesphericalsonararray,locatedinthebow.Thelargesphere(15-footdiameter)hasbothactive(echoranging)andpassive(listening)modes,andiscurrentlyoneofthemostpowerfulactivesonars(over75,000wattsofradiatedpower)afloatanywhereintheworld.*Theconformalarrayisalow-frequencypassivesonar

arraymountedaroundthebow.*Thehigh-frequencyarrayisanupgradetothesphericalarray,allowingittogeneratetheadvancedwaveformsthatmaketheactivemodesoftheBSY-1soeffective.Italsoincorporatesanunder-iceandminedetectioncapabilityfromanarrayinthefairwater.*TheTB-16Disthebasictowedarray,whichisfedfromthetubularshroudonthestarboardsideofthehull.Itisapassivesystem,designedtoprovidemedium-rangedetectionoflow-frequencynoise.Itisfedfromalargereelintheforwardpartoftheboatandplayedoutfromatubeinthestarboardhorizontalstabilizer.Ithasa2,600-footcablethatis3.5inches/89mmthick,withthereceivinghydrophonesina240-foot-longarrayattheendofthecable.*TheTB-23isthenewpassive"thinline"towedarrayassociatedwiththeBSY-1system.Itssmallerdiameter(1.1inches/28mm)meansthatthehydrophonearraycanbelonger(approximately960feet),anditcanbefartherawayfromthenoiseofthetowingsubmarine.TheTB-23isspecificallydesignedtodetectverylowfrequencynoiseatverylongranges.Itisstowedonareelintheaftandfedfromareceiverintheporthorizontalstabilizer.*TheWLR-9istheacousticinterceptreceiverdesignedtoalertthecrewthatanactivesonarisbeingused,suchaslargeactivesonararraysorsonaronincomingweapons.

Associatedwithallthesesystemsisaseriesofsignalprocessorsandotherequipment,whichtranslatethesoundsemittedandcollectedbythevarioussonarsystemsintothedatadisplayedonthesonarconsoles.ThefourBSY-1sonarconsolesareusuallyconfiguredto

havethreeofthemlookingatparticularelementsoftheBQQ-5Dsonarsensorswhilethefourthisusedbythesonarwatchsupervisor.Therealsoisasonarspectrumanalyzeravailableataworkstationintheforwardendofthecompartment.Eachconsolehasapairofmultifunctiondisplays,whichcanbeconfiguredquicklybytheoperatorfortheparticularsensorandmodeofinterest.Forexample,onesonartechnicianmightbelookingatthebroadbandnoisebeingcollectedfromoneofthetowedarrays.Anothermightbewatchingforbroadbandcontactsonthesphericalarray.

Sonarroom,USSMiami.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Whatthesonartechnicianactuallyseesisaratherodd-lookingdisplaycalledawaterfall.Itlookslikeagreentelevisionscreenfullofsnowor"noise."Thetopofthedisplayshowsthebearingofaparticularnoisesourceorfrequencybeingdetected.Theverticalscaleshowsthatnoiseorfrequencyovertime.Thesonartechnicianislookingforsomethingthatstandsoutfromtherandompatternof

backgroundnoisebeingdisplayed.Usuallythesoundcontactappearsasasolidlineonthedisplayscreen.Andthisiswherethehuntbegins.

Thetechnicianreportsthecontacttothesonarwatchsupervisorandbeginstheprocessofclassificationandidentification.Thesupervisoralertstheofficerofthedeckthatanewsonarcontact,called"SierraTen,"forexample(contactsarenumberedprogressively),hasbeendetectedandthatthesonarteamisworkingit.Theconventionsfornamingcontactsare:

*Sierra--asonarcontact*Victor--avisualcontact*Romeo--aradarcontact*Mike--acontactcombiningoneormoresignalsfromdifferentsensors

NotionalviewofaBSY-1sonardisplay.Thewhitelineattheleftindicatesacontact.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Whatisimportantnowispatienceandconcentration.AndmuchlikemycharacterJonesy,thesetechnicianspursuejustasmuchanartasascience.Assoonasthefirstsoundlinehasestablishedthatacontactexists,theothertechniciansassistintheclassification.Despiteallthathasbeenwrittenbefore,thereisnoautomaticclassificationmodeintheboat'scomputers--oneoftheMiamisonartechnicianshasproudlysaid,"Westilldoitourselves."

Sometimesafrequencylineisknowntobeuniquetoaparticularpowerplantofaparticularshiporsubmarineclass.Othertimes,theefforttoclassifythetargetmayrequirethetechniciantolistenthroughheadphonestotryandmakeoutwhatthesignalonaparticularbearingis.Theycanlistentotonalsignalstodeterminewhetherthesourceisasurfaceshiporsubmarine.EachofthedifferentsonarsintheBSY-1suitehasitsoptimumfrequencyband,andifanothersensormightbebetteratgettingdataonaparticularsignal,thetechnicianisfullyempoweredtoasktheofficerofthedecktoaltercoursetobringthatsensortobear.Duringthistimethesonarwatchteamaretheeyesandearsoftheboat,andeveryothermanaboardknowsthathissafetymaydependonjusthowgoodtheoperatorsinthesonarroomreallyare.Therearesetprocedurestohelpguidethesonartechnicians,butintheenditcomesdowntotheindividualskillsofthetechniciansdoingwhatmustbeamind-bendingjob.

Thesonarsupervisorreportsthebestestimateofwhatandwherethesourceis,andwhetheritcouldbeathreatornot,totheofficerofthedeck(OOD).TheOODstationsthefirecontrolteamtobeginthelocalization/trackingprocess.Thisisadualprocessutilizingboththemanualplottingtableaswellasoneofthefirecontrolconsoles.OnMiamithisprocessisdifferentfromtheolderLosAngeles-classboatsinthatalltheinformationispassedautomaticallybetweenthesonarroomandthefirecontrolconsoleviatheBSY-1systemnetwork.AtthispointthetrackingteambeginstheprocessknownasTargetMotionAnalysis(TMA).Besidesidentifyingthecontact,theTMA

providesthefirecontrolteamwithausablefirecontrolsolution,targetcourseandspeed,andareliablerange.

Thistakestime--sometimes,alot.Whileyouaretryingtogetalltheinformationnecessarytopossiblyshootatatarget,youmustyourselfremainundetected.MuchofthedatafortheTMAprocesscomesfromthebearingrate,whichishowfastthebearingofatargetischanging,andmonitoringtheDoppler,whichrevealswhetheratargetiscomingnearerormovingaway;thisiscalledtherangerate.WhiletheBSY-1ishelpingthefirecontrolteamdoitsjob,themanualplotteam,assistedbyaspeciallyprogrammedHewlettPackard9020desktopcomputer,isalsoworkingonitsownTMA/rangeanalysis.Thislittledesktopcomputerhasaprogramlibrarythathelpsthemanualplotteamwiththemoreintensivecalculationsandgenerateswhatcanonlybecalledinstantrangestothetarget.Allthewhilethemanualandautomatictrackingsolutionsarechecked,anddataiscrossfedbetweenthem.DuringtheTMAprocesstheboatwouldprobablymaneuverinazigzagpatterntohelpthesonarcrewestablishbetterrangeandbearingratesfortheTMAplots.

Sonarroom,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM

SomenationshavechosentoeliminatethedualTMAprocessanddependonlyonanautomaticsystem.Butthiscanleadtorangingerrorsincriticalsituations,sotheU.S.Navycontinuestousemanualplotsandautomaticsystemsjusttobesure.RecentlyMiamirananexerciseagainstadieselboatbelongingtooneofourNATOallies.Apparently,becauseMiamihadasmallacousticfault(calledasoundshort),theopposingsubthoughttheboatwasmuchcloserthanitactuallywas:theautomaticfirecontrolsystemcalculatedtherangetoMiamiataround6,000yardswhen,infact,itwasover40,000yards.AndwhenthedieselboatfiredatwhatitthoughtwasanearbyU.S.boat,allitdidwasexposeitselftoattackbytheMiami.Needlesstosay,CommanderJonesmadehis"opponent"paydearlyforhiserror.

LEFT:NotionalviewofaBSY-1firecontrolconsoleanalyzingsoundconditionsinthesurroundingwater.Thesinewaveindicatesthat

conditionsfora"convergencezone"exist.Datafromabathythermographisshownattheleft.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

RIGHT:AnotionalviewofaBSY-1firecontrolconsoleshowingrelativeposition,bearing,andspeedofatarget.Thisisanemulationofananalogsystemdatingbacktothe1930s.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

TheTMAprocessiscontinueduntilthecommandingofficerbelievesthetrackingpartyhasagoodenoughpictureofthesituationathand.EverycontacthastohaveareliableTMAsolutionandmustbecurrentlytracked.HereliestherealvalueoftheBSY-1system.ForwhiletheearlierLosAngeles-classboatscouldkeeptrackofonlyafewtargetsatonetime,theBSY-1canhandlemanymore.Andoncethesystemhasagoodtrackrunning,ithasagreatabilitytoholdandmaintainthequalityofthetracks.

Eventuallythetargettrack(s)willbegoodenoughtofireon,ifthatisthedesiredintention,andthetimehascometosetupaweaponforfiring.Thefirecontroltechnicianbeginstheprocessbyinputtingthenecessarypresetsintothechosenweapon.IfitisaMark48,Harpoon,orTomahawkantishipmissile(TASM),thiscanbeaccomplishedentirelyattheBSY-1console.ShouldaTomahawklandattackmissile

(TLAM)needtobeprogrammed,thisisaccomplishedattheadjoiningCommandandControlSystem(CCS-2)console.Fornow,though,wewillconcentrateontheweaponsprogrammedontheBSY-1console.

Firecontrolalleyinthecontrolroom,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM

Asailorworksatoneoftheplottingtablesinthecontrolroom,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM

If,forexample,thedesireistolaunchanantishipmissile,the

technicianmusthaveadecentestimateoftargetcourse,speed,andrange.Itisalsocriticaltoknowwhetherthereisanyneutralshippingtrafficinthearea.Thetechnicianprogramsintheroutetothetarget,aswellasanywaypointsnecessarytoroutethemissilearoundneutralshippingtrafficthatmightbeintheway.Inaddition,thetechnicianprogramsasearchpatternfortheseekerheadofthemissiletolockin.Thismissionplancanbeloadedintoanynumberofmissiles,whicharethenfiredfromtheweaponscontrolconsolelocatedtotherightofthefirecontrolconsoles.

NotionalviewofaBSY-1firecontrolconsolesettingupanantishipmissileattack.Theexpandingpatternonthescreenrepresentstheareabeingsearchedbytheseekerheadofthemissile.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Theprocessforfiringtorpedoesissomewhatmoredynamicthanthatformissiles.Firstthefirecontroltechniciandevelopsafire

controlsolutionthroughaprocesscalled"stackingthedots."Thescreenwherethisisaccomplisheddisplaysthetargetbearingversustime,similartothatbackinthesonarroom.Onthisdisplaythetargetbearingisshownoveraperiodoftimeasaseriesofdots.Thetechnicianfine-tunesthesolutionbyadjustingtheestimatesofthetarget'srange,course,andspeeduntilthedisplayshowsastraightcolumnofdotsstackedonthedisplay.Afterseveralminutesofworkandpossiblyacoupleofmaneuverstoverifytheaccuracyofthesolution,itisnowtimetoshoot.

Despitewhatsomecomputergameswouldhaveyoubelieve,therearenojoysticksforthefirecontroltechniciansto"fly"thetorpedoontothetarget.Instead,thetechnicianchangestheweaponpresetsonascreenthatlookslikeashoppinglistofparameterssuchastheseekeractivationpoint(called"enablerun"),searchdepth,andwhichseekerheadmodetheweaponistobefiredin.Also,theBSY-1hasseveraldifferentoperatingmodes,includinga"snapshot"modeforfast-movingtacticalsituationsthatrequiretheMiamitoreactquickly.Let'sassumethatthefirecontroltechnicianhasbeenorderedtosetupapairofMk48ADCAPtorpedoesforashotatasubmarine.HeselectsthedesiredtargettrackandallowstheBSY-1toinputtheweaponpresetstothelist.

Atanytime,hecanoverrideoralterthepresetstosuitthetacticalsituation.Forexample,theADCAPhasmodestoavoidmakingcircularrunsandattackingthefiringsubaccidentally,aswellastheabilitytopresetathree-dimensionalsearchzonefortheweaponstosearchin,butnotgooutside.Oncetheweaponshavebeenloadedwiththerequireddata,theycanbefiredbytheweaponsofficerattheorderofthecaptain.Withtheweaponsnowinthewater,ajuniorofficercallsuptheweaponsdisplayonhisconsoleandmonitorsthetorpedoes'status.

OneofthenicefeaturesoftheBSY-1/ADCAPcombinationisthatthetechniciancan"swim"thetorpedoesoutontothetargetanduse

theseekerheadsasoffboardsensorstofine-tunethefiringsolution.Thisismadepossiblebythedatalinkwirethattheweaponstrailoutbehindthem,whichisconnectedtothetorpedotubesoftheMiami.Thismeansthatifthetechnicianseesthetargetmoveoutoftheselectedarea,ordosomethingtacticallydifferentfromwhathethoughtitwoulddo,hecanquicklychangethenecessarypresetsrightfromhisweaponcontrolmenu.

WhentheADCAPsfinallyacquirethetarget,theprocessbecomescompletelyautomatic,withtheoperator'shelprequiredonlyifatorpedomalfunctions.ThelogicintheguidancesystemsoftheADCAPsisverygood,thoughifanythinggoeswrongthefirecontroltechniciansarealwaysreadytostepinontheirown.Assumingthattheweaponsdotheirjob,thefinalruntothetargetwillbelikewatchingatrainwreck.Whentheyhit,thesonartechnicianmustassessthedamagethathasbeeninflicted.Theremaybebreaking-upnoisesorthedistinctivecrunchofanimplodingpressurehull.Inanycase,thetrackingteamsarenowreadytostartagain,anever-endingtaskwhileonpatrol.

Onethingwehaven'tmentionedyetisjustwhytheMiamihasanactivesonarmodewhensomanygreatthingscanbeaccomplishedjustbylisteningpassively.Foralmostthirtyyears,goingactivewithasonarhasmeantgivingupthetacticaladvantage.Thesimpletruthisthatwhileusinganactivesonardoesalertapotentialenemytoyourpresence,itdoeshavesomesignificantadvantages.ThelatestnuclearboatsproducedbytheformerSovietUnion/CommonwealthofIndependentStatesarealmostasgoodacousticallyasaFlight1LosAngeles.Thismeansthatfindingthempassivelyisgoingtobeextremelydifficult.Andthecurrentgenerationofdieselboats,whenrunningontheirbatteries,arejustalittleworse,beingveryquiettargetstoanypassivesonarsysteminexistence.Usinganactivesonarcanovercomesomeoftheseproblemsatrelativelyshortranges,andhastacticalbenefitsinsomesituations,especiallyinverifyingranges

beforeshooting.Unfortunately,anactivesonarcanbeheardatleastfivetimesfartherthanthesonarcandetectatarget.

Theactivesonarmodeofthespheresonarisincrediblypowerfulandcancausesteambubblestoformontheoutersurfacesofthesonardome.Thesphericalarraydoesgiveaccuraterangesandbearings,providingexcellentfirecontrolsolutionsintheprocess.Inaddition,ithastheabilitytoformitssoundsignalsintobeamsthatarefocusedinsteadofjustradiatinginalldirections.Thismeansthatonlythetargetboatwillknowitisbeing"pinged,"andotherboatsintheareawillnot.Inthesortofclose-range"knifefights"thatmaydevelopbetweenthequieterboatsinhabitingtheoceanstoday,goingactivemayjustbeagoodthingtodo.

NotionalviewofaBSY-1firecontrolconsolepreparingafirecontrolsolution.Notethelinesofdotsadjustedbytheknobsatthebottomofthediagram.Whenthedotsstackinastraightline,thesolutionisready.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Weaponscontrolconsoleinthecontrolroom,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM

NotionalviewofaBSY-1firecontrolconsolepreparingtofireaMk48ADCAP.Thetableofdatashowsthevariousweaponpresets.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Torpedoroom,USSMiami.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

ThisisaroughpictureofhowtheBSY-1systemandheroperatorsworktogether.Manyotherelementsgointotheprocess,butIhopethishasgivenyouafeelforhowtheoperatorswoulduseBSY-1tofighttheboat.Ifyouthinkitseemslikeahugegameofblindman'sbuff,youarerightontarget,foritissaidthatinthelandoftheblind,theone-eyedmanisking.Inthedarkrealmoftheworld'soceans,theMiamiwithitsBSY-1combatsystemisthekingwiththebiggesteye.

TorpedoRoom

Whenyouwanderdownacoupleofflightsofstairsandmoveforward,youeventuallywindupinthetorpedoroom.HereyouarestruckbythefeelingofbeingintheverybowelsoftheMiami.Threesetsoftwo-highracksallowforthestowageoftwenty-twoweapons,andfourmorearekeptinthetubes.Usually,however,oneortwooftherackspacesortubesareleftempty,tofacilitatemovementoftheweaponsandallowmaintenance.Betweenthecenterandsideracksaresetsofloadingandramminggear.Goforwarddowntheaislesbetweentheracksandyouwillfindthetorpedotubes.Thesehaveaninternaldiameterof21inches/533mmandareangledapproximately7to8degreesofftheboat'scenterline,sothatwhenweaponsarelaunched,theyclearthebowwithitsbigactivesonardome.Oneuniquedesignaspectistheabilitytomoveanyweaponfromanypositionintherackstoatorpedotubeoranyotherpositionontheracks.Whilethegeometryofsuchamoveissomewhatcomplicated,theactualmovementoftheweaponsresemblesachild'spuzzleinwhicheightpiecesaremovedthroughninespacestoformapicture.

BOTTOM:No.1torpedotube,USSMiami.Theinnerdoorisopen,showingthetubeguidesandtheattachmentpointsfortheweapon"A"cableandtorpedoguidancewire(whenrequired).JOHND.GRESHAM

TOP:ThetorpedoroomofUSSMiami.Theweaponsontheirracksaretotheright,withtheNo.2andNo.3torpedotubesonthestarboardside.ThepanelattheleftofthephotoisthecontrolpanelforthetorpedotubesandVLSsystem.JOHND.GRESHAM

No.2torpedotube,USSMiami.Theinnerdoorisshutandthetubestatussignshowsittobeempty.JOHND.GRESHAM

Loadingtheweaponsintotheboatitselfisaratherinvolvedprocess,thoughonethattheMiami'sdesignersactuallythoughtoutprettywell.Justforwardofthefairwateristheweaponsloadinghatch;throughheretheweaponsarebroughtonboard.Thefirststepintheprocessistoopenthishatchandunstowtheloadinggear,whichiscleverlycomposedofsectionsoftheflooringstructurefromthe

secondandthirddecksoftheboat.Thesecond-deckflooringbecomesaloadingrackthatishoistedupondecktoreceivetheweaponsfromtheloadingcranealongside.Asectionofthethirddeckservesasthetransitrack,whichspansthegapleftbytakingupthefloorstructure.Thuswhileloadingistakingplace,agaplikeacanyonrunsdownthemiddleoftheboattothetorpedoroom.

AMark48ADCAPtorpedoisraisedontheloadingtrayforstowageaboardtheUSSGroton(SSN-694).JOHND.GRESHAM

Theactualweapons-loadingprocessisquiterapidoncethegearisassembled.Theweaponisswungoveronacranefromthedockortenderandgentlyloweredintotheloadingrack.Onceitisaligned,theloadingrackisrotatedupabout45degrees,andtheweaponiswincheddownonachain-poweredhoist.Whentheweaponhascompleteditsnearly50-footjourney,thetransitrackisswungbacktothehorizontal,andtheweaponislaidintothewaitingskidsonthetorpedoroomracks.Atthispointitissecuredtotheskidsandmovedoversothatanotherweaponcanbeloaded.Inall,theboatcanbecompletelyloaded,includingsettingupandstrikingtheloadinggear,withintwelvehours,allwithminimumsupportfromatenderordockcrew.Afterwards,whenthedeckstructureshavebeenputbackinplace,youwouldneverknowthisisthepaththeweaponstaketothetorpedoroom.

Loadingatorpedo,whilestraightforward,isanythingbutsimple.Thefirststepistomoveaweaponfromthestoragerackontooneoftheloadingtrays.Thisrequiresabitofbruteforce(Mk48sweighabout3,400lb/1,545kg)aswellassomeprecision;eveninthisdayandage,humanbrawnisstilluseful.Oncetheweaponisloadedontothetray,theinnerdoor(calledthebreechdoor)tothechosentorpedotubeisopenedandaquickinspectionisconducted.Ifanotherweaponhasjustbeenfired,thecrewmayneedtoremoveawiredispenserand/orsomeguidancewire(ifitisaMark48torpedo),ortocheckforwearonthetube.Thislittleprocess,knownasdivingthetube,isajobbesthandledbythosewithnarrowshouldersandlongarms.

Oncethisisdone,theloadingramcarefullymovestheweaponintothetube.Atthispointoneofthetorpedomanmates(TMs)connectsthedatatransmissionlink,calledan"A"cable,fromthebackoftheweapon(allU.S.submarine-launchedweaponsareequippedwithsuchconnections),attachestheguidancewire(ifitisaMk48),andsealsthebreechdoor.Oncethehatchisclosed,thetechnicianschecktomakesurealltheconnectionsandsealsareproperlyset,thenhang

onthetubeasmallsign:WARSHOTLOADED.Oneofthenicefeaturesonthe688I/BSY-1boatsisthatonceatubeisloaded,itautomaticallycantellwhatkindofweaponisloaded.Onseveralcontrolpanelsandstatusboardsaroundtheboat,thechangeinthetube'sstatustoLoadedandwhatitisloadedwitharenotedandmarked.

LEFT:AnMk48ADCAPisloadedintoatorpedotubeonUSSMiami.Thetorpedoisloadedwiththeramminggearshownbelow.JOHND.GRESHAM

LEFT:AnMk48ADCAPtorpedoonaloadingtrayispushedforwardintothetube.Theprecisionoftheoperationisobvious,withcarefulattentionbeinggiventoaccuratealignment.JOHND.GRESHAM

RIGHT:InsidetheNo.1torpedotube,USSMiami.Theguiderailsandslidevalvesarevisible,aswellastheouterdooror"cap"attheendofthetube.JOHND.GRESHAM

ATomahawksurface-to-surfacemissile(SSM)istest-firedfromthe

submergedsubmarineUSSGuitarro.U.S.NAVYPHOTOBYLARRYSAMMONS

Onceadecisiontolaunchaweaponhasbeenmade(thisalwaysrequiresalookatthemissionordersandthestandingrulesofengagement),thenthetechniciansattheBSY-1firingcontrolpanelsupinthecontrolroompowerontheweapontowarmitup.Thenthefirecontroltechnicianassignedtocontroltheweaponloadstargetingandotherdataintotheweapon'smemorysystem.InthecaseofanMk48,thisincludesspeedsettingsandseekerheadmode.ForaguidedmissilelikeaTomahawk,itinvolvesloadingacompletemissionflightprofile.Oncethisisdone,theweaponisreadytobefired.

Theprocessoffiringaweaponfromatorpedotubeisprobablyoneofthemostwelltestedproceduresontheentireboat;itdatesbackmanydecades.Withtheweaponwarmandreadytofire,theorderisgiven,"Makethetubereadyinallrespects!"Thisisnotdonelightly,forthisisthefirstofanumberofactionsthatradiatesagreatdealofnoiseintothesurroundingwater.Oncethetubeisflooded,theouterdoororcapisopened,andthetubeisreadytolaunchtheweapon.Thecommandingofficergivesthecommand,"Firingpointprocedures,"whentheothernecessarysteps(suchassealingthebreechdoor)havealreadybeencompleted.

Atthispointthecaptainissuesthefiringcommand,"Matchbearingsandshoot!"Whentheordertofireisgiven,theweaponsofficerattheBSY-1launchcontrolpanelpressesthefiringbutton,andthefiringsequencebegins.Thefiringcommanddirectshigh-pressureairfromtheairbanksontoapiston.Theairforcesthepistontomovealongthepistonshaft,forcingwateroutofanothertubeandthroughaslidevalveintherearofthetorpedotube,therebyformingawaterramthatejectstheweaponoutintotheseaatsomethinglikefourtosixtimestheforceofgravity.

Whathappensnextdependsonwhichweaponhasbeenfired.Ifitis

aguidedmissile,thentheouterdoorcanbeclosed,andthetubeisdrainedandmadereadyforreloading.IftheweaponisaMark48,thenthedecisionwillprobablybemadetoleavetheouterdooropen.ThisisbecausetheMark48trailsaguidancewirebehindit,whichallowstheboattoguidethetorpedoasitrunsuptotenmilesfromthelaunchingpoint.Atanytime,though,thewirecanbecut.Ifthesubistravelingtoofast,ormakestoosharpaturn,thenthewaterflowmaybreakthewire.Inanycase,untiltheneedfortheguidancewireisgone,thetubemuststayinuse.

VerticalLaunchSystem(VLS)

OneoftheweaknessesofallU.S.attacksubmarinessincethePermit-classboatshitthewaterhasbeentheshortageofspacefortorpedotubesandweaponsstowage.Foroverthirtyyears,U.S.attackboatshavealwayshadfour21-inch/533mmtorpedotubestodelivertheirweapons,andabouttwenty-twostowagepositionstoholdtheminsidetheboat.ThiswasnotmuchofaproblemsolongasallthattheboatshadtofirewereheavytorpedoesandtheoccasionalSUBROC.Butbeginninginthelate1970swiththeintroductionoftheUGM-84Harpoonantishippingmissile,andtheearly1980swiththeUGM-109Tomahawkmissileseries,thisbegantoposearealproblemforsubmarineplannersandskippers.

Forexample,sayaU.S.subskipperwantstoshootHarpoonmissilesatasurfacewarship.Submarinerstraditionallyprefertokeepatleastonetorpedoinatubeasajust-in-caseweapon,muchasapoliceofficerkeepsahideoutweaponinanankleholster.ThismeansthemaximumsalvosizethatcanbefiredatthetargetshipisthreeHarpoons.Thismightbefine,butagainstatargetlikeaKirov-classbattlecruiserwithallitsantimissilesystems,thosethreemissileswill

besoakeduplikewaterintoasponge;theweaponswillbewasted,andthetargetwillbealertedtothepresenceofthesub.Whatclearlyisneededisawaytostowmoreweaponsontheboatandfiremoreofthematonetime.

ThetwelvehydraulicallyoperateddoorsoftheMiami'sverticallaunchsystemforTomahawkcruisemissiles.JOHND.GRESHAM

SomeofthemazeofhydraulicplumbingnecessarytooperateMiami'sverticallaunchsystem(VLS).Notethehandlesforthevariousmanualbackups.JOHND.GRESHAM

ThedesignersoftheLosAngeles-classboatsanticipatedthis,becauseboththedesignsforHarpoonandTomahawkwereknownatthattime.SpacewasleftintheforwardballasttankfortwelveVerticalLaunchSystem(VLS)tubes,eachcapableofstoringandlaunchingaTomahawkcruisemissile.Inaddition,spacefortheassociatedcontrolandhydraulicsystemsnecessarytooperatetheVLSsystemwasleftinacompartmentforwardofthetorpedoroom.ThusitwaspossibleforaLosAngeles-classboattocarryandlaunchtwelveadditional

cruisemissileswithoutaffectingtheweaponsstowedandfiredoutoftheboat'storpedoroom.Thismeantanincreaseof50percentinweaponsstowageanda400percentincreaseinreadyfirepower(whenfiringcruisemissiles)overanon-VLSsub.

Thischangewasnotmadeimmediately,however.EventhoughalltheLosAngeles-classboatswerecapableofbeingfittedwiththeVLSsystem,thefirstboattobesoequippedwastheUSSProvidence(SSN-719).And,becauseofbudgetconstraints,itisquiteunlikelythatanyoftheearlierFlightIboatswilleverberetrofittedwithVLSmissiletubes.Nevertheless,bythetimetheclassisfinishedbuilding,somethirty-oneFlightIIand688Iboatswillhavethesystem,providingroomforsome372Tomahawkmissilesinthefleet.Andthatisalotoffirepower.Bytheway,itiseasytomakeoutwhichboatshavetheVLSandwhichdon'tbywhethertheyarelevelinthewater(VLSequipped)ornoseup(non-VLSFlightI).

Enlistedmessarea,USSMiami.Herethecrewcooks,eats,doeslaundry,takesclasses,andwatchesmovies.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

ThewaytheVLSsystemworksisquitesimple.Themissilecanistersareloadedverticallyfromacrane.Eachcanistercontainsacompleteall-upTomahawkround,readytofire.Atthetopofeachcanisterisathinmembraneofclearplastic,whichkeepsthemissiledryandsafe.Thisishowitstaysuntilthetimetofire.Theboatcomestolaunchdepth,usuallyabout60feet,andreducesspeed,say3to5knots,perhapsraisingacommunicationsmasttogetadditionaltargetingoranavigationalfixfromtheGPSsatelliteconstellation.

Oncetheflightinstructionshavebeenprogrammedintothedesiredmissile(s),thelaunchsystemautomaticallybeginsthefiringsequence.

Thesystemopensthemissilelaunchtubehatchhydraulicallyandanexplosivechargepropelsthemissileupthroughtheplasticmembraneandintothewater.Afterthemissiletravelsupabout25feettheboosterrocketfires,thrustingtheTomahawkoutofthewater.Atthispointthemissiletiltsover,dropstheburned-outboostermotor,lightstheturbojetengine,andheadsforitspreprogrammedtarget.Meanwhilethelaunchtubefillswithwater(helpingtocompensateforthelostweightofthemissile),andthehydraulichatchisclosed.

TheVLSsystemiscausingarevolutionindesignofnewweaponsforsubmarines.IthasradicallyincreasedboththefirepowerandstowedweaponsloadfortheU.S.submarineforce--allatnoincreaseinthesizeordisplacementofthebasicLosAngelesdesign.

LivingSpaces

OntheMiami'ssecondlevelisthebulkofthelivingspaceaboardtheboat.Ifyoustandaftneartheforwardescapetrunk,thenyouwalkforward,youwillfindthelargestopenareaontheboat,theenlistedmessarea.Thisplaceisacombinationofcafeteria,schoolroom,movietheater,gameroom,andalmostanythingelsethatinvolvesgatheringtheboat'senlistedpopulationtogether.Herearesixtableswithbenchseatsonbothsidessothatsomethinglikeforty-eightsailorsatatime,abouthalftheMiami'spopulation,cansitdownatonce.Alongthestarboardbulkheadaresuchcherishedpiecesofequipmentasthesodamachines(nolongerdotheyservethehated"Yogi"cola),milkdispenser,softicecreammachine,andthatmostcherishedofNavywardroomicons,thebugjuicedispenser.Bythe

way,well-informedpalatessuggestthattheredflavorisbest,butstayawayfromtheorange!Strangely,italsomakesanexcellentscouringpowderforcleaningfloorsandheads(allthatacidinit,theytellme).Backneartheescapetrunkistheship'slaundry.Aboutthesizeofaphonebooth,ithandlesthelaundryfortheentireboat,withawasheranddryerthatwouldseemsmallinmostapartments.

Adjacenttotheenlistedmessareaisthegalley.Insidearoomaboutthesizeofanapartmentkitchen,themeals(fourperday)arepreparedforover130officersandmen.It'samazingthatsomuchcanbedoneinsuchasmallspace.Therearealltheusualinstitutionalkitchenfixtures(electricmixer,oven,grill,andstewingpots),aswellasapairofrefrigeratedspacesforfoodstorage.Usuallyoneoftheseissetupasadeepfreeze,theotherasafreshfoodrefrigerator,thoughforlongerpatrolsfreshfoodisavoided,andonlyfrozenanddrystoresarecarried.ItisamatterofrecordthatthesinglemostlimitingfactortoSSNoperationsisthequantityoffoodandotherconsumables.Beforealongdeployment,virtuallyeverysparenookandcrannyispackedwithstores--food,soap,paperforthecopymachines,drystores,and,ofcourse,mostvitalofcommoditiesonboardasub,coffee.

Amesstechniciancookinglunchinthegalley,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM

Movingforwardontheportsidepassageway,youencountertheberthingspacesfortheenlistedpersonnel.Ishouldsayherethatifyouhaveatouchofclaustrophobia,thisiswhereitwillmanifestitself.Thethree-tallbunksareroughly6feetlong,3feetwide,and2feettall:aboutthesizeofacoffin.Eachbunkhasacomfortablefoamrubbermattresswithbedding,alightforreading,ablowerforfreshair,andacurtainforprivacy.Allyourpersonalgeargoesintolockersonthewalls,orthe6-inch-deeptraysunderthebunks.Fortheenlistedpersonnel,thisisthetotalextentoftheirprivacy.Thisisevenfurtherlimited,asabout40percentoftheenlistedpopulationhastoshare,or

"hotbunk,"theirsleepingaccommodations.Thisisbecausethe688Idesignjustdidnothaveenoughroomtoprovideabunkforeachenlistedman.Thismeansthatgroupsofthreeenlistedmenhavetosharetwobunks,withthesleepperiods(theysleepinsix-hourshifts)rigidlyscheduledinadvance.

Miami'schiefoftheboat(COB)showsoffthethree-highbunksinthe"goatlocker."Eachbunkisaboutthesizeofacoffin!JOHND.GRESHAM

Onthestarboardsideoftheboataretheberthingandmessspacesfortheseniorenlistedpersonnel,generouslyknownasthe"goatlocker."Herethereisasmallseatingareaaboutthesizeofacornerboothatarestaurant,whichservesaseatingarea,office,andconferenceroomforthechiefpettyofficers.Headingaftfromhereisanotheraisleofthree-highbunks,thoughthesearereservedforeachman.

Fortheofficersthereisaseparatewardroomforeating,studying,anddoingpaperwork.Itisanicelyappointedareawithitsownpantryforcoffeeandsnacksaroundtheclock.Inthemiddleofthespaceisasingletablethatservesasdiningtable,desk,andconferencetable.UnlikethecommanderofalmostanyothershipintheNavy,thecommandingofficerdoesnothaveaseparatepantrytotakehismeals.Hesitswithhisofficersateverymeal,givingitthefeelingofafamilygathering.Thesubmarineservicehasalwaysbeenmoreinformalthanthesurfaceforces,andthisispartoftheespritthatmakesthe"bubbleheads"differentfromtherest.CommanderJonesrunsa"loose"wardroomwherekiddingandfriendlyribbingisalwayswelcome.Hemakesnosecretofhisloveofgoodseafood,andisabigfanoficecream.Infact,heisfondofsayingthatotherthanhavingtheonlyprivatestateroomontheboat,hisonlycommandprivilegeontheMiamiischoosingtheflavoroficecreamforthemachineinthegalley.HechoosesaratherdiplomaticFrenchvanillaflavor.

Officers'wardroom,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM

ThecommandingofficerofUSSMiami,CommanderHoustonK.Jones,USN,conductingbusinessinhisstateroom.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

Asforthecommander'scabin,itishardlythestuffyoumightfindontheQueenElizabethII.Locatedjustforwardoftheenlistedmess,onthesecondlevel,itisroughly10feetlongby8feetwide.Itisdominatedbyacombinationdesk/closetunitintheafterportionofthecabin.Againsttheoutsidebulkheadisapairofseatswithasmalltablebetweenthem;thisunitfoldsdownintothebunk.CommanderJonesisproudofsayingthatit'sthebestbunkontheboat,andcertainlyitistheonlyonethatdoesnothaveanotherbunkaboveand/orbelowit!Onthedoortohiscabinarethreenotices.OnereadsKNOCKANDENTERandanotheris,THINKQUIET!IT'SOURBUSINESS...ITCOULDBEOURLIVES.ThefinaloneisacopyofRudyardKipling'sfamouspoem,"If,"notabadphilosophytoadvertiseifyouareinchargeof132livesand$800millionofthetaxpayers'money.

Thecommander'sdeskcontainsavarietyofdifferentmanuals,asafeforclassifieddocuments,andvariouscommunicationsdevicestokeephimintouchwiththerestoftheboat.Oneofthenewestpiecesofequipmenttobeaddedisknownasamultifunctiondisplay,mountedadjacenttohisbunk.Thismarvelousdevice,whichistiedintotheBSY-1combatsystem,isaredgas-plasmadisplayshowingdataonposition,course,speed,heading,anddepth,aswellasmodestoshowthecurrenttacticalsituationaroundtheboat.TheadvantagetoCommanderJonesisthathecanwakeforamomentinthemiddleofthenight,reachoverandchecktheboat'sstatus,thenrolloverandgobacktosleep--allwithouthavingtoruinhisnightvisionbyturningonalightorhavingtopickupaphoneandtalktotheOOD.Hefiguresthatnothavingtowakeupfullyseveraltimesisworthseveralhours'moresleep.Andthatcanbelifeanddeathfortheboatinacombatsituation.Atotalofeightofthesedevicesarelocatedaround

theboatinsuchplacesasthecontrolroomandsonarroom.

Thecommunicationsandrecreationalequipmentinthecaptain'scabin.JOHND.GRESHAM

TheEngine--TheReactor/ManeuveringSpaces

Ifyouwanderaftfromtheenlistedmess,pasttheforwardescapetrunkanddownhalfadeck,youfindthegreatdivideontheMiami.ThisistheentrancetothetunnelafttothepropulsionspacescontainingtheS6Gnuclearreactor(builtbyGeneralElectric)andthemainengineeringspaces.ItismarkedbyanumberofdifferentwarningsignsfromtheDNR,rangingfrominformationonpossibleradiationhazards,tosecuritynoticesaboutjustwhoontheboatisallowedaftofthispoint.Itshouldbenotedthatnomemberofthemedia,includingmyself,haseveractuallyseenanactualnuclearsubmarinereactorcompartmentorherengineeringspaces.Neverthelessthereareanumberofthingsthatwedoknowabouttheseareas,andIwilltrytosharethemwithyou.

Thefirstthingtounderstandaboutthenuclearreactoronasubmarineisthatithasonlyonerealpurpose,togenerateheattoboilwaterintosaturatedsteam.Otherthanthat,alloftheotherpartsofanuclearsubmarinepropulsionsystemaresimilartoanyothertypeofsteam-poweredturbineplant.Itsadvantageoveranoil-firedsteamplantistheamountofenergyconcentratedinthenuclearfuelinthereactorcore,aswellasthecompletelackofanyneedforair.Onaweightandvolumebasis,nuclearfuel,suchasenricheduranium,hasseveralmilliontimestheamountofstoredheatofacomparableamountoffueloil.Thisconcentrationofenergyiswhatmakesallthedangersofhandlingnuclearfuelworththetrouble.Inaddition,becauseoftheefficiencyofthenuclear"fire,"itispossibletobuildboilerplantsthatareconsiderablysmallerthancomparableoil-firedplants.

Theprocessofnuclearfissionisessentiallyquitesimple.Imagineafloorcoveredwithmousetraps.Eachmousetraphas,mountedonthestrikerarm,twoPing-Pongballs.Ifweimagineauraniumatomasa

mousetrap,itisholdingontoapairofattachedparticlescalledneutronsmuchlikethePing-Pongballs.NowifyoudropanotherPing-Pongballontooneofthetrapsandtripit,twoballswillflyintotheair.Thisrepresentswhathappenswhenaneutronenterstheuraniumatomandstrikesthenucleus:theatomsplitsandreleasesthetwoneutrons,releasingenergyasheat.Andwhenthosetwofallontotwomoretraps,thesewilltripandeachthrowtwomorePing-Pongballsskyward.Thiswillcontinuetodoubleanddoubleagainuntilallthetrapsfireofftheirballsinonefinalfusillade.Thissameprinciple,wherebyneutronsstrikemoreandmoreatomsuntilallofthemfinallysplit,iscalledanuncontrolledorsupercriticalfissionreaction.Andthisiswhathappenswhenanatomicbombdetonates.

Entrytothetunnelleadingtothepropulsionspaces,USSMiami.JOHND.GRESHAM

Butwedon'tdesireanexplosion,wewantaslowerreactionlikeafireinaboiler.ImaginethatinourroomofmousetrapsandPing-Pongballs,wehangsomemonkeysfromtheceiling.Andwetrainthemto

graboneoutofeverytwoPing-Pongballswhenatrapgoesoff.Thiswouldallowtheseriesoftrippingtrapstogoonforamuchlongertime.Andthisisexactlywhathappensinanuclearreactor.Insteadofmonkeys,areactoruseswhatarecalledcontrolrods(madeofaneutron-absorbingmateriallikecadmiumorhafnium)settoabsorbexactlytherightamountofneutronstobringthereactionintocontrolledorcriticalfission.Thisreactionstillgeneratesagreatdealofheat,whichisusedtoboilwaterintosaturatedsteamtopowerthesub'sturbines.Inthiswaythesamenuclearfuelthatcancauseanuclearexplosioninaninstantcanbeusedtopowerashipforaperiodofyears.Andbecauseofdesignproceduresthathavebeentestedoveraperiodofdecades,thefuelinthereactorcannotexplodeorevencomeclosetodoingso.TheDNRtakesgreatprideinthesafetyrecordoftheboatswithU.S.-designedreactorplants,whichisperfect.

Mostoftheheatinthereactoriscollectedintowhatisknownastheprimarycoolantloop.Thisisaseriesofpipespassinganextremelypurewater-basedcoolantthroughthecoreofthereactor.Thisheatispassedthroughaheatexchangertowhatiscalledthesecondaryloop.Thisiswherethewaterforthesteamturbineisactuallyboiled.Now,thesteamcreatedhereisnotthestuffyougetfromtheteakettleonyourstove.Thissteam,whichisunderhighpressure,isheatedtoliterallyhundredsofdegreesandcontainsagreatdealofmotiveenergy.Andthisisthestuffthatturnstheturbinebladesofthemainengines,whichfeedintothereductiongears,whichturnthepropellershaftandthepropeller.Quitesimple,really!

Thereareafewsmallproblemswiththissystem,though,andweneedtodiscussthem.Theobviousoneisthequestionofhowtoprotectthemenaboardfromtheharmfuleffectsofthereactor'sradiation.Aswementionedbefore,theearlySovietnuclearboatsscrimpedonshieldingandbecamecancerincubatorsforthenavalhospitalsofthatnow-defunctnation.Theanswer,inaword,is

shielding.Theentirestructuresurroundingthereactorcompartmentislayeredwithavarietyofdifferentshieldingmaterials.

Betweenthereactorcompartmentandtheforwardpartoftheboatisahugetankofdieselfuel,whichpowersthebigFairbanks-Morseauxiliaryengineinthemachinerycompartment.Asitturnsout,thatfuelisextremelyefficientatmodulatingorabsorbingthevarioussubatomicparticlesthatcoulddamagehumantissues.Inaddition,theentirereactoriscontainedinsideareactorvesselthatlookslikeanoversizedcoldcapsuleonend.Surroundingthisvessel,aswellasinsideofit,isasystemoflayeredshielding.Whilethematerialsactuallyusedareclassified,itiseasytodeducethatlead(anexcellentgammarayabsorber)andchemicallytreatedplastics(basedonfossilfuels)areprobablyusedextensively.

Inadditiontoitsextensiveshielding,theentirereactorplanthasbeenoverengineered.Sinceitsearliestbeginnings,theDNRhasinsistedthatnavalreactorsbebuiltwithextremelyhighsafetymargins.WhileDNRwillnotcomment,forexample,uponjusthowmuchpressureallofthereactorplumbingcantake,itisgenerallyacknowledgedthattheentirereactorplanthasbeenbuiltseveralhundredpercentmorerobustlythanisrequired(400percentto600percenthasbeenmentioned).Inaddition,everysystemhasatleastonebackupandusuallyanextramanualbackupontopofthat.ThelegacyoftheThresherlossisthisfanaticalobsessionwithsafety.

Anotherareaofextremesecrecyistheexactconfigurationanddesignofthereactorcoreitself.Infact,otherthanthetechnologyusedtoreduceradiatednoise,nothingontheMiamiisassensitiveasthepowerplantcore.Thisprobablyconsistsofaseriesofuraniumfuelelementsformedintoplatestoallowmaximumheattransfertotheprimarycoolantloop.Thefuelelementsareprobablymountedparalleltoeachotherinafuelassemblymountedatopasupportstructureinthebaseofthereactorvessel.ThefuelusedishighlyenrichedUranium-235,probably90percentpureU-235orbetter.For

thosewhomightwonder,thefuelusedincommercialnuclearpowergenerationplantsrunsabout2percentto5percentpure,andthematerialusedinnuclearweaponsisabout98percentpure.Inbetweeneachfuelelementisroomforacontrolrod(alsointheformofaplateandmadeofaneutronmodulator),tocontroltherateofnuclearfission.Eachrodisdesignedtodropautomaticallyintoplacebetweentwofuelelementsintheeventofareactorproblem,thusquenchingthenuclearreaction.Inaddition,aprocedurecalledscramallowsthecrewortheautomatedmonitoringsystemstoshutdownthereactorimmediately,andrestartitlaterifconditionsallow.

Notionaldrawingofthelayoutofanuclearsubmarinepropulsionplant.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Aroundthecorecirculatesthecoolantoftheprimaryloop,whichfeedstheheatedcoolantintoasteamgenerator.Thesteamgenerator

directsitssteamintoasecondarycoolingloop,whichfeedsapairofhigh-pressureturbinesinthemachineryspaces,wherethesteamiscondensedbackintowaterandfedbackintothesteamgenerator.Theturbinesfeedintoamassivesetofgearsknownasreductiongears,whichturnthemainpropellershaft.Inaddition,someofthesteamisusedtoturnseveralsmallerturbinesthatprovideelectricalpowertotheboatanditsvariouspiecesofmachinery.

Itmaycomeasasurprisethatotherthanthetransittunnelafttothemainmachineryspace,thereactorisnotmanned.TheDNRlimitsthetimeamancanstayinproximitytothereactor,evenhowlonghemightstayinthetransittunnel.Theactualcontrolareaforthereactorplantandtheturbines,calledManeuvering,islocatedaftintheengineroom.Whileithasneverbeenshowntothepress,itprobablyfollowstheconventionofcommercialpowerplants,withthecontrolslaidoutoverablockdiagramofthereactor/turbinesystem.Thispanelismannedatalltimes,evenwhentheboatisinportandthereactorisshutdown(noncritical).

Thedominatingfeatureofthemachineryspaceisthedeck,ormorecorrectly,themountingforallofthemachinery.Whileitmayseemsolidenough,itisinfactalargeplatformor"raft,"whichissuspendedonmountsontheinsideofthehull.Themountsuseatleastone,probablytwo,setsofnoiseisolationmounts.Thesearelikeoversizedshockabsorbersdesignedtoreducethevibrationsofthelargerpiecesofengineroommachinery.Thepurposeofaraftistotakethenoisiestthingsontheboatandisolatethemfromthehull,whichradiatesnoiselikeaspeakerintothewater.

Mountedontheraftarethetwomainengines,theboat'selectricalturbinegenerators,andthesupportingpumpsandequipmentassociatedwithmovingtheboat.Proceedingaft,youseethemainpropellershaftleadingbacktothemainpackingsealsinthestern.Inadditionthereareanumberofworkbenches,aswellasalimitedmachineshopcapableofsupportingmanysmall-scalerepairs.The

sizeofthemaingear,calledabullgear,wouldprecluderepair,butvirtuallyeveryothercontingencyinthespacecouldbehandledbytheengineeringteam.Thesecrewmembers,bytheway,arerecognizablebythedifferenttypesofradiationmonitoringdevicestheywear.Unlikethefilmbadgeswornbythosewholiveandworkforwardofthereactor,thesepersonnelwearasmalldosimeter(whichlookslikeatinyflashlight),sothatanydosageofradiationtheyreceivecanbeassessedimmediately.

Togetthepowerplantstarted,theengineeringofficerofthewatchordersthepersonnelatthereactorcontrolpaneltoretractthecontrolrodstoaknownposition.Thisallowsthecoretoheatup,causingthecoolanttogeneratesteaminthesteamgenerator.Fromheretheturbinesaresetturning,andsotoothereductiongeartrain.Thereisapopularnotionthatthespeedoftheboatisincreasedbyjustretractingthecontrolrodsfartherfromthereactorcore.This,infact,isexactlytheconverseofwhatactuallyhappens;therodsaresimplyretractedtoafixedpointandheldthere.Theengineers'maingoalistobringthereactorintoequilibriumsothatthebasicamountofheatgoingintotheprimarycoolantloopisconstant.Onecanthencontrolthespeedoftheboatbysimplytappingmoresteamfromthesteamgenerator,therebyincreasingthesteamsupplytotheturbines.Thisresultsincoolingtheprimarycoolantloopmore,thusincreasingtheefficiencyofthenuclearreaction,feedingmoreheattothesteamgenerator,andincreasingthespeedoftheboat.

Conversely,stemmingtheflowofsteamtotheturbinesnotonlyslowsdownthespinningoftheturbines,italsotakeslessheatfromtheprimarycoolantloop,andrapidlydropstheefficiencyofthenuclearreaction,"cooling"itdown.

LifeSupportandBackupSystems

TheauxiliarymachineryspacedownonthethirdlevelaftofthetorpedoroomisarguablythemostimportantcompartmentonMiami.Hereislocatedallofthelifesupportequipment,aswellastheauxiliarypowersource.Asyouenterthespaceandheaddownthestarboardaisle,youaregivenaquickintroductionto"Clyde,"thebigauxiliarydieselengine.Thisisanoldfavoriteofthechiefsonboard,becauseitisadirectlinkwiththeoldWorldWarIIfleetboats.BuiltbyFairbanks-Morse,thedesigndatesbacktothe1930sandisascaled-downversionofthemodelusedtopowerallofoursubmarinesduringthewar.Itisreliableandthecrewlovesit,thereforethenameClyde,asin,"...rightturn,Clyde!"

Whilesomefolksmightwonderwhysuchadinosaurwouldbeononeofthemostadvancedsubmarines,rememberthatnoteverythingalwaysworksproperly,includingnuclearreactors.Forexample,whatwouldhappenifMiamiwasatseaandneededtoscramthereactorplant?Restartingareactortakesalotofpower,andwhilethereisalargebankofbatteriesunderneaththetorpedoroom,itmightnotproveadequatetocompletelyrestartacoldS6Gplant.ThustheFairbanks-Morseenginecanprovide,throughageneratorturnedbythediesel,enoughcontinuouspowertogettheteakettlerunningagain.Ithasotheruses,too.Intheeventofareactorcasualty,thedieselprovidesthemeansforgettinghome.Inthatevent,thecaptainorderstheengineersafttolowerasmallelectricoutboardmotor,whichisrecessedinthelowerhullaft,intothewatertoprovidemotivepowertogethomeortogethelp.

Thedieselenginealsohasaroleinfirefightingonboardthatmightsurprisesomefolks.Intheeventofafire,oneofthefirstthingsthecaptainmightdo(assumingthisisnotinacombatsituation)istosurfaceandstartupthediesel.Thisisbecausethedieseldrawsitsairfromwithintheboat,andthusitwouldsuckupanyairbeingpollutedbythefire.Openingjustthefairwaterhatchesfromthecontrolroomwillcompletelychangetheairintheboatinamatterofminutes.

Thisspaceisalsowheretheairismadeor,moreproperly,maintained.Severaldifferentpiecesofequipmentintheauxiliarymachineryspacehelptoprovidetheclean,freshairthatcanbefoundonboard.Firstarethecarbondioxide(CO)scrubbers.COisthegasgivenoffbyhumanswhentheybreatheandisdangerouswhentheconcentrationgetstoohigh.TheMiamiutilizesachemicalscrubbertoremoveitfromtheair.ThechemicalabsorbsCOwhenitiscoolandreleasesitwhenitiswarmed.Inaddition,COandH"burners"removethecarbonmonoxideandhydrogengasgeneratedbyequipmentaswellasbycigarettesmoking,whichisallowedonboard.Finally,filtersanddehumidifierscleantheairandhelpkeepit"friendly"notonlyforthecrewbutalsoforthemanypiecesofequipment--especiallyelectronic--ontheMiami.Incaseafireorsomeotheremergencycontaminatestheonboardair,aforce-fedairsupplycalledtheEmergencyAirBreathing(EAB)systemhasattachmentpointsthroughouttheboat,allowingcrewmenwithbreathingmaskstoplugintoitandcontinuetheirduties.

Otherlifesupportequipmentincludesadevicethattakeswaterandelectrically"cracks"itintoitsbaseelementsofhydrogenandoxygen.Theoxygenisretainedintanksandreleasedintotheboat'satmosphereautomaticallybytheenvironmentalcontrolsystem,andthehydrogenisventedofftheshipfromasmallportintheaftedgeofthefairwater.Thereisafresh-waterdistillationplantthatproducessomethingover10,000gallons/38,000litersoffreshwateraday.Mostofthewaterisusedfordrinking,cleaning,cooking,andpersonalhygiene.Verylittlewaterisusuallyrequiredforthepowerplant(forchargingthecoolingloopsandsteamgenerators),butthereservetanksareusuallymaintainednearfull"justincase."Itshouldbesaidthattheobsessionwithwaterconservationismostlyforcontingencypurposes.MostCOsliketohavefulltanksofwaterbeforetheyenteratacticalsituation,justincasetheyneedtoshutdownthedistillationplanttokeepnoisedown.AndfromwhatIhear,

someboatsjustchoosetorunthedistillationplantfull-timeandletthecrewhaveasmuchshowertimeastheywant,particularlyduringrunshome.OnanormaldayaboardMiami,themajorityofthewaterproducedwouldgotocrewhabitability.

Weapons--Torpedoes,Missiles,andMines

Whilesubmarinesareusefulforcovertactionslikeintelligencegatheringandlandingspecialoperationsforces,itisthethreatofwhattheycandowiththeirweaponsthatcancausesomuchfearandrespectinanadversary.EversinceSergeantEzraLeetriedtosinkHMSEagleinBostonharborbackin1776,justthepotentialthreatofharmfromasubmarinehasbeenenoughtomakeanenemystopandconsiderwhetherheshouldmovehisshipsagainstyou.Todaytheweaponscanhitawidervarietyoftargets,andtheyhavebecomeevenmoredeadly.

Torpedoes

Thetorpedoisthetraditionalweaponofthesubmarine,andthetorpedoesthatequiptheU.S.SSNstodayaretrulyawesome.Forsomeyearsnow,theU.S.standardtorpedohasbeentheMark(Mk)48.Thisweapon,whichfirstappearedin1971,hasgonethroughaseriesofdifferentupgrades,culminatingintheModification(Mod)4version,whichappearedin1985.Thisversion,designedasanintermediateupgradetothenextmajorversion,allowsforthegreaterspeedsanddeeperdivingdepthsofthenewerSovietsubsthatwereappearingatthetime.Asthisbookiswritten,abouthalfthetorpedoes

beingloadedaboardU.S.subsareMk48Mod4s.

CutawayviewofaMark48advancedcapability(ADCAP)torpedo.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

ThebusinessendofaMark48ADCAPtorpedo.Theblackcoveristheacoustic"window"ofthetorpedo'sseekerhead.JOHND.GRESHAM

ArecentadditionisknownastheMk48AdvancedCapability(ADCAP)torpedo.ManufacturedbyHughes,theADCAPtakesthebasicMk48packageandaddsthefollowingnewfeatures:

*Abiggerfueltankthatprovidesfora50percentincreaseinrange(about50,000yards),andaspeedof60+knots.

*Anewdatasend/receivemodule,whichpacks10milesofguidancewireintotheaftendofthetorpedoand10moremilesintothedispenserinthetube.Thisallowsthesubmarinetoclearthelaunchpointandstillguidetheweapon.*Anewcombinationseekerhead/computerthatuseselectronicallysteeredsonarbeamstoguidetheweapontothetarget.EarlierversionsoftheMk48(liketheMod4)usedtohaveto"snake"abouttheircoursetosearcheffectivelyforatarget.Theheadallowsthetorpedotoseealmostallthe180-degreehemisphereaheadoftheweapon.ThecomputercontrollingthewholesystemisdesignedtomaketheADCAPtheworld's"smartest"torpedo.

TailsectionofanMk48ADCAPtorpedo.Insidethecover(labeledNoStep)isthepumpjetpropulsor,andadispenserfortenmilesofguidancewire.Thesilverunitbehindit,whichstaysinthetube,containsanothertenmilesofwire.JOHND.GRESHAM

ThebackendofanR/UGM-84DHarpoonantishipmissile.Thelockedcover,whichprotectstheguidancefins,isremovedpriortoloading.JOHND.GRESHAM

WithADCAP,thesubmarineforcearguablyhasthefinesttorpedointheworld.Notonlyisitfast,deepdiving,andmaneuverable,butithasabigwarhead(650lb/295kgofPBXN-103explosive)withan

activeelectromagneticfusethatallowstheweapontobedetonatedpreciselywhereitwilldothemostdamage.Andithasmore"brains"thananyothertorpedo,withanamazingabilitytooutsmartcountermeasuresandjamming,aswellasthecapabilitytofeedseeker-headdatabacktotheBSY-1systemonMiami.ThisallowsthefirecontroltechnicianstousetheADCAPasanoffboardsensor.Withsuchcapabilitiesasthese,it'snowonderthatthecrewofMiamicallstheADCAPsinherracks"wishmedead"torpedoes.

Missiles

Strangeasitmaysound,thenuclearsubmarinesoftheU.S.Navyoperatedforovertwentyyearswithoutadedicatedweaponforattackingsurfaceships.PartofthereasonwastheASWfocusoftheSSNforceduringthe1960sand1970s.Also,formuchofthattimetheirprimarytargets,thesurfaceshipsoftheUSSR,hadnolong-rangeweaponsthatcouldattackasubwhileitwassubmerged.ButwithSovietdeploymentoftheirfirstsea-basedASWhelicoptersandtheship-launchedSS-N-14SilexASWmissile,therewasaclearneedforaweaponthatwouldallowaboattostandofffartherthanthetentofifteenmilesatorpedoshotwouldallow.Ithadtobelaunchedfromatorpedotubeandcarriedasanall-upor"wooden"round,requiringnomaintenanceandaminimumofsupport.

CutawayviewofanR/UGM-84DHarpoonantishipmissile.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

EncapsulatedUGM-84surface-to-surfaceHarpoonantishipmissileleavingthecapsuleasitclearsthesurfaceofthewater.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

TheweaponthatwasproducedwastheMcDonnellDouglasA/R/UGM-84Harpoon.Thismissile,whichcanbelaunchedbyships,subs,andaircraft,wasoriginallydevelopedtoallowpatrolaircrafttoshootatRussiancruisemissilesubsonthesurface.Firstdeployedin1977,itisapproximately17feet/5.2meterslong,weighsabout1,650lb/750kg,andcarriesa488-lb/222-kghigh-explosivewarhead.Itutilizesaradarseekerthatlooksforsurfacetargetsandtheninitiatesanattack"endgame"onthetarget.Packagedinsideabuoyant,

torpedo-shapedlaunchcapsule,itisfiredfromoneofthenormaltorpedotubesandrisestothesurface.Whenitreachesthesurface,thenoseofthecapsuleisejected,andthemissileislaunchedintotheairbyasmallrocketbooster.Onceairborne,theboosterisdropped,anengineinletcoverisejected,andthesmallturbojetengineisignited.Themissilethendescendstoabout100feetabovethesurface,andtransitstotheareaofthetargetshipataspeedofabout550knots.

TheHarpooncanbelaunchedinavarietyofmodes.TheseincludewhatisknownasBearingOnlyLaunch(BOL),inwhichonlythebearingtothetargetisknown.ThereisalsoaseriesknownasRangeandBearingLaunch(RBL)modes,whichrequirebothrangeandbearing.Dependingontherangetothetargetandtheamountofneutralshippinginthearea,theseekercanbesettoRBL-L(Large)foropenoceansituations,orRBL-S(Small)fortight,short-rangesituations.Ifnecessary,severaldoglegsorwaypointscanbeprogrammedintotheHarpoon'sMidcourseGuidanceUnit(MGU),whichutilizesasmallstrapdowninertialguidancesystemtokeepthemissileoncourse.Forsubmarines,thereisevenaself-defenseoptionthatallowsthedefendingSSNtoshoottheHarpoon"overtheshoulder"intoachargingsurfaceship.

Oncethemissilegetstothetargetarea,theseekerisswitchedonandbeginstosearchanareashapedmuchlikeapieceofpie.Iftheseekerradarlocatesasuitabletarget,theonboardcomputerdoesaquicktesttomakesureitisavalidtarget(notawaveorawhale),andbeginstheendgame.Themissiledescendstoanaltitudebetween5and20feet(dependingontheheightofthewaves)andheadsforthetarget.AtthediscretionoftheMiami'sfirecontroltechnicians,themissilecanbeprogrammedtorunstraightintothesideofthetargetship(justafewfeetabovethewaterline),oranoptional"pop-up"maneuvercanbeselectedtomakethemissileplungedeepintothemiddleoftheship.

Inanycase,theexplodingwarheadwilltearmuchofthegutsoutof

anyshipuptocruisersize.Inaddition,anyofthejetfuelnotusedbythemissile'sturbojetwilladdtothedestructionaboardthetargetvessel.Itisalittle-knownfactthatthewarheadoftheExocetmissilethatsankHMSSheffieldin1982failedtodetonate,buttheresidualrocketfuelinthemissile'smotorcausedenoughofafiretoeventuallysinktheship.

ThelatestversionofHarpoonaboardtheMiamiistheUGM-84D,whichusesadenserfuelmixturetogiveitmorerange(reportedlyaround150NM/250km).Allinall,withsomeeighteendifferentcountriesusingit,HarpoonisoneofthemostsuccessfulmissileprogramseverrunbytheU.S.Navy.

AftertheADCAP,noweaponhasdonemoretomaketheMiamideadlyandeffectivethantheUGM-109Tomahawkcruisemissile.TomahawkisanoutgrowthofaloopholethatwasdiscoveredafterthesigningoftheSALTIarmslimitationtreatyin1972.Whiletheexactoriginofthecruisemissileprogramisdebated,itisgenerallyassumedthatHenryKissinger,thentheNationalSecurityAdvisor,askedtheDepartmentofDefense(DoD)tolookforclassesofnuclearweaponsthathadnotbeenconsideredduringtheSALTInegotiations.Aftersomestudy,theDoDsystemsanalystscametothestartlingconclusionthatair-breathingcruisemissiles,basicallycheappilotlessaircraftwithnuclearwarheads,wouldmakeanexcellentweapontocircumventthetermsoftheSALTIagreement.Theycouldbelaunchedfromgroundvehicles,aircraft,ships,andsubmarines,wouldbeextremelyaccurate,andwouldbequitedifficulttodetectandintercept.

TargetdamagedbyaHarpoonmissileimpact.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

Asaresultofthesestudies,ajointprojectofficetodevelopcruise

missilecomponentswasstartedbytheU.S.NavyandU.S.AirForce.Whilebothserviceswoundupchoosingdifferentmodelsofmissile(theAirForceselectedamodelbuiltbyBoeing),mostofthecomponentssuchasengines,warheads,andguidancesystemswereofacommondesign.ThewinneroftheNavycompetitionwastheB/UGM-109modeldevelopedbyGeneralDynamics.McDonnellDouglasisthesecond-sourcecontractorforthemissile,calledTomahawk.

CutawayviewofaTomahawklandattackconventional(TLAM-C)cruisemissile.

Notethe1,000-lbhigh-explosivewarhead.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

ATomahawkcruisemissileislaunchedfromtheUSSLaJolla(SSN-701)onthePacificMissileTestCenter(PMTC)range.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTOBYGERRYWINEY

ThebasicnuclearlandattackversionofTomahawk,knownasB/UGM-109A(alsocalledTLAM-N),islaunchedintotheairbyasmallrocketbooster.Onceairborne,aminiaturejetengineaboutthesizeofabasketballignitestopowerthemissileatabout500knots.Itflieslowtothesurface(whetherovertheopenoceanorland),heldtherebyaguidanceunit(MGU)beingfedbyaradaraltimeter.ThemissileiskeptoncoursebytheMGUutilizinganinexpensivestrapdowninertialguidancesystem.Onceoverdryland,theMGUisupdatedwithpositiondatafromasystemknownasTerrainContourMatching(Tercom),whichmatchestheterrainunderthemissilewithathree-dimensionaldatabaseinthememoryoftheMGU.ByusingperiodicTercomupdates,aTLAM-Nisnormallyabletoplaceits200-kilotonW-80nuclearwarheadbetweentheuprightsofafootballgoal-postaftera1,300-mileflight.

Whilethenuclear-armedversionofTomahawkwasbeingdeveloped,itoccurredtoanumberofpeoplethatperhapstheTomahawkcouldbeusedtocarryotherthings,andthuswasbornthewholefamilyofconventionallyarmedTomahawksinservicenow.ThefirstofthesewastheB/UGM-109BTomahawkAntiShipMissile(TASM),whichreplacedtheTLAM-NMGUwithamodifiedradarseekerandMGUfromtheA/R/UGM-84Harpoonantishipmissile.Inaddition,theW-80nuclearwarheadwasreplacedwitha1,000-lb/455-kghigh-explosivewarhead.

TheideawastoprovideunitsoftheU.S.Navywithareallylong-range(250NM/410km)antishipmissile.OneproblemthathadtobeovercomewasthefactthataTASMflyingouttohitatargetshipatmaximumrangewouldhavetoflyalmostthirtyminutestogettothetargetarea.Duringthistime,afastwarshipmighttravelasfarasfifteentotwentymiles,soaspecialseriesofsearchpatternswasaddedtotheTASMlaunchandcontrolsoftware.Thesesearchpatternscompriseaseriesof"expandingboxes"designedtoallowtheTASMtofullysearchtheuncertaintyzoneorthepossibletargetarea.

Inaddition,TASMhasapassiveESMsystemcalledPI/DF(PassiveIdentification/PassiveDirectionFinding),whichisdesignedtodirectTASMontolargerenemywarships,probablythroughdetectionoftheirlargeair-searchradars.

FollowingtheTASMintoservicewasthelargestsubfamilyoftheR/BGM-109program,theTomahawkLandAttackMissile-Conventional(TLAM-C)series.ThisparticularseriestakesthebasicguidancesystemoftheTLAM-N,addsthehigh-explosivewarheadoftheTASM,andanewterminalguidancesystemcalledDigitalSceneMatching(DSMAC).Ithasarangeofroughly700NM/1,150km,andusesthesamebasicTercomsystemtogetintothevicinityofthetarget.DSMACisanelectro-opticalsystemthatmatchestheimagefromasmalltelevisioncamerainthenoseoftheTLAM-Ctoonestoredinsystemmemory.Thissystemcanevenbeusedatnight,withastrobelightonthetargetduringthefinalapproach.CalledtheB/UGM-109C,itbecamethefirstoftheTomahawkseriestobeusedincombat,duringOperationDesertStorm.

SeveralderivativesofthebasicTLAM-CincludetheB/UGM-109D,whichreplacedthebasichigh-explosivewarheadwithadispenserfor166BLU-97/Bcombinedeffects(fragmentationandblast)submunitions.CalledTLAM-D,theseTomahawksareparticularlyeffectiveagainstvehicles,personnel,softtargets,andexposedaircraft.AfurthervariantoftheTLAM-D,whichisarmedwithantirunwaycrateringsubmunitions,isknownastheB/UGM-109F.ThenewestversionofTomahawk,calledBlockIII,incorporatesanumberofnewfeaturessuchasitsownNavstarGPSreceiver,anewpenetrationwarhead,animprovedengine,andmorefueltobringitsrangetoover1,000NM/1,640km.Itshouldbeoperationalin1994.

AllthevarioustypesofTomahawkscanbeloadedandfiredfromany21-inch/533mmtorpedotubeorVLStubeontheMiami.BesidestwelvemissilesintheVLStubes,additionalTomahawkrounds,asrequiredbyaparticularmission,canbestoredinthetorpedoroom.

ThismakesTomahawkthemostflexiblestrikesystemeverdeployedbytheU.S.Navy.ItalsoopensanewdimensionfortheU.S.SSNforce,sincenowtheycanjointhesurfaceandairforcesinstriking"overthebeach"atsignificanttargets.

ThefollowingmightbeatypicalmissionloadoutfortheMiami.WhenpreparingtoleaveforacruisetotheMediterranean,shemightcarryafullloadofTomahawks,whichwouldincludetwelveVLStubesfullofTLAM-C/Dvariants,withseveralmoreinthetorpedoroomracks.Inaddition,shewouldcarryamixedloadofMk48Mod4sandADCAPs,aswellasseveralHarpoonBlockIDantishipmissiles.TherewouldbenoTLAM-Ns,asallofthesehavebeenwithdrawnfromU.S.ships,aircraft,andsubmarinesfollowingPresidentBush'sorderinthefallof1991.Nevertheless,thoughitisthepolicyoftheU.S.Navynottodeploynuclearweapons,andtheynormallyrefusetodiscussit,thecapabilitydoesstillexist.Also,therewouldbenoTASMsaboard,asthesubmarinecommunityseemstofeelthattheHarpoonBlockIDismorethanadequatetotheantishippingtask,andtheTASMsarehardtogetlong-rangetargetingfor,onasubmarine.

ThebiggestsinglebottlenecktoeffectivelyutilizingthegrowingforceofTLAM-C/Dcruisemissilesintheinventoryisthepreparationofsuitablemissionplans.EachmissionplanhastobedevelopedfromaTercomdatabasethattheDefenseMappingAgency(DMA)hasassembledoveraperiodoffifteenyears.ThedataismadeintomissionplansatoneoftheTheaterMissionPlanningCenters(TMPC)locatedatvariousplacesaroundtheworld.HeretheTercomdatabasesaremergedwithterminaltargetphotos(fortheDSMACcameras),toproducemissionplansthatcanbestoredondiskpacksonthesub,ordownloadedtothesubviaasatellitelink.

OncetheMiamihasaparticularmissionplanaboard,thebasicplancanbemodifiedontheBSY-1CommandandControlSystem(CCSTacMk2)consoleinthecontrolroom.LocatedadjacenttotheBSY-1

firecontrolconsoles,thisconsolecanbeusedtoplanandcontrolmissionsforallthevariantsofHarpoonandTomahawk.ShouldMiaminothaveaplanavailableinheronboardlibrary,shecanusetheCCS-2todevelopherownplans.AndwiththecomingdeploymentoftheBlockIIIversionofTLAM-C,therequirementforaccesstoacompleteTercomlibraryformissionplanningwillbereduced.

TolaunchaTomahawkorHarpoon,theboathastoslowtoabout3to5knotsandcometoperiscopedepth.TheCCS-2(orBSY-1inthecaseofHarpoonorTASM)consoleoperatorpowersupandloadsamissionplanintoamissileloadedineitheratorpedoorVLSlaunchtube.Thiscanbedoneforasmanyorasfewmissilesasthesituationrequires.Oncethisisdone,theweaponsofficerinsertsalaunchkey(aholdoverfromtheoldTLAM-Ndays)andpressesthefiringbutton.IftheweaponisaTomahawk,itisejectedfromthetube(theversionfiredfromtorpedotubesiscarriedinatubeliner),firesitsboosterrocket,andawayitgoes.IfitisaHarpoon,theweaponinitsbuoyantcapsuleisejectedfromthetubeandheadsforthesurface.Whenitgetsthere,theboosterrocketfires,anditheadsforthedesignatedtarget.

Theoneproblemwithallthesemissilesisthattheymakethefiringsubmarineextremelyvulnerabletodetectionbyaircraftorsurfaceships,andtheamountofnoisemadebyamissilebeingfiredunderwaterissimplyamazing.SoitisessentialthatiftheMiamiisevertaskedwithfiringaweapon,astheUSSPittsburgh(SSN-720)andUSSLouisville(SSN-724)didduringDesertStorm(theyfiredatotaloffourteenTLAM-CsandTLAM-Ds),shewillhavetobesuresheisclearofanythreatduringthelaunchcycle.

Mines

Probablytheleastappreciatedweaponsthatcanbecarriedbya688Iaremines.These"weaponsthatwait"areperhapsthemostcosteffectiveweaponseverderivedfornavalwarfare.ThoughmostoftheminingdonebytheUnitedStatessincetheendofWorldWarIIhasbeendonebyaircraft,theremaybesituationswherethestealthandprecisionofasubmarinemaybepreferredfordeliveryofthesedangerous"eggs."

ThefirstoftheseistheMark(Mk)57mooredmine.Itisaderivativeoftheair-droppedMk56andcanbemooredinseveralhundredfeetofwater.Ithasavarietyofdifferentsensorandtriggeringsystems,includingacousticandmagneticinfluencefuses.Theycanbeprogrammedforactivationdelayorprogrammedtoactivateonlyforcertaintypesandnumbersofships.

AnothertypeistheMk67mobilemine.TheseareobsoleteMk37torpedoesthathavebeenrebuiltintominesthatlieonthebottomandwaitforatargettodriveoverthem.Asubmarinemightfirethemupintoashallowchannel,toadistanceof5to7miles.LiketheMk57,thisminehasavarietyofdifferentfusingoptions.

Mark57mooredmine.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Mark67submarine-launchedmobilemine(SLMM).ThisisaconvertedMk37torpedodesignedtobefiredfromadistance,thentosinktotheoceanfloortoactasabottommine.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Mark60Captormine.ThelongcapsulecontainssensorsandaMark46ASWtorpedo.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

ButthecrownjeweloftheU.S.minearsenalhastobetheMk60Captormine.ThisisanencapsulatedMark46torpedo,programmed

towaitforenemysubmarines;whenoneisdetectedthetorpedoswimsclearandattacksthesub.Asanaddedbenefittheycanbeprogrammedtolistenforacertaintypeofsubmarine,likeaKiloorAkula.DuringtheColdWar,itwasplannedtoseedCaptorsalongallthetransitroutesusedbythesubmarinesoftheSovietUnion.Nowtheycanbeusedagainstanyofthegrowingnumberofcountriesthathavechosentobuyandusedieselsubmarinesintheirnavies.

Oneofthenicethingsaboutminesisthattheytakeuponlyabouthalfasmuchspaceastheothertypesofweaponsasubmightcarry.Thusa688IcouldcarryasmanyasfortyminesandstillhaveacoupleofADCAPsforself-protection.Thedeploymentoftheminesisnodifferentfromloadingandfiringatorpedo(theBSY-1hasaminelaunchmode),thoughthepositionoftheminehastobeplottedabsolutelyaccurately,sothatitcanbesweptlater.FortunatelytheadventofGPShasmadethistaskabiteasier,thoughefficientuseoftheSINSsystemisalsorequired.

ForwardescapetrunkofUSSMiami.Notetheairbubblewherethecrew/swimmerswouldstandbeforeegressingfromthetrunk.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Allinall,theseweaponsmakeforaverydangerousquiverofarrowsforthesubmarineforce.

EscapeTrunks/SwimmerDelivery

Wanderingaftabout25feetfromtheenlistedmessputsyouunderneaththeforwardescapetrunk.Thisisatwo-manairlockusedforavarietyofpurposes,thoughprimarilyasthemainentrypointtotheforwardpartoftheboat.Itiscomposedofapressurevesselabout8feettalland5feetindiameter.Atboththetopandbottomisahatchcapableofstandingasmuchpressureastheactualhulloftheboat.Mostoftenpersonnelandsuppliesareloadedthroughthistrunk.Thereisalsoanothertrunkfartherbackovertheaftmachineryspaces.

Intheeventofanemergencytheescapetrunkcomesintoitsown.Iftheboatisonthebottomandstable,thenormalprocedureistowaitforoneofthedeep-submergencerescuevehicles(DSRV)tobetransportedtotherescuesite.TheDSRVthencomesdownanddockstothecollaroveroneoftheescapetrunks.Itblowsoutthewaterfromitsowndockingcollar,nowheldinplacebythepressureofthesurroundingwater.ThecrewoftheDSRVopentheirownbottomhatchandenterthedownedboatthroughthetrunk.Nowthecrewofthedownedsubcancomeaboard,albeitonlyabouttwodozenatatime.ThismeansthatifaLosAngelesboatweretogodownintactwithallhercrewalive,itwouldtakesomethinglikesixtripstogetthemalloff.

Iftheboatisfloodingandthecrewmustgetoffimmediately,theescapetrunktakesonamorevitalrole,allowingthecrewtoescapefromtheboatundertheirownpower.ThisisdoneusingaSteinkehood,acombinationlifejacketandbreathingapparatusthatfitsovertheheadofasailor.TwoatatimethemenentertheescapetrunkwearingtheirSteinkehoods.Theyclosethebottomhatchandhuddleunderanairbubbleflangeinstalledinthetrunkforsuchoperations.ThesailorsthenchargetheirSteinkehoodairreservoirsfromanairportinthesideofthetrunk,andopenafloodvalvetofillthetrunk

withwater.Whiletheysitundertheairbubbleflange,theupperhatchopens.Iftheyarethefirstonestoescapefromthesub,theywillhavetheadditionaljobofpushingaliferaftoutofthehatch;thisfloatstothesurfaceandprovidessomeshelterforthemenwhentheygetthere.Then,oneatatime,theyduckundertheflangeandfloatupthroughthehatch.

AstudentdonsaSteinkeHoodtopracticeescapefromasunkensubmarine.JOHND.GRESHAM

At400feet(themaximumdepththatthehoodcanbeused),themenwillhavesomethinglikeaminutetofloodthetrunkandgetout.Anylonger,andtheyriskgetting"thebends"(smallbubblesofnitrogengasthatformintheblood)astheyrisetothesurface.Aftertheyhaveexited,thecontrollerintheareabelowthetrunkclosesthehatchviahiscontrolpanelandbeginstodrainthetrunkforthenextpairofescapees.Meanwhilethetwosailorsliterallyrocketuptothesurface.Thiswouldbeextremelydangerous(thedecreasingwaterpressuremakesthemvulnerabletoavarietyofairembolismsiftheyholdtheirbreath),butwiththeirheadsintheairbubblesoftheirSteinkehoods,themenareabletobreathenormallythroughouttheascenttothesurface.Onceonthesurface,theytrytoinflatetheraftandstaytogether.

AdiverpreparesforegressinoneofMiami'stwoescapetrunks.JOHND.GRESHAM

Oneoftheotherprimaryusesfortheescapetrunk,thisonefarlessominous,isasanairlockfordiversandspecialoperationsteams.Oneofthelittle-knownfactsaboutU.S.submarinesisthattheyhave,atalltimes,asmallteamofdivers(usuallythreetofiverateddivers)aboardtosupporttheoperationsofthesub.Thedivingequipmentandothergearisstoredinthecompartmentforwardofthetorpedoroom,

neartheVLSsupportequipmentroom.Thedivers'jobsincludeeverythingfromclearingfouledpropellersandrunninggear,torunningsecuritychecksontheboatbeforesheleavesharbor.Infact,whentheMiamiisinaforeignportsheisnotallowedtoleavetheharborunlessshehasatleastthreediversaboardtoassistinexaminingthehullbeforeshegetsunderway.

Theothertypeofdiver-relatedoperationthatisconductedthroughtheescapetrunkissubmerged"lockout"ofspecialoperationsteams,suchastheU.S.Navy'seliteSEALteams.Thesekindsofoperationsarereallynottheforteofthe688Iandwill,untiltheyareretired,bepredominatelythejobofmodifiedSturgeon-classboatsliketheParche(SSN-683).PartoftheproblemisthattheLosAngeles-classboatsareoptimizedforspeedandarenotproperlyequippedtoconductthiskindofmissioneffectively.Also,thealreadycrampedaccommodationsofthe688Imakeitnecessarytosetuptemporarysleepingquartersfortheteam,perhapsonbunksdowninthetorpedoroom.

Intheunusualcaseofaspecialoperationsmission,theboatnearsthetargetoftheteamandhoversovertheseabed.Theteamthenenterthetrunktwoatatimeundertheairbubbleflange,andfollowthesameprocedureasescapingsailorsexceptwiththeirdivinggear.Retrievalisexactlythereverse,withtheteamreenteringthetrunktwoatatime,closingthehatch,drainingthetrunk,andexitingthroughthebottomhatchbackintotheboat.

TheSoundsofSilence--AcousticIsolation

Silence.ThatiswhathasmadeAmericanboatsbetterthantheiropponentsforoverthirtyyears.Itistheirarmorandtheircloakall

wrappedupintoonevitalquality.Neverthelessitcomesatahighpriceandiscalledafragiletechnology--fragilebecauseitisbaseduponwell-understoodprinciplesofphysics,andbecauseitcanbecompromisedsoeasily.Intermsofmilitarytechnology,itisoneofthecrownjewels,inthesamecategoryastheabilitytobuildstealthaircraftandnuclearweapons.SoeffectivehasthissilencingeffortbeenthatthelatestU.S.SSNsandSSBNsaresoquiet,theycaneffectivelydisappearintheocean'sbackgroundnoise.

Tomakeaquietsubmarine,thenavalarchitectsmusttakeaholisticattitudetothedesignoftheboatandeverypieceofequipmentthatgoesintoit.Thekeyismountingeachpieceofequipmentthatmovesormakesnoiseonsomethingthatdampsoutthevibrations.Thetransmissionofthesevibrations--thingslikethespinningofapumporthehumofagenerator--sendsnoiseoutintothehull,whereitisradiatedintothewater.Inaddition,therubberdecouplingtilescoatingthehullhelpkeepnoiseinsidethehullfrombeingtransmittedoutintothewater.

Themountsonthemainmachineryrafttakecareofthebiggestsourceofradiatednoise.Therestofitisprobablytakencareofbysecondarymountsunderneatheachpieceofequipment(pumps,turbines,etc.),designedtoattenuatethespecifictypeofnoisegeneratedbythatparticularpieceofequipment.Inaddition,eachpieceofmachineryisprobablydesignedtobeassmoothrunningandnoiselessasAmerica'sbestmechanicalandelectricalengineerscanmakeit.Forexample,theseawatercirculationpumps,whicharearguablythemostnoisydevicesontheboat,transmitalmostnonoiseinthe688I-classboats.Supportingthisisanoise-monitoringsystemwithsensorsthroughouttheboatdesignedtotellifanypieceofequipmentorgearislooseormalfunctioning.Anaddedbenefitofthissystemisthatitprobablyiscapableofpredictingwhenandhowapieceofmachineryisgoingtofailbyitsacousticsignature(suchasthesoundofbearingswearingout).

ThevarioustechniquesusedtodecreasetheradiatednoiseofAmericansubmarinesconstitutethesinglemostclassifiedaspectoftheMiamiandhersisters.Theabovedescriptionisonlythemostcursorydiscussionpossibleofthisincredibletechnology.Infact,theonlyrealwaytodescribethemagnitudeoftheachievementistosaythattheS6Greactorgeneratessomethinglike35,000shafthorsepower10,yetwithallthispowerthetotalnoiseradiatedbytheMiamiisprobablysomethinglessthantheenergygivenoffbya20-wattlightbulb.ItisforthisreasonthatsubmarinerssometimesrefertotheirAirForcecousinsflyingtheF-117Astealthfighteras"thejuniorstealthservice."

LifeAboard

So,youask,whatisitliketoliveaboardasubmarinelikeMiami?Well,imagineacombinationoflivinginanoversizedmotorhomeandsummercamp,andthisisalotofwhatlifeinthe33-footpressurehullislike.Notmuchroom,verylittlenoise,verylittlenewsfromhome,andvirtuallynoprivacy.Againstthese"downs"aretheespritdecorpsofthesubmarineforce,andtheknowledgethatbeingasubmarinertrulymakesamanthebestofthebestintheU.S.Navy.

IfyouweretogooutonacruiseonMiami,theveryfirstthingyouprobablywouldnoticeisthatyouseemtobebumpingintoeverythingandeveryoneontheboat.Thisisnotunusualforsomeonenewonasub,andafterjustafewhoursyoubeginto"thinksmallandthin"sothatyoucansmoothlymovearoundyourfellowsubmariners.

Thenextthingthatcomestoyourattentionwillprobablybetheratheroddworkingschedule,awatchprogramthathasacrewmanworkingsixhours"on"andtwelvehours"off."Whileheis"on,"a

sailorisstandingwatch;while"off,"heiseatingandsleeping,doingmaintenanceonequipmentandsystems,andstudyingforqualification.ThiscreatestheunusualstandardofaMiami"day"beingeighteenhoursratherthantwenty-four.Unfortunatelytheentireboattakesonthisschedule,whichtendstoleadrapidlytocrewmembers'sufferingfromsleepdeprivation.Whileintheoryacrewmemberisallowedeighthoursof"off"timeinagiventwenty-four-hourperiod,thisrarelyworksoutintolongperiodsforsleeping.Veryquicklyonelosesallsenseoftimeonthesurfaceandbackhome,andthesleepthatonedoesgettendstobe"onthefly."

Themaincrewmessarea,USSMiami.Hereoneofthechiefsisconductingabriefingaspartofthecontinuing"schooloftheboat."JOHND.GRESHAM

Asforsleepingitself,thisisarelativelycomfortablethingtodoonMiami.WiththeexceptionofCommanderJones'sstateroom,thebunksforalltheofficersandmenareaboutthesamesize,withsimilarappointments.Andwhileaberthingspaceisaboutthesamesizeasabigcoffin,onceyoulearntothinksmall,thespaceseems

quiteroomy.Withfreshairblowingonyourfaceandanicefoammattress,fallingasleepisreallynotmuchofaproblem.

Whatisaproblemisthe"hotbunking"requiredforalargeportionoftheenlistedpersonnelontheMiami.Thistendstodominatetheschedulesofthejuniorenlistedcrewmembers,witharigidlysetscheduleformanyoftheberthingspaces.If"special"orextrapersonnelhavetobeaboard,thecrewwilllayoutextrabunksinthetorpedoroomovertheweaponsstowageracks.Theseareactuallyquitecomfortable,withgoodheadroom,thoughsomefolksfindtheideaofsleepinginaroomwithliterallytonsofexplosiveandfuelratherdiscomforting.Anotherproblemisthelackofpersonalstowagespace.Forthosewiththeirownbunksthereisa6-inch-deepstowagepanundereachmattress,aswellassomelockerspace.Forthosehavingto"hotbunk,"threemenhavetosharethespacenormallyallottedtotwo.

Atypicalbunkspaceorrackintheforwardenlistedberthingarea.Thesearestackedthreehigh,andfrequentlytwoofthesewillbesharedbythreemeninaschemecalled"hotbunking."JOHND.GRESHAM

DiningaboardMiamiistrulyapleasure,astheNavygoesallouttogivethementhebestchowthetaxpayers'moneycanbuy.Infact,becauseofthelimitedroomforexercise,manyofthemenactuallytendtogainweightoncruise.Thefooditselfissimplebutwholesome,withfreshfruitandvegetablesbecomingthemostprizeditemsafterafewweeks.TheNavyhasdonesomerathercleverthingstoextendthestoragelifeofmuchofthefreshfoodaboard.For

example,eggsarespeciallytreatedwithawaxcoatingtoextendtheirshelflife.

Thecooksandtheirhelpers(everyonedoesanoccasionalstintofmessduty)workhardtovarythemenuandmakemealsinteresting,usingagalleyaboutthesizeofanapartmentkitchen.Certainlytheculinaryhighlightofacruiseisthetraditionalhalfwaymealof"surfandturf"(steakandcrablegs).Unfortunately,bythelastfewweeksofthecruiseeverymanaboardwillbesickofthree-beansalad,anddreamingaboutfreshveggiesalmostasmuchashedoesabouthisfamily.

Thosedreamsofhomeandfamilyarealwaysatthecenterofthesubmariners'thoughts,thoughthereisverylittletheNavycandotogivethemthekindofcommunicationshomethatsailorsaboardacarrierorfrigatemighthave.ThestealthofthemodernSSNmeansthatthecrewoftheMiamiisalmostneverallowedtosendpersonalmessageshome,andnewsfromhomeisheavilylimitedandcensored.Wordfromhomeislimitedtoaseries(aboutoneaweekwhileonpatrol)offorty-wordmessagescalled"Familygrams."EachFamilygramiscarefullycraftedbyawife,parent,orlovedonetogivethecrewmanatseaanideaofwhatishappeningathome.AnexampleofanotionalFamilygramisseenbelow:

421.DOELTJG5/14:REMEMBEREDMOTHERS-FLOWERSBEAUTIFUL-THANKYOU.GREATNEWS.INCHARGESUMMERCAMPPROGRAM.THIRTYKIDS.STARTS24TH.BOUGHTSWIMMINGPOOLJOHNJR.BALGEBRASEMESTER.NOTIMEFORGARDENING,CERAMICS.MONEYFINE-FEWBILLS.SAVINGFORVACATION.MISSINGYOU.ILY.JANE

OncetheFamilygramhasbeenplacedintoadropboxattheboat'shomebaseofGroton,Connecticut,itisreviewedbypersonnelatthesubmarinegroupforanysecurityproblemsorpersonalbadnews.Occasionallythemessagewillbereturnedforaneditorsuggestedchange.Asageneralrule,no"DearJohn"lettersorbadnews(death,illness,etc.)willbetransmittedtotheboat.

Inaddition,whentheship'sofficeonMiamireceivestheFamilygram,thepersonnelwillalsolookoverthemessagesandforwardanythatlooklikeproblemstothecaptainorexecutiveofficerfordisposition.TheNavyisquiteconsciousofthesacrificesofthosewhochoosetoloveandlivewithsubmariners,andtriestocloserankswheneverthereistrouble.Asitis,themajorityofsubmarinersIhavemettreasuretheFamilygramstheyhavereceivedovertheyearsoncruise.Inthesenotesarenewsofbabiesonthewayandbabiesborn,birthdaysandfirstwords.ForthemenaboardMiamiandallU.S.submarines,theFamilygramwithits"ILY"(ILoveYou)greetingistheonlynewstheywanttohear.Itistheirsolelifelinetohomeand"theworld."

OneofthewaystheNavyhelpsthecrewkeeptheirmindsofftheirhomesandlovedonesistoworkthemveryhard.Everydaytheofficersandmenstandwatches,maintainequipment,andstudy.Thisstudying,knownasqualifying,takesupalmostallthe"free"timeofasubmarinesailor.SincethedaysofWorldWarII,whenthesubforcehadtoexpandrapidly,theNavyhasalwayspusheditssubmarinerstogainknowledgeandmoveupintheranks.Thereisaship'slibrary,andvideomoviesontheclosed-circuitsystem,butthesetendtobeleftaloneindeferencetoasailor'sorofficer'squalificationbook.Intheenlistedmess,thereisfrequentlyaclassrunninginwhatisknownas"theschooloftheboat."DuringavisittoMiamithechiefswere

runninganorientationprogramontheboat'sreactorplant--allofthiswhilestoreswerebeingpackedawayandlunchbeingserved.

Anotherfunctionistheritualofdrills.Oneofthebestwaystokeeptheskillsofthecrewhonedandtheirmindssharpistorundailydrillssimulatingresponsestovariousemergencyandcombatsituations.Thesemayrangefromfiredrills(whichareruneverydayorso)tosimulatedreactorrestarts,tochemicalspills("OttoFuelspillinthetorpedoroom"isafavorite!),andtrackingdrills.Thedrillsareanexcellentwaytokeepthecrewfromgettingbored,andthewords"DrillPeriod"ontheboat'splanofthedayarebothhatedandcherishedbythecrewforthedifficulttasksthisbrings,andtheconfidenceitbuilds.

AsailoroftheUSSMiamioperatestheballastcontrolpanelwhilewearinganemergencyairbreathing(EAB)maskduringafirefightingdrill.JOHND.GRESHAM

Thefiredrillsarequiteinterestingtowatch.WithoutthefacilitiesandequipmentbackhomeatStreetHallinGroton,thechiefsontheMiamiarehardpressedtosimulatetheeffectsofsuchemergencies.Forexample,saythereisafireinoneofthemachineryspaces.TheXOandhisfireresponseteammovetothecompartmentwheretheexerciseisbeingconducted,withalltheequipmenttheywoulduseiftheemergencywasreal.Therethefireteamfindthedrillsupervisionteamequippedwithgraytablecloths(tosimulatesmoke),andtheymustperformtotheship'sacceptedstandards.

Othernormalday-to-dayfunctionstakeonsomeinterestingbentsontheMiami.Justaftofthedrinkmachinesistheship'slaundry,whichhardlyseemsworthyofthetitle.Ataboutthesizeofaphonebooth,ithasatinywasheranddryerthatwouldhardlybesatisfactoryinanapartmentunit.Hereitservestheneedsofover130officersandmen.

Eventakingthegarbageouthasitsexoticaspects.JustforwardoftheenlistedmessonthestarboardsideisthecompartmentcontainingtheTrashDisposalUnit(TDU).ThecompartmentcontainstheTDU(whichlookslikeasmalltorpedotubegoingthroughthefloor),agarbagecompactor,alargesheetmetalroller,andthesuppliesnecessarytodisposeofthegarbageproducedby132menforseveralmonths.

Howthisisdoneisactuallyquitefascinating.Thefirststepistorolla"garbagecan"outofpiercedsheetmetal.Thiscanisplacedinthetrashcompactorandfilledwithgarbage.UsuallytheMiamigeneratestwotothreecansaday.Whenthetimecomestodisposeofthem,eachcanhasacoupleofleadweightsaddedtoitandissealed.Thenthesonarcrewdoesacompletecheckoftheareatomakesurenothingisaroundthatmightheartheoperation.Becauseofthenoisethecans

makeastheyrattledowntheTDUejectortube,itisnormalpolicytostorefullcansiftheboatisinatacticalsituationrequiringextremestealth.Inthiscase,thecansarestoredinoneoftherefrigeratedspacestokeepthesmelldown.Whenit'stimetoejectthecans,thecovertotheTDUisopened,andacircularcakeoficeisplacedinsidetoprotecttheballvalveatthebottom.Thecanisplacedontopoftheice,theTDUcoverisclosed,andthecanisejectedmuchlikeatorpedo.

AMiamicrewmembershowsofftheNavyinfraredthermalimager(NIFTI)usedtolocatefiresanddownedpersonnelintheheavysmokethatwouldbegeneratedbyafireonboard.JOHND.GRESHAM

ThedailylifeonboardtheMiamiisfilledwithmanyofthekindsofthingsthatgoonanywherethatmanymenarepackedtogethertodoaverytoughjob.Theboatbecomesaplaceofquiet,withwordswhisperedandstepstakenlightly.Andonthoseoccasionswhenadifficultmissionoroperationcomesalong,theboatcontinuesthesamekindofroutine,onlymoreso.Anythingthatmakesnoise,evenroutinemaintenance,isdeferredtokeepthenoisedown.

Andhowdowerewardsuchdevotion?Bysaying"Welldone,"andgivingthemmoreofthesametodo.Thelifeofasubmarinerisoneofaprivateandpersonalpride,thekindthatcomesfrombeingpartofaneliteclubthatyoucannotbuyorbegyourwayinto,andyouhavetoperform"aboveandbeyond"justtostayin.

Andthenthereistheultimaterewardofreturningthesementotheirfamiliesandhomes.Itissaidthatwhenaboatisgoingbacktobase,theengineersinthemachineryspaceshaveaspecialsettingfor"goinghome."Ifyouhaveeverseentheincrediblespectacleofawarshipreturningitsmentotheland,youknowwhy.Everywifeandgirl-friendhasherbestonforherman,manywithnewbabiesandolderchildrenundertheirarms.Ifyoueverwanttoknowwhytheydoit,lookatthelovedonestheyleavebehindintheknowledgethattheirsacrificesprotectthosetheylovemost.

Americacantakeprideinthesacrificesofthesemenandtheirlovedonesoverthelastforty-fiveyearsofSSNoperations.Prideforajobwelldone.Prideinwhattheyare.Andprideinwhattheywilldointhefuture.

TheBritishBoats:ATourofHMSTriumph(S-93)

AftertheUnitedStates,thelargestbuilderandoperatorofnuclearsubmarinesinthewesternworldistheUnitedKingdom.CurrentlytheBritishoperateaforceoftwelveSSNsandfourSSBNs.Inaddition,theyalsooperateasmallforceoffourdieselattacksubmarines.WhilethismayseemlikeaminorforcecomparedtothatoperatedbytheUnitedStates,theBritishfulfillanimportantroleinthestructureofNATO.Inaddition,sincetheyarelocatedmuchclosertopotentialpointsofconflictinEuropeandAfrica,theresponsivenessoftheirsubmarineforceismultipliedfarbeyondtheirsmallnumbers.

Ifyouweretotravelthroughouttheworldandtalktosubmarinecaptains,andthecaptainsofthesurfaceshipswhomighthavetoopposethem,andaskthemwhosesubmarinestheymostfear,youmightbesurprised.ForwhileeveryonedeeplyrespectstheAmericanswiththeirtechnologicallyandnumericallysuperiorsubmarineforce,theyallquietlyfeartheBritish.NotethatIusethewordfear.Notjustrespect.Notjustawe.ButrealfearatwhataBritishsubmarine,withoneoftheirsuperblyqualifiedcaptainsatthehelm,mightbecapableofdoing.

RoyalNavySubmarineHistory

Itissomewhatironicthatthenationthatmayhavethehighestqualitysubmarineforceintheworldhasitselfbeenmorevictimizedbysubmarinesthananyotherinhistory.ItwasaBritishship,HMSEagle,thatwasthetargetofthefirstattemptedattackbyasubmarine,

theTurtle.ItwasalsotheBritishwhoweretheintendedvictimsofRobertFulton'sNautilusandJohnHolland'searlysubmarinesbuiltfortheFenianSociety.AnditwastheBritishwhosufferedthemostduringtwoworldwarsfromtheeffortsofGermany'sU-boatfleets.Certainlynoothernationonearthhassuchunderstandingofthedamagesubmarinescando.

HMSTriumph(S-93).U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

ThisisnottosaythattheBritishhavehadaneasytimedevelopingtheirsubmarineforce.Thetruthisthatuntilthelate1960s,themen

whohadchosentoserveintheRoyalNavysubforcewereregardedaspariahsandnotconsideredtobegentlemenbytheotherlineofficersoffleet.Asfarbackas1804,whentheBritishadmiralsgottheirfirstlookatRobertFulton'sNautilus,thesubmarinehasbeenconsideredasneakyand"damnun-English"waytofightawar.ThisopinionhadnotchangedbyWorldWarI,thoughtheRoyalNavyhadbegunamodestinvestmentinsuchcraft.Ironically,oneofthefirstcustomersforJohnHolland'searlysubmarineswasGreatBritain,whichboughtfiveforexperimentationandestablishmentofherforce.Nevertheless,theRoyalNavypouredalmostallofitsfundsintoafleetofmodernbattleshipsandescortingvessels,keepingfundsforsubmarinesscarce.Withonlyalimitedforceofsubmarinestouseinwartime,theRoyalNavymadeapointofputtingonlytheirmosttalentedofficersincommand.Thiswounduppayinggreatdividends,althoughtheydidnothavetherichnumbersandvarietyoftargetsthattheU-boatshad.Theexploitsoftheircaptains,includingthegreatSirMaxHorton,havebecomelegendintheannalsofsubmarinehistory,andgavetheRoyalNavyatraditiontheywereabletobuildon.

Duringtheperiodbetweentheworldwars,theBritishexperimentedwidelyinsubmarinetechnology.Theydevelopedsubmarinesthatcouldcarryaircraftandheavyguns,andavarietyofnewanddifferentpowerplants.AlongwiththeU.S.Navy,theyledindevelopingthetypeofsubmarinethatwouldhavethegreatestimpactinWorldWarII,thelong-rangefleetsubmarine.DuringWorldWarIIthisforce,particularlythe"T"class,didthebulkofthedamageinflictedbyBritishsubmarines.IntheMediterraneanthe"T"boatsofthe10thSubmarineFlotillabasedatMaltasankmanysupplyshipsdestinedforFieldMarshalRommel'sAfrikaKorps,helpingkeephimfromtheoilfieldsofArabia.Severalofthe"T"boatsdeployedtothePacific,forwhichtheyhadbeendesignedoriginally,toassistinthefightagainsttheJapanese.TheyevenhelpedintheASWcampaignagainsttheU-boatsbysinkingseventeenGermanandItaliansubmarines.

AnotherBritishachievementwasintheareaofspecialoperations.ThroughoutWorldWarII,theRoyalNavysubmarinehadanexemplaryrecord,rangingfromtheinsertionofcommandoteamstothepreinvasionsurveysoflandingbeaches.Partofthisrecordincludestheuseofminiaturesubmarines,calledX-Craft,todamagebeyondrepairtheGermanbattleshipTirpitzandtheJapanesecruiserTakao,aswellasprovidingnavigationbeaconsfortheBritishlandingforcesonD-Day.Tothisday,specialoperationsareoneofthehallmarksoftheBritishsubmarinetradition.

Afterthewar,theRoyalNavytookitsshareoftheGermanU-boatsandtechnologythatithadcaptured,andbegantoworkonthedevelopmentofitsown"super"submarines.Liketheotherfleetsoftheworld,thedreamoftheBritishsubmarinerswastofindatechnologythatwouldallowasubmarinetotravelathighspeed,forlongperiodsoftime,withouthavingtouseasnorkeltubeandriskdetection.TheRNexploredtheconventionalstepsofhydrogenperoxideenginesandotherair-independentsystems.UnfortunatelytheydidnotinvestinthenuclearreactorprogramthattheUnitedStateshadstartedinthe1940s,andwounduphavingtoacceptthattheyhadbetonthewrongtechnologieswhenitbecameobviousthatnuclearpowerwasthefutureinsubmarinedevelopment.

BecauseofthespecialrelationshipthathadbeenforgedbetweentheUnitedStatesandGreatBritainduringthewar,however,theUnitedStateswaswillingtoselltheirreactorandpowertraintechnologytotheBritish.Soin1963,thefirstBritishSSN,HMSDreadnought(S-98),wascommissionedintotheRoyalNavy.ShewasessentiallyaSkipjack-classSSNfromthereactoraftandaBritishsubfromthereforward.Andwhileshemadealotofnoise,justlikeherAmericanhalf-sister,theDreadnoughtprovidedtheRoyalNavywithafootholdintonuclearsubmarineoperations,andthebeginningsofacadreofexperiencednuclearsailors.FollowingtheDreadnought,theRoyalNavycommissionedfiveadditionalSSNsoftheValiant(S-102)class.

ThesenewSSNswerecontemporariesofthePermitclass,andusedU.K.-builtreactorplantsbasedontheU.S.design.

DuringthisperiodtheBritishgovernmentwastryingtofindawayofmaintainingacrediblenucleardeterrentforcethatwouldbeunderBritishcontrol.TheforceofRAF"V"bomberswerequicklylosingtheirabilitytopenetratetheairdefensesoftheSovietUnion,andthedevelopmentofanICBMforcethatwouldresideonBritishsoilwassimplybeyondthefinancialresourcesofGreatBritain.SotheBritishgovernmentmadethedecisiontobuythePolarisA3missilesystemfromtheUnitedStatesandbuildaforceoffourSSBNstocarrythem.Thuswasbornthe"R"classofSSBNs,thefirstofwhich,HMSResolution(S-27),wascommissionedin1967.Foroveraquartercenturythe"R"boatshaveprovidedtheUnitedKingdomwiththeirnucleardeterrentforce,helpingkeepthepeace.

Bythelate1960stheRoyalNavywasbeginningtothinkaboutexpandingfurthertheirforceofSSNs.PartofthereasonwastheexpandingforceofSovietSSBNs,whichhadstartedmakingthemselvesknownbythistime.SoanewclassofSSNdedicatedtoASWtaskswasordered.Calledthe"S"class,thefirstunit,HMSSwiftsure(S-126),wascommissionedin1973.ContemporariesoftheAmericanSturgeonclass,fiveofthesixunitsbuiltarestillinservicetoday.

Itwasthe"S"classboats,alongwithseveralofthe"V"classSSNs,thatprovidedtheRoyalNavywithitsprimaryantishippunchduringOperationCorporateinthe1982FalklandsWar.Threeoftheboats,HMSConqueror,HMSSplendid,andHMSSpartan,werethefirstRoyalNavyunitstoarriveandsetupoperationintheBritish-declaredTotalExclusionZone(TEZ)aroundtheislands.TheyhelpedgivetheTEZcredibilitylongbeforethesurfacetaskforcearrivedinthearea,aswellashelpinglandthefirstofthespecialoperationsteamsthatweretobesoeffectiveduringthewar.Later,whentheArgentineNavytriedtoengagetheRoyalNavytaskforce,HMSConqueror

sankthecruiserGeneralBelgranoandscaredtherestoftheirnavybackintoport,nevertocomeoutagain.

TheyearaftertheFalklandsWar,theRoyalNavytookdeliveryofwhat,uptothewritingofthisbook,isthelastclassofSSNsbuilt,the"T"class.Deliveredin1983,HMSTrafalgar(S-107)istheultimateexpressionofBritishSSNdesign.StillpoweredbyanAmerican-designedreactor(calledPWR-1),itwastheleadunitofaseven-boatclass.AndintheareaofSSBNs,theRoyalNavyhasbeguntrialsoftheirreplacementforthe"R"classSSBNs,the"V"class.Theleadboatofthisclass,HMSVanguard,willhelpmaintaintheBritishnucleardeterrentforceintothetwenty-firstcentury.PoweredforthefirsttimebyaBritish-designedreactor,thePWR-2,shewillcarrythesameTridentD5missilesastheOhio-classSSBNsintheU.S.Navy.Atotaloffour"V"classSSBNshasbeenordered.

TheRoyalNavy'snewestSSBN,HMSVanguard,arrivesathernewhomeatFaslane,Scotland.Sheisescortedbyoneoftheolder"R"classSSBNs.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

BritishSkippers--ThePerisherCourse

Historyandtraditionarefine,butjustwhatmakesaBritishSSNsuchatoughpropositiontotakeon?Itis,inaword,personnel.AsintheUnitedStates,theRoyalNavyhasasubmarineschoolatPortsmouth(calledHMSDolphin),whichisequippedwitharangeofclassroomsandtrainersthatwouldlookquitefamiliartoanyU.S.submariner.TheBritishsystemformanningtheirsubmarines,whilesimilartotheU.S.system,hassomeimportantdifferences.Itisnotallthatdifferentintheareaofenlistedpersonnel,thoughtherearesomeminordifferencesinthecourseforenlistedmen(womendonotserveon

RoyalNavysubmarinesasyet).Therealdifferenceisfortheofficers,whosecareertrackiscompletelydifferentfromthatoftheirAmericancounterparts.Startingveryearlyinhiscareer,followinggraduationfromtheRoyalNavyAcademyatDartmouth,thesubmarineofficerisaskedtomakeachoiceoffourseparatetrackstofollowfortherestofhisnavalcareer.

Onetracktakeshimintothesupplybranchandcanleadtocommandofanavaldepotoraprogramoffice.AnotheristheMarineEngineeringOfficer(calledMEO)track,whichallowshimtooperateanuclear,steam,orgasturbinepowerplant.Therealsoisatrackforthosewhodesiretospecializeinweaponsemployment.Acceptingthisoption,calledtheWeaponsEngineeringOfficer(WEO)track,meansthatanofficercanrisetoheadtheweaponsdepartmentonasubmarineorship.Thegreatestdifferencesareinthetrackthatleadstocommand.

ForthoseofficerswhodesiretocommandoneofHerMajesty'ssubmarines,theSeamanOfficer'scareertrackmustbefollowed.MuchlikehisU.S.Navycounterpart,theyoungseamanofficerspendshisfirsttouronasubmarinequalifyingforhis"dolphins"andlearninghowthingsaredoneonasubmarine.Theimportantdifferenceisthatalthoughhespendsconsiderabletimewatchkeepingandlearningtheaspectsofnuclearengineeringthatdirectlyconcernhim,histrainingisconcentratedonmakinghimawareofallaspectsoftheboat'soperations.Fromtheverystartofhiscareer,theseamanofficerisbeinggroomedforcommand.

AnotherdifferencefromhisAmericancounterpartisthattheyoungofficerspendshisentirecareerassignedtosubmarines.Shoreand"joint"toursarevirtuallyunknownintheBritishsubmarineserviceandareseenasasignthatonemaynotbesuitableforcommand.Astheofficerrisesthroughthehierarchyofthewardroom,hebecomesfirstaNavigator,thenaWatchLeaderorOfficeroftheWatch(WL/OOW).Duringthistouracriticaldecisionabouthisfutureis

madebyhiscaptainandtheChiefofStaff,Submarines,atNorthwood,England:whetherornottosendhimtothePerisher.

PerisheristheRoyalNavy'ssubmarinecommandqualificationcourse,whicheveryprospectivesubmarinecaptainandfirstlieutenant(theequivalentoftheU.S.executiveofficer)mustpassbeforehecanmoveupintothosepositions.Itisacourseunlikeanythingelseinanyotherservice.AnAmericanprobablywouldconsideritapostgraduate-levelcourse,withanextrahelpingofstressbuiltin.ThereismoretoPerisherthanstressandlearninghowtodrivesubmarines.Itisatestofthetrainee'scharacter,designedtotelltheRoyalNavywhetherornotamanisqualifiedtocommandoneofthemostpowerfulconventionalweaponssystemsintheBritisharsenal.ProbablytheclosestthingthatmightbecomparedtoPerisheristheU.S.NavyFighterWeaponsSchool(TopGun)atNASMiramar,California,thoughTopGuntestsonlytheskillofapilotandradaroperator,nottheabilityofanofficertocommandmorethanahundredmen.TheaveragePerisherstudentisinhislatetwentiesorearlythirties,withbetweeneightandtwelveyearsofexperienceinsubmarines.

Abouttwiceayear,tenofficersareselectedtoattendthePerishercourse,whichisbasedattheRoyalNavysubmarinebaseatPortsmouth.IftherearenotenoughRNofficerstofillalltenspots,thesevacanciesaremadeavailabletotheprospectivecaptainsofotherselectednavies'submarines.Todate,officersfromCanada,Australia,Denmark,Holland,Israel,Chile,andmanyothershavetakenthePerishercourse.Theonlymodificationmadefortheseofficersisthatthepartsofthecoursespecificallyinvolvingnuclearsubmarineoperationsarereplacedwithinstructiononthedieselsubmarinesmorecommonlyfoundinthosenavies.Surprisingly,noAmericanofficerhasevertakenthePerishercourse--andithasbeenrunsince1914!Ishouldpointout,conversely,thatnoBritishofficerhasevertakenandcompletedtheAmericanPCOcourse.Thetwocountrieshave

differentfocusestotheircommandqualificationcourses,andbothseemsatisfiedwiththeproductsproduced.

ThefadedaccountingledgerthatisthelogbookofeveryPerishercoursesince1922(theearliesttimethattheykeptrecords)isfilledwitha"who'swho"ofRoyalNavysubmarinehistory,includingAdmiralSirJohnFieldhouse;AdmiralSirSandyWoodward,wholedtheRNforcesduringtheFalklandsWar;andthecurrentseniorPerisher"teacher,"CommanderD.S.H.White,OBE,RN.

Student"Perisher"workinganapproachataperiscope.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

AperiscopeshotofaRoyalNavyfrigateonthereceivingendofa"Perisher"student'spracticetorpedospreadduringanapproach.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

CommanderWhiteandtheotherPerisherteachersarethekeepersoftheinstitutionalmemorywherecommandofRoyalNavysubmarinesisconcerned.Justtwoyearsago,thePerishercourseunderwentasignificantchangeinitscurriculum,withmoreemphasisbeingplacedonnuclearsubmarineoperations,long-rangeweaponsemployment,andtacticsforwaratsea.Sincethattime,theteacherscontinuallytrytokeepthecourseandwhatitteachesasuptodateas

possible.

Thefive-monthcoursebeginsbydividingthetentraineeofficers(alsocalled"Perishers")intotwogroups,eachsupervisedbyoneofthePerisherteachers.ThePerishersvisitallthemanufacturersofequipmentthatgoesintotheRNboats,aswellasVickersShipbuildingandEngineering,Limited(VSEL),wherealltheBritishsubmarinesarecurrentlybuilt.Thentheyheadintotheattacksimulatorstolearnapproachestosurfacetargets.Afterthesimulatorrunsarecompleted,theyheaduptotheRNClydeSubmarineBaseatFaslane,Scotland.

PeriscopephotoofaBritishfrigatetakenbyPerisherstudentsduring

theircommandqualificationcourse.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

HeretherealtestofthePerishersbegins.EachgroupoftraineesistakenaboardaRoyalNavysubmarineandbeginstodovisualapproachesonafrigatechargingatthesubmarine.Eachtraineegetstodofiverunsadayforaperiodofseveralweeks.Asthecourseprogressesmorefrigatesareadded,untilthePerishertraineehasthreeofthemsimultaneouslychargingathisperiscope.Theideaisforhimtosafelyoperatethesubmarine,fireoffashot,andnotgetrunoverbyoneormoreofthefrigates.AllthetimethataPerisherstudentisattheconnofthesub,theteacherisevaluatingthetrainee'sreactionsandabilitytomaintainhisawarenessofthetacticalsituation.

Itisanemotionallybrutalregime,withaveryhighdropoutrate.Onaverage,between20percentto30percentofthePerishertraineesdon'tmakeit,andfailureratesonindividualcoursesmaybeashighas40percent.Unfortunately,todropoutofPerisheristoneverstepaboardaBritishsubmarineagain.Whenithappens,theteacher'scoxswaingivesthetraineeabottleofwhiskey,andescortshimbacktoshore.

Ifthetraineesurvivestheapproachphase,heheadsintoanequallychallengingoperationsphaseinwhichthePerishersplaytherolesofactualsubmarinecaptainsonmissions.ThesemayincludesneakinguponacoastlineintheBritishIslestodeliveraSpecialBoatService(SBS)commandoteam,snapsomepicturesofacoastline,orpracticelayingmines.Thefinalphaseofthecoursehasthetraineestakingpartinawar-at-seaexercise,designedtoseehoweachtraineecanhandleactualcommandofaboatincombat.Whenitisallover,andthePerisherhascheckedoffallitemsontheteacher'schecklisttotheinstructor'ssatisfaction,heiswhateveryseamanofficerdreamsofbeing,aPerishergraduateandqualifiedtocommandaRoyalNavysubmarine.

PeriscopephotosofcoastlinestakenbyPerisherstudentsduringtheircommandqualificationcourse.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

PeriscopephotosofBritishsurfacegrouptakenbyPerisherstudentsduringtheircommandqualificationcourse.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

PeriscopephotosofaNorthSeaoilplatformtakenbyPerisherstudentsduringtheircommandqualificationcourse.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

PeriscopephotoofaBritishASWhelicoptertakenbyPerisherstudentsduringtheircommandqualificationcourse.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

ThePerishercourseisaveryexpensivepropositionfortheRoyalNavy.Ifitdidnotalreadyhavetheassetsinplacetoconductthecourse,thecostperindividualtraineewouldbeapproximatelyPS1.2million.Thehumancostisalsohigh.FailedPerishersusuallytransitionintowhatisknownasGeneralServiceiftheychoosetostayintheNavy.Iftheyarelucky,theymayevenrisetocommandafrigateordestroyer.ButthestigmaofbeingfailedPerisherswillalwaysfollowthem.

Forallthecosts,justwhatdoesthePerishercourseproduce?Arguablytheworld'sfinestqualitysubmarinecaptains.PerisheristheRoyalNavy'scommitmenttomakingsurethatthemenwhocommandtheirsubmarinesareasgoodastheboatsthemselves.Withonlyabouttwentysubmarinesintheforce,theyfeeltheymusthavethemcommandedbytheverybest.ThisisnottosaythattheU.S.commandingPCOcourseisnotagoodcourse--itis.Butbyseparatingtheengineeringcareerpathsfromtheserviceofficersatanearlypoint,thefuturecaptainscanconcentrateonbeingcaptains,notnuclearengineers.ThisdoesnotmeanthatU.S.skippersarenotasgoodastheirRoyalNavycounterparts,onlythattheRoyalNavyhasaprocedureinplacethatautomaticallyselectsandqualifiesthebestoftheirsubmarinersfortheircommand,notengineering,skills.

OncethePerishertraineehasgraduated,hewillbeassignedasthefirstlieutenantofaRoyalNavysubmarine.Inthepast,whentheRNhadmoredieselsubmarines,aPerishergraduatecouldcountongettingcommandofoneoftheseboatsdirectlyaftercompletionofthecourse.Now,ofcourse,allofthemdoatourasafirstlieutenant.This

meansthateveryRoyalNavysubmarinehastwomenwhoarefullyqualifiedtocommandtheboat.Oncehehasdonethistour,theofficerwilllikelybegivencommandofhisownboat.In,fact,itisnotimpossiblethatagoodRoyalNavysubmarinecaptainmightcommandadieselboat,anSSN,andanSSBNbeforeheisfinishedinsubmarines.

HMSTriumphisrolledoutoftheVSELbuildingbarn.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

TheBritishliketogettheirmoney'sworthoutofthementhey

qualifyforcommand,andareallygoodcaptainisnotdoneyet.Onceacaptainhasfinishedwithsubmarines,theRoyalNavyfrequentlysendshimtodriveASWfrigatessuchasoneoftheType22BroadswordclassorType23Dukeclass.Bythistimeafullcaptain,heisreadytomoveontocommandataskgroupornavalbase,andthen,flagrank.ThisisthebigdifferencebetweentheAmericansystemandtheBritish.TheU.S.Navysystemcreatessuperiorsubmarinedriversandengineers;theRoyalNavysystemisdesignedtoproducepureleaderslikeaNelson,Rodney,orWoodward.

TheTrafalgarClass--AGuidedTour

HMSTriumph(S-93)istheseventhandlastunitoftheTrafalgarclass.ItisbasedattheRoyalNavalStationatDevonport,nearthetownofPlymouthinsouthwestEngland.Sheispartofthe2ndSubmarineSquadron,whichincludestheseven"T"boats,andthefourdieselboatsofthe"U"orUpholderclass.Orderedin1986andlaiddownatVSELin1987,shewaslaunchedonFebruary16,1991,andcommissionedintotheRoyalNavyonDecember10,1991.Atthetimethisbookisbeingwritten,theFlagOfficer,Submarines,fortheRoyalNavyisViceAdmiralR.T.Frere,RN.HisChiefofStaff,Submarines,isCommodoreRogerLane-Nott,RN.TheycommandtheBritishsubmarinefleetfromtheRoyalNavyoperationscenteratNorthwood,nearLondon.

TheplaqueshowsthevariousbattlesofthepreviousRoyalNavyvesselstocarrythename.ThefirstofthesedatesbacktothebattleswiththeSpanishArmadain1588.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

HMSTriumphisthetenthship(andthesecondsubmarine)oftheRNtocarrythename.Herpredecessorscarryatotalofsixteenbattlehonors,startingwiththebattlesagainsttheSpanishArmadain1588.ThecurrentTriumphiscommandedbyhercommissioningcommandingofficer,CommanderDavidMichaelVaughan,RN.HisfirstlieutenantisCommanderMichaelDavis-Marks,RN.BotharePerishergraduates,andeachhasevencommandedoneofthecherished"O"classdieselboatsbeforehecametoTriumph.Theyareanexcellentteam,generallyconsideredtobetwoofthebestcommand-qualifiedofficersintheRoyalNavysubmarineservice.

Theyareaggressive,confident,colorful,andseemfullycapableofanytasksthatmightbeaskedofthemandtheirboat.Hercrewismadeupoftwelveofficersandninety-sevenenlistedmen.Itisatrim,neat-lookingboatwithadefinitepolishtoher.Let'stakealookforourselves.

ThecaptainoftheHMSTriumph(S-93),CommanderDavidVaughan,RN.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

ThefirstlieutenantofHMSTriumph,CommanderMichaelDavis-

Marks,RN,onthedeckofhisfirstcommand,HMSOtis(S-18).U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

HullandFittings

TriumphissomewhatdifferentfromtheMiamiinthatsheisbuiltnotsomuchforspeedasstealth.Sheissmallerthana688I,at4,700tonsdisplacementversusthe8,100tonsforthe688I,andisshorter,around250feet/76meterslong.Inaddition,herhullismoreliketheclassicshapeoftheAlbacore,andissomewhatmore

hydrodynamicallystablethanthe688I.Herhulliscoveredinrubbertileslikethe688I,butthesearehardandstiff.Thiscoatingisanechoic,designedspecificallytodefeatactivesonarsthatmightbetryingtogeta"ping"offthehull.Shemayalsohaveadecouplingcoatingontheinsideofthehulltohelpreduceanymachinenoiseproducedinternally.

Muchlikethe688I,herfittingsaredesignedforaminimumofdrag,andtheonlyprotrusionisthesonardomefortheType2019acousticinterceptreceiverforwardoftheconningtower.Herdiveplanesarerecessedintheforwardpartofthehull,andshehasafairlyconventionalsetofcruciformtailsurfacesaft.Atthetipoftheverticalstabilizer,theType2046towedsonararrayisattached.Unlikethe688Iarray,thisunitisclippedon,notrolledout.Thismeansthatithastobeattachedandremovedwheneverthesubentersorleavesport.The2046isroughlyanalogousincapabilitytotheAmericanTB-16.

Thoughitisnotobviouswhensheissittingatdock,themostnoticeabledifferencefromthe688Iisthattheboathasnopropeller.Instead,Triumphisequippedwithadevicecalledapumpjetpropulsor.Ifyoucouldseeherindrydock,youwouldseewhatlookslikealampshadeattachedtoherstern;thisisthepumpjet.Thisdeviceworkslikeaductedfan,topushwateraftanddrivetheboatforward.Theadvantageofthissystemisthatitissomewhatquieterthanapropeller,anditoperatesmoresmoothly.Bythewayofexample,Triumphcanspeedupfrom5to18knotswithoutitscrewfeelinganyvibrationfromtheshiftinspeed.SoefficientisthissystemthattheU.S.NavyisplanningtousepumpjetsonalltheirfutureSSNs,includingtheSeawolfclass.

ABOVE:Aseaman"divesthetub"onaRoyalNavysubmarine.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

RIGHT:ARoyalNavysubmarinelaunchesaRoyalNavySubHarpoonantishipmissile.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

ConningTower

TheconningtowerofTriumphismuchlikethatoftheMiami,exceptthathershassomewhatmoreroom.Infact,therearetwoseparatepositionsforlookoutsandofficerstoworktopside.Thereistheusualarrayofperiscopesandmasts,includingahugedomefortheRacalUAPESMsystem.BothoftheperiscopesappeartobeRAMcoatedtokeepdowntheirradarsignature.Gettingdowntheconningtowertrunkintothecontrolroomis,ifpossible,tightereventhanonMiami.Infact,almosteverythingonTriumphseemstobeaboutthree-

fifthssizecomparedtoMiami--sortoflikethedifferencebetweenDisneylandinCaliforniaandWaltDisneyWorldinFlorida!

SonarRoom

IfyoudropdowntheladderintothecontrolroomandtakeaU-turntotheleft,youwillbeinthesonarroomoftheTriumph,wherealltheequipmentanddisplaysforthesonarsystemsarecontained.IshouldsayherethattheBritishhavenothingliketheBSY-1combatsysteminservicerightnow.Thereisaplanforasystemcalledthe2076inafewyears,butrightnow,allcontactdatahandedoffbetweensonarsystemsisdonemanually.ThesonarsuiteonTriumphmightbecomparedfavorablytothatonaFlightILosAngeles-classboat.Thevarioussonarsystemsinclude:

*Type2020,themainsonararray(bothactiveandpassive)inthebowoftheboat.UnlikethedomesonaronMiami,itiscomposedofanarrayofelementsaroundthe"chin"(conformalarray)oftheboat.Itcantrackseveraltargetsatonce,andcanpassdatadirectlytothefirecontrolsystem.Oneofthemoreinterestingfeaturesisthe"captain'skey,"whichmustbeinsertedinaslotinthe2020controlconsolebeforetheactivemodecanbeused.Itisequippedwithaspecialsignalprocessor,Type2027,which(ifthetacticalsituationisright)canautomaticallycalculaterangestothetargetandfeedthedatatothefirecontrolsystem.*Type2072,thenewflankarray(passivelisteningonly),whichcanonlybedescribedashuge.Itisdesignedtodetectbroadbandtargetsatlongrange.*Type2046,the"clip-on"towedsonararray(passivelisteningonly),attachedtoatowpointonthetipofthe

horizontalstabilizer.Itiscapableofdetectingbothbroadbandandnarrowbandsignals.*Type2019,theacousticinterceptreceiverfordetectingactivesonarsandtorpedoes.ThisisaFrenchsystemthatismanned,asopposedtotheautomaticoperatingmodeoftheU.S.WLR-9.

ThesonarsystemsonTriumphprovideexcellentcoverageinbothspectrumandazimuth.OnlythelackofafullyintegratedcombatsystemandtheTB-23towedarraysystemkeepsitfrombeingtheequaltechnicallyoftheBSY-1.

ControlRoom/FireControl/Navigation

Ifyouduckbackaroundthecornerwhereyoucamefromoriginally,youmaybesurprisedtofindthatthelandingfortheconningtowerladderhasnowbeenconvertedintoachairforCommanderVaughan.Fromthisposition,hecanviewtherepeaterforthesonarsystems,thefirecontrolconsolesinthetrackalley,andtheplottingarea.JustaftarethetwoperiscopesandthemastfortheUAPESMsystem.Thescopesarefirst-rate,withtheCK034searchscopeeasilybeingtheequaloftheAmericanType18.ItisequippedwithreadoutsfortheESMreceivermountedontopofthemastaswellasa35mmcamerafortakingphotographs.TheCH084attackscope,whichhasaverysmallhead(tomakeithardtodetect),isalsoequippedwithalow-lightTVcamera.Bothareveryquietwhenraised,andhaveexcellentoptics.Twodifferencesaretheuseofasplitimagerangefinder,aswellasmoreautomatedcontrols.

Thefirecontrolalleyisequippedwithsixpositionsforfirecontroltechnicians.Thesystemissetuptotrackandengageseveraltargets

simultaneously.Thescreensareround,red-oramber-coloredplasmadisplays;alightpenisusedtodesignatethetargetsandmovebetweenthevariousoperatingmodes.Allthefirecontrolsolutionsaregeneratedautomatically,andthereisnomanualTMAsolutionbeingplottedtobackuptheautomatedsystem.TheBritishseemtopreferthisbecausetheybelievethatmostengagementswillprobablybeatrelativelyshortrange.Thisislikewhattheymightencounterwithadieselboat,inwhichthereactiontimeforgettingthefirstweaponinthewateristhedecidingfactor.Thusthesonar/firecontrolfitoftheTriumph,aswellasthetrainingofthecrew(andespeciallythecaptaininhisPerishercourse),isareflectionofthecurrentRNcombatdoctrine.

ThecrewofaRoyalNavysubmarineconductsanescapedrill.ThetraineeattheleftiswearingthelatestMK8escapesuit.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

Travelingaftfromthetrackalley,youcomeuponthetwoplottingtables,calledSNAPStables.Theseareautomatedandcanbefedwithplottinginformationfromthefirecontrolsystemandnavigationalaids.Inaddition,theycanmakeuseofstandardnavigationalcharts,thecoordinatesofwhicharestoredinthecomputer'smemory.SupportingthenavigatorisaNavstarGPSreceiver,aswellasaSINSsystem(thegyrocompartmentisdowninthethirdlevelportside)tohelpkeepTriumphoncourse.

Acrossthecontrolroomtotheportside,youfindtheshipcontrolarea.ItislaidoutsimilarlytotheoneonMiami,themaindifferencebeingthattheBritishhaveautomatedthecontrolsystemsoonlyonemancontrolsboththebowandsterndivingplanesfromasingleposition.Theballastcontrolpanelistotherightoftheshiphandlingposition,withthedivingofficerseatedbehindthem.TheboatdivesinaboutthesametimeastheMiami,thoughsheseemstobesomewhateasiertotrim.Triumphhandlesextremelywell,abletoturnatover1degreepersecondwithonlyamoderaterudderon.Shealsospeedsupandslowsdownveryquicklyandsmoothly,withnonoticeablesoundorvibrationasshechangesspeed.ItisthepumpjetthatmakesmostofthedifferenceinnoiseandvibrationoverapropellersystemlikethatontheMiami.Also,herhullshapeissomewhatbetterfromamaneuveringpointofview.

TheESM/RadioSpaces

Aftoftheplottingareaistheradioroom.TheBritishcommunicationscapabilitiesappeartobequitesimilartothoseoftheMiami,thoughitappearsthissystemmaynothaveanELFcapability.JustaftoftheshipcontrolisadoormarkedRADARWARNINGROOM.ThisisthespacewherethereadoutsfortheESMsystemandcommunicationintelligence(Comint)systemsarelocated.Bothsystemsarefedoutofthemastantennas,especiallythebigESMdome.Thesearereallyimpressivesystems,andareclearlyagreatdealmorecapablethanastandard688I.ThisisnottosaytheU.S.NavyandtheRoyalNavydonothaveboatsspeciallyconfiguredforESM/Comintpurposes;theydo.ButifIwereanAmericanadmiralplanningtouseasubtomonitorradioorradaractivityoffahostilecoast,andIdidnothaveoneofthosespecialboats,ImightjustasktheBritishtoborrowaTrafalgar-classboatforthemission.

TheEngine--TheReactor/ManeuveringSpaces

Aftfromthecontrolroom,youwalkunderthemainaccesshatchtothedeck,andintotheaccesshatchforthereactorspace.AswiththeMiami,visitorsarenotallowedtoenterthisspace.TheTriumph'sreactor,calledPWR-1(PressurizedWaterReactor-1),isderivedfromtheAmericanS5Wplant.ThereforetheBritishhavetoabidebyalloftheproceduresandsecurityregulationssetdownina1958jointRN/U.S.Navyagreement.ThePWR-1suppliesabout15,000horsepower,translatingintoatopspeedofabout30knotswhensheisatdepth.Asfaraslayout,themachineryspacesareroughlyequivalenttothoseonMiami,withtwoofeverything(turbines,motorgenerators,etc.)exceptforthemainpowertrain.

LivingSpaces

Comingbackforwardonthestarboardsideisthecaptain'scabin.TheaccommodationsforthecommanderofaBritishSSNarepositivelySpartanbyU.S.standards,withthecabinbeingonlyaboutathirdthesizeofthatontheMiami.Ontheforwardendofthecabinisasmalldesk,withasinglebunkalongtheouterbulkheadaft.Maximumuseismadeofthespace,withabookcasebuiltovertheendofthebunk.

CommanderVaughanlikestoaddafewhomeytouchestohiscabin,likeapileofbooksonnavalwarfare(howpleasingtofindahardcoverofTheHuntforRedOctoberontop!)inthebookshelf,asmallsoundandvideosystempaneledintothebulkhead,andaThomastheTankEnginebedspread,courtesyofhisson.Whileitissomewhatcramped,andhedoesnotevenhaveaheadtosharewithLieutenantCommanderDavis-Marks,helikesit.Itisclosetothecontrolroom,andhecangettohisactionstationinjustamatterofseconds.

Ifyouproceeddowntheaccommodationladdertotheseconddeck,youfindtherestofthelivingspaces.Overontheportsidearetheofficers'quartersandwardroom.Thefirstlieutenantandthenavigatorsharethesingletwo-mancabin,withtherestoftheofficerssharingspaceswiththree-highbunks.Thereisasinglelavatoryfortheofficersinthepassagewayleadingtotheofficers'wardroom.Therearetheusualamenitiesofastereoandvideosystem,aswellasplentyofstoragefortheliquidrefreshmentsthatmaketheRoyalNavyseemsomuchmorecivilizedattimesthantheU.S.Navy.Asmallpantryservestheofficers'wardroom,thoughallthefoodiscookedinacentralgalleyservingallthemenontheboat.

Therestofthecreweatsandassemblesinapairofsmallmessareas(seniorandjuniorratings)onthestarboardsideofthesecondlevel.Theyarejustascomfortableastheofficers'wardroom;theseniorratingmesshastheaddedluxuryofabarwithbothFoster'sLagerandJohnCourageontap.Liketheofficers'wardroom,bothareequipped

withstereoandvideosystems.

Theberthingareasaresplit(seniorandjuniorratings),withaccessforallofthemlocatedonthesecondlevel.Again,theyarethree-highbunkswithstowagetraysforpersonnelgear.AsontheMiami,therearemorejuniorenlistedpersonnelthanbunks,sosome"hotbunking"isrequiredtofiteveryonein.

LifeSupportSystems--TheMachinerySpaces

Unlikethe688I-classboats,inwhichitisalllocatedinonecompartment,theTrafalgarshavetheirlifesupportequipmentscatteredinaseriesofdifferentspacesinvariouspartsoftheboat.TheCOscrubbersandtheoxygenproductionplantaredowninacompartmentonthethirdlevelforward,surroundedbyanacousticenclosure.Uponthesecondlevel,justabovethescrubbercompartment,istheair-conditioningplant,alsoinanacousticenclosure.Uponthefirstdeckforward,inthesamecompartmentastheforwardescapetrunk,aretheCO/Hburnersthatareusedintheeventofanemergency.ThemainHburnersarelocatedontheseconddeck.Thetwoauxiliarydieselenginesarelocatedaftintheengineroom.Thereasonforspreadingthesedifferentpiecesofequipmentoutaroundtheboatistoputtheminplaceswheretheycanbemosteffectivelyisolated,fromanoisestandpoint.

Weapons--TorpedoesandMissiles

Downonthethirdlevelandforward,youcometothetorpedoroom,whichthecrewcallsa"bombshop."HerearestoredthevariousweaponsthatarmHMSTriumph.Sheisequippedwithfive21-inch

/533mmtorpedotubes(twoperside,withonegoingoutunderthechinofthebow)andcanstoretwenty-fiveweaponsinthecompartment.ThetorpedotubesutilizeawaterramsystemsimilartotheoneonMiami,anduseasimilarloadingsystem.Thefifthtubemakesitpossibletofireasalvooffourweaponsofonetype,forinstance,whilestillhavingoneweaponofanothertypeinreserve.

CurrentlytheRNisdeployingtwodifferenttypesoftorpedoes.OneistheMk24TigerfishMod2,whichisanelectricallypoweredwire-guidedtorpedodesignedprimarilyforASWwork.Ithasa200-lb/91-kgwarhead,amaximumspeedof35knots,andarangeof22,000metersat24knots.Itisveryquiet(theBritishcaptainsarefondofcallingTigerfishthestealthtorpedo),thoughthesmallwarheadmakesitlesseffectiveforshootingatsurfacevessels.

ReplacingtheTigerfishisthenewSpearfishtorpedo,whichhasamuchlargerwarhead(6601b/300kg),comparablerange(approximately13miles/21km),andamaximumspeedofaround60knots.Thistorpedoisamonster,withmanyofthesamekindsofguidanceimprovementsandcapabilitiesastheMk48ADCAP.

Inadditiontothetorpedoes,theRNdeploysaversionoftheUGM-84HarpoonantishipmissiletogivetheTriumphalong-rangeantishipcapability.CalledRoyalNavySubHarpoon(RNSH),itisequivalenttotheU.S.Block1Cversionofthemissile.

WhiletheTriumphdoesnotdeployquitethevarietyofweaponsthatMiamidoes,oneshouldrememberthattheBritishboatsdonotpursuethesameroleandmissionsastheU.S.fleet.AndwhiletheRoyalNavycaptainsmightlikeaweaponequivalenttotheBlockIDorTomahawkcruisemissiles,budgetconstraintswillprobablyforcethemtobesatisfiedwithwhattheycurrentlyhave.Nevertheless,theyarealreadycapablyarmedandquitedeadly.

EscapeTrunks/SwimmerDelivery

MuchliketheMiami,theTriumphisequippedwithapairofescapetrunksforemergencytransfertoaDSRV,swimmerdelivery,oremergencyascentescape.Thereisatwo-manescapechamberintheforwardmachineryspaceonthefirstlevel,aswellasaftinthemachineryspace.Thesechambersaredesignedtoallowemergencyescapefromdepthsdownto600feet/183meterswhenusedinconjunctionwiththeRNMk8egress/exposuresuit.Thissuit,whichusesthesamekindofairreservoirbreathingsystemastheAmericanSteinkehood,providestheuserwithaninsulatedsuitforsurvivalonthesurface.Soeffectiveisthissystemthattestsubjectshavebeenabletosurviveforuptotwenty-fourhoursinwatersimulatingNorthAtlanticconditions.AlthoughtheBritishoperateinareaswherethewateris,onaverage,shallowerthanthatwheretheU.S.subsoperate,theystilltrainalltheirsubmarinepersonnelfordeep-wateregress.ThisisregularlypracticedinatowerattheirsubmarineschoolinPortsmouth.

AcousticIsolation

TheTrafalgar-classsubmarines,muchliketheirAmerican688Icounterparts,aredesignedtobeextremelyquiet.AndwhiletheBritishseemtobeusingmanyofthesamequietingtechniquesandequipment,theredoappeartobeafewinterestingfeatures.LikeMiami,theTriumphappearstousealargemachineryraftwithisolationmountsforallthelargepiecesofequipment(turbines,generators,etc.).Eventheshaftthatisconnectedtothepumpjetpropulsorhasaflexiblemountingtokeepdownbearingnoise.

Aswediscussedearlier,manyofthenoisierpiecesofequipment

seemtobesetintheirownacousticenclosures.Inaddition,alltheelectronicequipmentissetonleafspringmountstoprovideprotectionagainsttheshockofanearbyexplosion,aswellassomesoundisolation.Triumphalsohasafairlyextensiveself-monitoringnoisesystem,bothtodetectanyuntowardnoiseaswellastohelplocateanypendingfailures.Triumphisalsoequippedwithsystemstoreducetheriskofdetectionfromtheboat'smagneticsignature,aswellasreducingtheelectricalfieldgeneratedbythecorrosionoftheboatinseawater.Allinall,theTriumphisprobablytheequaloftheMiamiinnoisereduction.

DamageControl

AhallmarkoftheBritishcharacteristheirpowerofunderstatementandreserve.YetifthereisonethingthatpersonnelonboardtheTriumpharefanaticalabout,itisdamagecontrol,particularlyfirefighting.TheBritishexperiencewithfireduringtheFalklandsWarin1982,specificallythelossofHMSSheffieldandRFAAtlanticConveyertouncontrolledfires,hasleftapermanentimpression.Thisshowsinthedesignoftheirboats,whichhavetheabilitytoisolatecompartmentsandfloodthemwithHalon.VirtuallyeveryelectronicequipmentrackhasaporttoinjectCOgastosnuffanyelectricalfire.Likethe688I,TriumphhasanEABsystemwithforced-feedairmasksforeverymanonthecrew.Andthentherearethefirefightingtoolsthemselves.

Theirfirefightingcrewsuitsaremadeofchemicallytreatedwool,whichtheysayprovidesbetterinsulationagainsttheheatofacompartmentfire,withprotectionasgoodasthatofNomex.InsteadoftheEABmasksoranOBAtobreathe,theRNusesacompressed-aircylinderpack(calledaScottPack)toprovidebreathableairtotheirfirefighters.Theyareequippedwiththesamekindofthermal

imagerastheU.S.Navyhas,aswellasinfraredfiredetectors(whichlooklikeflashlights),andafullarrayoffireextinguishers,airtestkits,andfirstaidkits.

ThecrownjeweloftheTriumph'sfirefightingcapabilityistheirfixedAFFF(AqueousFireFightingFoam)system.Oneoftheseislocatedoneveryleveloftheboatforwardofthereactor,andIassumetheyarealsobackinthemachineryspacesaswell.Thissystem,whichlookslikeasmallwaterheater,mixesseawaterwiththeAFFFmixtureandfeedsitthroughapressurehose.CrewmembersonTriumphindicatedthattheycouldlaydownover100gallons/377litersofAFFFslurryperminutewiththissystem,whichcompareswellwiththestillveryeffectiveAFFFfireextinguishersusedontheMiami.

LifeAboard

LifeaboardTriumphisnotallthatdifferentfromontheMiami.Thoughthefoodisalittledifferent(cheesebunsforlunchandcurrysaladdressingarenormal),thedietishealthyandhearty.Theculturaldifferencebetweenthetwoservicesappearsintheattitudetowardalcohol.UnliketheU.S.Navy,theRoyalNavystillallowstheircrewstohavebeerandwineaboard(thedaily"tot"ofPussersRumisunfortunatelynolongerservedtotheratings).TheattitudeoftheRoyalNavyleadershipforoversixcenturieshasbeenthatifamanisresponsibleenoughtogotoseawithitsrisksofquickdeathandisolation,thenheshouldnotbedeprivedofthebasicpleasureofadrinkifheshouldwantit.Inreality,mostofwhatiscarriedaboardisconsumedwhileinport;mostmenjustdon'tdrinkatseawhiletheyareworking.

OtheraspectsoftheTriumphlifestylecloselyparallelthatonMiami.Waterisinshortsupply,andNavyshowersaretherule.Thecrewusesmanykindsofequipment,liketheTDU,whichanyAmericansubmarinerwouldfeelquiteathomewith.Watchesareroughlythesame,withthesameproblemsofhavingto"hotbunk."Thedailyroutineincludeslotsofdrillsofallvarieties,rangingfromdamagecontroltotacticaldrills.Asformessagesfromhome,theRNseemstofollowtheU.S.practiceof"Familygrams,"thoughprobablynotquiteasoften.Itisagoodlifeatsea,andthemenenjoyit.

HMSTriumph(S-93).U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

RolesandMissions

ThefolksintheU.S.NavyUnderseaWarfareOffice(N-87)callthem"RolesandMissions."Whateveryoucallthem,thesearethetasksthatarecurrentlydefinedfornuclearsubmarines.Upuntilveryrecently,though,justdiscussingthemwascauseforextremediscomfort(baseduponsecurityregulations)onthepartoftheseniorleadershipofthehandfulofnaviesthatoperateSSNs.Now,becauseoftheColdWar'scomingtoanendandtheneedtojustifythecostsofbuildingandoperatingsubmarines,thosesameleadersarelettingtheworldhaveapeekatjustwhattheirboatshavedone,andstilldo.Insomecases,theyareacknowledgingforthefirsttimemissionsthathavebeenconductedfordecades.Let'stakealook.

Mission#1--AntisubmarineWarfare

ThepremierASWplatformisandprobablywillremainanothersubmarine.Thereasonsforthisaredefinedbythebasicadvantageofthesubmarineoverotherantisubmarineplatforms.Environmentalfactorsdefinethesub'sabilitytohide.Watertemperature,thelocationofthermoclinelayers,variationsinsalinity,andambientnoisesourcesallarepartofthethree-dimensionalrealmofthesubmarine.Thesublivesinthatenvironmentandmonitorsitconstantly.Surfaceshipsandaircraftcanusetheirinstrumentstotakesnapshots,buttheycannothavethebroadviewthatasubmarinecommanderhas.Justasground-basedsurface-to-airmissilesandantiaircraftgunscanimpedebutnotdenyaircrafttheuseofthesky,socansurfacewarshipsnotcontrol

thedepthsofthesea.That'sthejoboftheSSN.

TacticalExample--StalkingaRussianSSBN

They'restilloutthere.They'recalledboomersintheU.S.Navy,bombersintheRoyalNavy.Theyarethefleetballisticmissilesubmarines,reallycreaturesofthepastColdWarera,buttheystillsail,andtheirmissilesmustbeaimedatsomething--whatthatsomethingmightbe,theirownersdonotsay.TheRussianonesareprobablyaimedattheUnitedStates,andtheAmericanonesatRussia,ratherinthemannerofa"default"settingonacomputerorwashingmachine.OneRussianboomercaptainwasrecentlyquotedassayingthatthetargetpackagesonhisboat'smissileshadnotchanged,andinfacttheymightbeaimedatsomeofthenationscurrentlysupplyingaidtotheCIS(CommonwealthofIndependentStates).Untilsuchtimeasthesedinosaursarerelegatedtothepast,itisonlyprudenttokeepaneyeonthem,andthatisonemissionoftheSSN.WhenaRussian/CIS(formerlySoviet)SSBNdepartsitshomeportontheKolaPeninsula,waitingoutatsea(possiblyinadepressionintheseafloorcalleda"tongueoftheocean")willbeaNATOSSN.Probably.Almostcertainly,infact.ThemissionoftheSSNandhercrewwillbetoshadowtheRussianSSBN.

Themissionisnotexactlyafriendlyone.Shouldasuddencrisisarise,theSSN'sjobistocloseanddestroythemissileboatbeforeshecanlaunchherbirds.Shortofthatexigency,theSSNremainsintrail,listening.Thereismuchtolearn.ProbablytheSSN'sCOknowsthename(orhullnumber)oftheboathe'swatching,andheobservestheotherCO'shabitstoaddtowhatwealreadyknow.He'lllistentotheboat,determiningheruniquemechanicalcharacteristicssothatotherSSNscanidentifyherbyheracousticsignature.Otherobservationswilltellusmuchofthequalityofthecrew,changesinRussian

operationaldoctrine,andfromtheboat'sday-to-dayroutine,drillsandreadiness.

It'snotquitethateasy,ofcourse.SovietSSBNsarefrequentlyaccompaniedbytheirownSSNguardians.ThustheWesternsubmarinemusttrack--andevadedetectionby--twoadversarieswhothemselveshavecarefullythought-outroutinesfordealingwithapotentialshadower.ThiscanbeassimpleasrunningtheboomerathighspeedtowardherprotectingSSN,forcingthetrailingboattomovequicklyherselfandsomakemorenoisethantheU.S.skippermightwish.Noiseisdeathinthisbusiness,andasimportantasthemechanicalcharacteristicsoftheplatformare,thecommanderwiththemostbrainshastheultimateadvantage.

Themissionmaybesomethingfromthepast,butitsimmediacyhasn'tchanged.Thewarheadsonthosemissilesubmarinesarestillreal.Theiraimingpointsareunknown,butsolongastheyexist,andsolongasmencanchangetheirminds,theyrepresentadangertoAmericaandherallies.Thesmartmoveistoeliminatethewarheadsthroughdiplomaticmeans.Untilthathappens,eliminatingtheminotherwayswillcontinuetobeanoptionthatourleaderswillwishtohaveattheirdisposal.

Sojusthowdoesonehuntsuchabeast?Firstyoumustlearnitshabitsandcharacteristics,andlikeeverythingelseinthisworld,thecharacteristicsoftheRussianboomerfleetarerapidlychanging.WiththedrawdownintheCISfleet,andthestipulationsofthenewSTART-IIarmscontroltreaty,theforceofRussianboomersisbecomingsmaller.Bytheturnofthecenturytheywillprobablyhaveonlyfifteentotwentymissileboatsaltogether.Theonestheykeeparegoingtobethenewest,mostquietboatsintheirfleet.ThismeansthataWesternSSNcommanderislikelytobehuntingeitheraDeltaIVorTyphoon-classboat.BoththesetypesofsubmarinehavethelatestinquietingtechnologyavailabletotheCISNavy.TotheSSNcommanderhuntingone,thismeansthatevenwithhisadvantagein

acousticdetectionandtracking,whichusedtoallowhimtodetectandtrackatargetatrangesoftensofthousandsofyards,nowit'slikelythatsolidcontactswillbeobtainedatrangesofthousandsofyards.

RussianTyphoon-classmissilesubmarinerunningonthesurface.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

AnotherproblemforpotentialhuntersofRussianSSBNsresultsfromthemannerinwhichtheyareemployedanddeployed.OneoftheearlygoalsofmissiledesignersintheformerSovietUnionwasto

maketherangesoftheirsub-launchedmissilesaslongaspossible.ItisanacknowledgedfactthatCISboomerscanlaunchtheirmissilesattargetsinthecontinentalUnitedStatesfromalongsidepiersattheirKolaPeninsulabases.ConsequentlytheonlyreasontheRussianleadershiphasformovingthemistohidethemagainstpossibleattackbyaircraftormissiles.Andlikeprizedjewels,theCISNavytendstoplacetheminthemaritimeequivalentofbankvaults:the"boomerbastions."

BastionswereoriginallycreatedtoplaceSovietSSBNsbeyondthereachofWesternASWforces.WhiletheactuallocationandlayoutofaboomerbastionisahighlysensitivesubjectinboththePentagonandtheKremlin,thebasicconceptisquitesimple:anSSBNisplacedinapatrolareathatishighlydefendableandasremotefromWesternoperatingareasaspossible.TheBarentsSea,theKaraGulf,theSeaofOkhotsk,andevensitesunderthepolaricepackhavebeensuggestedaspossiblebastionareas.ThismaymeantheSSBNisplacedinanareawithentrancesthatareeasilydefended,oritmightbesurroundedbyabeltofASWmines.Inaddition,itprobablyisaggressivelydefendedbyRussianattacksubmarines,maritimepatrolaircraft,and,ifavailable,surfaceASWgroups.

Clearly,aboomerbastionisnotthekindoftargetacarrierbattlegroupisgoingtotakeon.Infact,amodernSSNistheonlyplatformthatcanevenbegintothinkaboutpenetratingthebastionsandpursuingtheRussianSSBNscontainedtherein.Backintheearly1980stheU.S.maritimestrategyhadNATOtryingtoactivelypursuetheSovietboomersintheirlairs.TodaythetaskismademoredifficultbythedecreasedsizeoftheNATOSSNforceandthegreaterstealthoftheCISSSBNs.

Let'sassumethatWesternintelligenceservicesmanagetofindaboomerbastion.Themethodisnotparticularlyimportant--itmightbeasatellitephotoofamissileboatbreakingthroughthepolariceduringamissiledrill,orradiotrafficfromasupportingsurfacegroup.

Forourpurposes,though,wewillassumethatthetargetisaTyphoon-classSSBNbeingprotectedbyanAkula-classSSN.TheirbastionareaisaparceloftheBarentsSeathatoverlapsthepolaricepackinwhatiscalledthemarginalicezone.Theinterfacebetweenthepolarpackandthemarginalicezoneisanextremelycomplexacousticenvironment.Allthenoisefromtheicefloesbreakingapartandgrindingtogethermakesitverydifficulttolocateandtrackanopposingsubmarine.Inadditiontheboomer,muchlikearatinawarehouse,hasabackdoortoruntoundertheice.Forthisreason,onlythemostcapableofAmericansubmarines,anImprovedLosAngeles(688I),issuitable.

Afteratransittothepresumedbastionarea,the688Ibeginstolisten.Itmaintainsalowspeed,probablyaround5knots,tooptimizetheperformanceofitstowedarrays.Asthe688Ifinallyentersthetargetzone,thetrackingteaminthecontrolroomutilizeseverysensorandcapabilityoftheBSY-1systemtolocateandtracktheopposingboats.Thisisvitalbecauseofthebackgroundnoisesintheocean(waves,fish,marinemammals,etc.),aswellasthenoisecomingfromtheicepack.Thefirstcontactisgoingtohavetobea"directpath"contact,sothe688Isearches,runninginaseriesofexpandingboxesuntilthefirstcontactisachieved.Thiscontact,whichmightbeeithertheTyphoonortheAkula,isnonetooexactwithregardstorange,butbearinginformationisenoughtocontinuethehunt.Thehuntnowbecomesataskofpatience.Theboatwillprobablygotothequietestroutinepossible,astheclosuretoattackmighttakemanyhours.

WhiletheAmericancommanderprobablypreferstoavoidtheAkulabymovingaroundtheTyphoonandusingittomaskthe688I'sownnoisesignature,theextensivequietingontheTyphoonwillprobablyprecludethis.ItsimplywouldbetooeasytomisstheboomerandstumbleintotheAkula.Again,patienceandstealthisthebesttacticoftheAmericanboat.ThegoalatthispointistoholdasonarcontactontheTyphoonwhiletryingtoavoidtheAkula.The

keymomentcomeswhenafiringsolutionisfinallygeneratedbytheBSY-1,hopefullywithintheCO'sdesignatedfiringrange.Normallyitwouldbehelpfultotakethetimetoestablishasolidsolutiontothetargettoincreasethechancesofahitonthefirstshot.But"polishingthecannonball"withsuchopponentsastheTyphoonandtheAkulacouldcostthechancetogetthefirstshotin.WiththetrackingcapabilitiesoftheMk48ADCAPtorpedo,andthedangerposedbytheAkula,itisnowinthebestinterestsofthe688Ito"shootandscoot."AssoonasthesolutiononTyphoonisgoodenough,theAmericancommanderprobablyordersthelaunchingofapairofMk48ADCAPs.Eachislikelytobelaunchedabout12degreesofftheinterceptcourse(leftandright)tothetarget,soastocovertheentirefront180-degreesectorofthe688I.ThefishareprobablylaunchedintheBSY-1'sShortRangeAttack(SRA)modeatthehigh-speedsetting,theguidancewiresarecut,andtheseekermodeissettoactivepinging.IfheknowsthebearingtotheAkula,theAmericancommandermaychoosetofirehisothertwotorpedoesinSRAmodedownthatbearingalso.

WiththetorpedoesheadingontheirowntowardtheTyphoon,theAmericanboatcannowrunforitsownsafety(called"clearingdatum").Thecaptainofthe688Iisprobablygoingtokickupthespeedasfastaspossible(over30knots),launchsomedecoysorothercountermeasuresfromthe3-inchsignalejectortubes,andgoasdeepasthelocalseabedandthecapabilitiesoftheboatwillallow.Ifit'sdoneright,theAmericanboatshouldhavealeadofseveralmilesbeforeoneoftheRussianboatscanlaunchatorpedoinresponse.Thistheywilldo,though,andtheAmericanboatissuretohaveoneormoreRussiantorpedoesheadedinitsdirection.ButtheCISsubsarealsorunningfortheirlives,kickingoutdecoysandcountermeasuresanddesperatelytryingtomaneuveroutofthewayoftheoncomingADCAPs.Butwithaspeedof60-plusknotsandaseekerheadthatcanseetargetsalmost180degreesaroundit,thesimplefactisthatno

submarineafloatcanoutrunanADCAP.Theencounternowmovestotheendgame.

Theanglingofthetorpedoesfromthe688IisdesignedtoensurethatatleastoneoftheMk48ADCAPswill"acquire"theTyphoon,thoughinabouttwo-thirdsofthesituations,bothweaponsshouldtrack.AtthispointtheRussianboomerisgoingallouttoevadetheincomingweapons.Itlaunchescountermeasures,tryingtojamtheseekerheadsofthetorpedoesandoutmaneuverthem.Thisprobablywillnotwork.AstheMk48scloseonthetarget,theTyphooncrewwillinevitablyhearthepingingoftheseekerheadsontheirownacousticinterceptreceiversandknowwhatiscoming.AtthispointtheMk48'selectronicguidancepackagedeterminestheoptimumpointfordetonatingthewarheadofeachADCAPonorneartheouterhulloftheTyphoonand/orAkula.Andtheeffectswillbehorrendous.IftheAkulaishit,itisprobablydead.GameoverfortheenemySSN.TheRussianboomer,ontheotherhand,willcertainlysuffermassiveouterhullandshockdamage.Insomecasesabreachoftheinnerhullmayoccur,causingflooding.ShouldbothMk48shit,theymaysinkthemissileboatimmediately.ButmostlikelythemassiveconstructionoftheTyphoonwillallowittosurvivetheimpactofevenapairofADCAPs.Thelargespacebetweentheinnerandouterpressurehulls,aswellastheTyphoon'shugereserveofbuoyancy(approximately35percentofherdisplacement)willlikelyallowtheboattosurvive.IftheRussianboathassurvivedtheinitialshockandflooding,itmayhaveenoughreservebuoyancytoblowitsballasttanksandfighttothesurface,assumingitisnotundertheice.Inanycase,withthehullshredded,interiorcompartmentspossiblyopentothesea,andmassiveshockdamagetotheweaponsandcontrolsystems,itisnolongercombatready.Iftheboomerhassurvived,itismakingaterrificamountofflownoise,aswellasgeneratingmechanicaltransients(rattling)fromtheshreddededgesofthedamagedhullplatesbeatingagainsteachother.

Whilethetorpedoendgameisbeingconducted,the688Iresumesitsquietroutine.Inaddition,thecrewarereloadingthetorpedoandcountermeasurestubesaswellasdoinganythingnoisythattheydeferredduringtheapproach.AssumingthattheAmericanboathasoutrunanyweaponsthatwerecounterfired,itslowsandbeginsthelisteninggameanew.AtthispointtheAmericanSSNcommanderisfacedwithachoice.Ifthemissileboathassurvived,itwillbefightingforitslife.AndwhileitisprobablyincapableoffiringitscomplementofSS-N-20Seahawkmissileswithoutamajoroverhaul,theAmericanboatmaytrytofinishthejobjusttobesure.

Andthusthehuntbeginsagain....

TacticalExample--HuntingaNuclearAttackSubmarine

Thisisajobthathasbecomebotheasierandharderinrecentyears.Since1988theRussianNavyhasvoluntarilyretiredawholegenerationofitssubmarines.Many,perhapsalloftheHotel,Echo,andNovemberclassesofSSNsarereportedtohavebeendeactivated--insomecaseshauledoutofthewatertorotwhileRussiannavalofficersseektheadviceoftheirAmericancounterpartsonthebestwaytodisposeoftheirstill"hot"reactorplants.EarlyVictor-classSSNshavereportedlybeenofferedforsaletotheWestasASWadversaries(theU.S.Army'sNationalTrainingCenterhasalargesupplyofSoviet-madefightingvehicles,obtainedthroughlessconventionalmeans).TheRussianNavyappearstoberevertingtoitsentirelylegitimateroleasitscountry'smaritimedefenseforcewhilethatcountry'slandforcescontinuetoassumetheirplaceasthatcountry'sprincipaldefensearm.ThatmeansasmallerRussianNavy,andonethatremainsclosertohome.

Butnuclearsubmarinesarenotnecessarilycreaturesofone'shome

coast,andthoseRussianSSNsremaininginservicearethebesteverproducedbythatcountry.TheVictorIIIisthemechanicalequivalentoftheAmerican637(Sturgeon)class,andtheAkula(theRussianwordforshark,appliedtothatclassbyNATOaftertheWestranoutofletter-codedesignators)isreportedlyequivalenttoanearly688(LosAngeles)class.Theyare,inaword,closeenoughinperformancetoWesternSSNsthattheskillofthecaptainandcrewbecomesthedecidingfactor.

Trackingoneofthesesubmarinestakesontheaspectofaone-on-onesportingevent.AnditisaneventthathasbeenplayedoutmanytimessincebothsidesacquiredSSNsintheearly1960s.Duringthistime,theSovietforcesweremakingpreparationsforapossiblegroundwaragainstNATOinwesternEurope.AndmuchastheGermanU-boatfleetdidinWorldWarII,theSovietNavywasplanningtosupportthemwithamassivesurgeofSSNsandSSGNs(Nuclear-GuidedMissileSubmarines)intotheNorthAtlantictostopconvoyswithreinforcementsfromreachingtheNATOforces.Sinceproficiencyinsuchskillstakespractice,theSovietsbegantohavetheirSSNsmakeregularpatrolsintotheAtlanticOceanandneartotheAmericancoast.UsuallythesewereconductedbynewerboatssuchasVictorIIIs.

PartoftheproblemwithstayingaheadoftheSovietsinthosedayswasrecognizingwhentheywereusingordoingsomethingnew.Duringthe1980stheRussiansbroughtoutalargenumberofnewnuclearsubmarineclasses,andearlyidentificationandclassificationwasatoppriorityfortheboatsofthevariousNATOpowers.Usuallythiswasaccomplishedbyaboatsittingata"gatekeeper"stationoffPetropavlovskandVladivostok(inthePacific),andofftheKolaPeninsulanearMurmanskandSeverodvinsk.Thejobofthegatekeeperwastositandwatch.Anythingthatwentinorcameoutwascarefullynotedandcatalogued.OccasionallythesubwouldstickanESM/Comintmastupandsnifftheairfortheelectronicemissions

thatarepartofeverymilitarybaseintheworld.

Thereisastory,toldinwhispersandwithguardedglances,aboutoneofthegreatestofthegatekeeperboatsandherskipper.Itisonlyastory,andneithertheU.S.NavyorRoyalNavywillofficiallystatethatitevertookplace,butsucharethestoriesthatcomefromthesilentservice.

Sometimeinthemid-1980sagatekeeperboatwasofftheKolaInlet,doingitsjobdayafterday.ThesonarwatchdetectedasubmarinecomingoutofthebarnfromSeverodvinsk.WhenthenoisesignatureofthepowerplantandtheothermachineryonboarddidnotmatchanyknownclassofRussianboat,thecaptainoftheU.S.boatdecidedtotrailitandlearnallhecouldaboutthisnewmachine.PerhapsitwasthefirstoftheSierra-orOscar-classboats,oreventheone-of-a-kindMike-classboatwithitstitaniumhullandliquidsodiumreactor.Whateveritwas,though,theU.S.commanderwasintentongettingtoknoweverythingpossibleaboutthenewSovietsub.TheU.S.skippercarefullyandquietlystartedstalkingtheRussianboat,probablyfromtherear,atashortdistance.

Inthechasethatfollowed,theAmericansublistenedandwatchedeverymoveofthenewboat.Thesoundsofthepropellersandtheall-importantbladerate,whichisusedtocalculatethespeedofashiporsubmarine.Allofthemachinerynoisefromthereactor(orreactors--manyRussianboatshavetwo),turbines,andpumps.Theymayevenhaveheardsomeoftheday-to-daylivingnoisesaboardtheSovietboat.Thebilgetanksbeingpumpedout,theTDUdumpinggarbage,andmaybeeventhesoundsofhatchesclosingandpotsandpansclanginginthegalley.Andthroughitall,theAmericanboatandhercrewremainedundetectedbytheRussianboatandanysupportingvesselsthatmighthaveaccompaniedher.

Afteraperiodoftime--andherethestorybeginstotakeontheairofunrealitythatisahallmarkofthetruesubmarinestories--theSoviet

subcametothesurfaceandsloweddown.AstheAmericansonarcrewsobservedtheRussiansgoingtothesurface,theAmericanskipperapparentlydecidedtotryforthegrandslamofsubmarineintelligence-gatheringcoups,gettingsomehullshotsofthenewRussianboat(videopicturesofthehull,propellers,andcontroldevicesbeneaththesurface).

Suchanoperationisdonebyrunningunderneaththetargetboat,raisingtheperiscopeequippedwithalow-lightvideocamera,andrunningapatternaroundthehulltocollectthevideopictures.ThisissodifficultanddangerousthatcaptainsofU.S.submarinesarealmostneverorderedtotryit,asbumpingatargetcanbenon-careerenhancing.Ontheotherhand,successfullygatheringhullshotsisasuresignthattheboat'sskipperhastherightstuffandisworthyofpromotiontohighercommand.AndwithonlyafewO-6(captain)commandslotsavailableforboomers,tenders,andsquadrons,thecompetitionisfierceamongthevariousattackboatskippers.

Whathappenednextwasamarvelofseamanship.TheAmericanboatwasabletomakeatleastone(severaltellersofthestorysaymore)passaroundtheRussiansub'sundersides,andnotoncegetnoticed!UpanddownthesidesoftheSovietboat,theAmericanskipperdrovehisperiscope,obtainingthebroadestpossiblecoverageofthetarget.Thecoverageapparentlyincludedthecontrolsurfaces,propellers,andseveralsonararrays.Thequalityofthevideopictureswasexcellent,addingmuchtoNATO'sunderstandingofthenewRussianboat.Andmaybemostimpressiveofall,shewasabletobackaway,continuethechase,andeventuallyresumehergatekeeperpositionofftheKolaInlet.

Theachievementwassoimpressiveinitsday,sothestorygoes,thattheskipperwasawardeda"black"DistinguishedServiceCross(i.e.,therecipientisunabletowearit,butthedecorationappearsinhisservicefilefolderor"jacket").Whilesuchpeacetimedecorationsarenotunprecedented,theyareextremelyunusual,andtheawardof

suchathingwouldbeanindicationofhowimportanttheU.S.highcommandconsideredtheaction.

Thisisthewaythegameofhide-and-seekwentforalmostfortyyearsbetweenthenuclearboatsoftheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion.Andthegamecontinuestoday.Onlyrecently,therewasaverypublicairingofaminorcollisionbetweentheUSSBatonRouge(SSN-689)andaRussianSierraInorthoftheKolaInlet.Thereweresomebenthullplates,someexchangesofdiplomaticmessages,andminorapologiesbetweentheUnitedStatesandtheRussians.Buthavenodoubt,theday-and-nightstalkingstillcontinuesasthisbookgoestopress.

TacticalExample--EscortingaBoomer

InWorldWarIItheU.S.8thAirForcefoundoutthehardwayaboutthepriceofrunningbombingraidsintoGermanywithoutfighterescort.Thebig,heavybomberswerenomatchforthequick,heavilyarmedfightersofGeneralAdolfGalland'sLuftwaffefightercommand.Thusitwasnosurprisethatassoonastheycouldbeobtained,the8thAirForcestartedtodeployfighterstoescortthebombersagainstthedangertheLuftwaffefightersposed.ThesefightersnotonlyreducedbomberlossesbutalsotoreouttheheartoftheLuftwaffefightercommand,makingtheinvasionofEuropepossibleandvictorythatmucheasier.

Today,lessonssuchasthesehavenotbeenlostontheoperatorsoftheboomerforceintheU.S.Navy.TheOhio-classSSBNsarethelargestandmostcapableFBMboatseverdeployedbytheUnitedStates,andalsothemostvaluable.TheNavyisproudofsayingthatnoU.S.SSBNhaseverbeentrackedwhileonpatrol.Butwhataboutwhenitisheadedouttopatrol?WithsomanyofAmerica'sstrategic

"eggs"injustafewOhio-classhulls,theyclearlyarecrownjewelsneedingprotection.AndwhentheboomerscomeoutofKingsBayorBangor,theyareextremelyeasytosee,whetherbysatelliteorjustasetofhumaneyeswatchingastheysteamupthechannel.Oncetheyareatseatheyfadeawayintothedepths,butwhiledepartingandarrivingatthebase,theyarevulnerable.

WhiletheU.S.Navyhasnevermadeabigdealaboutsuchthings--andwiththeendoftheColdWaritisunlikelythattheyeverwill--suchvulnerabilityisaconcernwhenyouhaveonlyafewofthebigOhiostocarryover50percentofAmerica'stotalnuclearweaponsload.Allitwouldtakeissomeeasycueingfromasourceashoretotellanenemysubmarinejustwhenaboomermightbeheadedtosea.ThusitmakesgoodsensetohavethebigFBMboatescortedouttoseabyattacksubmarines,muchasafightermightescortabomberonabombingraid.Itshouldbeemphasizedthatahostileboatwouldprobablynottrytogetashotin,thoughinwartimeconditionsthisisalwaysapossibility.MorelikelythethreatboatwouldtrytogetonthetailoftheOhioandtrackitforaslongasitcould.

Let'ssupposesomeonewantedtotrytrackinganOhioasitcameoutofthechannelatKingsBay,Georgia.ThecontinentalshelfnearKingsBayissomewhatlongerandflatterthanatBangor(theseabeddropsrighttothecontinentalslopeatthemouthofPugetSound),givingapotentialenemysubmarineasomewhateasiertimefindingtheOhioasshecomesout.Sometimebeforetheboomerisscheduledtoleaveport,oneofourSSNs,probablyaLosAngeles-classboat,willbestationedoffthemouthofthechanneltositandwatchforanysignsofforeignsubmarines.TheU.S.boat'smissionwillbetosanitizethearea,makingsurenoothersubmarineshavecovertlyenteredAmericanterritorialwaterstolieinwaitfortheSSBN.Itwillbealong,boringprocess,withmanyofthesamekindsofproblemsdescribedintheprevioushuntingscenarios.Theywillslowlypatroltheareaandlisten,lookingforanysignofsomethingunusualorman-

made.

ASovietVictorIIIwallowsonthesurfaceafterbecomingentangledinatowedarraycable.Theincidentoccurredin1983offtheCarolinacoast.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

Iftheyfindanothersubmarineatthistime,itwillbereportedquickly,andactionwillbedecideduponbyhigherauthority.Morelikely,though,isthescenarioinwhichahostilesubmarineiswaitingjustoutsidethetwelve-milelimitofAmericanterritorialwaters.InthiscasetheLosAngeleswillprobablytrytositastridetheplannedrouteoftheOhioandwaitforanysignofactivity.Ifsuchcontactoccurs,theactionthatfollowsmightgosomethinglikethis:

AstheOhiocomesout(escortedbysupportandsecurityvesselstokeep,ifnothingelse,theGreenpeaceprotestersatasafedistance)andpreparestodive,theLosAngelescontinuesitsjobofsanitizingtheoceanaheadoftheboomer.Muchlikeasheepdogherdingaflock,itsjobistointerposeitselfbetweentheSSBNandanythreatuntiltheboomercanslipquietlyintothedeepwatersofftheCarolina/Georgiacoast.OnceanOhioisfreeofthecontinentalshelf,eventhelatest688I-classSSNwouldfinditalmostimpossibletotrack.

TheLosAngelescontinuesaheadoftheboomer,untilitgetsthefirst"sniff"ofahostilesub.Thentheengagementtakesonalltheaspectsofagameofchickenwithtractor-trailertrucks.TheLosAngelescloseswiththethreatboat,tryingtogetitawayfromtheOhiowitheverythingshortofactuallyrammingitorfiringweapons.TheSSNinitiatesmaneuversconformingtotherulesoftheroad,whichrequirethehostileboattoevade.TheAmericanSSNmightlaunchnoisemakersandothercountermeasuresinanattempttomakesomuchnoisethattheOhiowillbelostinthebackground.AnothertechniquehastheLosAngelesmaskingtheOhiobystandingalongthepathbetweenitandthehostilesub,andblastingawaywithitssphericalsonararrayasajammer.

Ifthethreatsubprovestobeparticularlyobnoxious,theAmericanskippermightevenengageinamaneuvertoforcethehostileboat'sskippereithertotakeevasiveactionorsufferthepossibledamageandembarrassmentofanunderwaterfenderbender.Whatevermaneuverstheattackboatchooses,thedesiredresultisthatbynowtheOhiohas

slippedintothedeepwatersoffthecontinentalshelfandissilentlyonthewaytoherdesignatedpatrolarea.Oncethisisaccomplished,theLosAngelesprobablybreaksoffthechaseandheadsforhome.

Thusbeginsanotherinthemorethan3,000FBMpatrolsthattheUnitedStateshasrunoverthelastthreedecades.TheSSNwillhavehelpedmakeitasuccessfulone,thatis,oneinwhichtheboomerreturnstobasewithalltwenty-fourofitsmissiletubesstillloaded,missilesunfired.Somemightclaimthattheabovescenarioisonlythewildestspeculationandconjecture,andperhapsthisistrue.ButjustwhatwasthatVictorIIIthatsurfacedofftheCarolinacoastin1983doingthere?JustrememberthatthesubmarinebasesatCharleston,SouthCarolina,andKingsBay,Georgia,arerightinthatneighborhood.DoyouthinktheVictorwastherejusttophotographtheresortatHiltonHead?Hardly.

Kilo-classsubmarinerunningonthesurface.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

TacticalExample--HuntingaDieselSubmarine

Oneofthefewgrowthindustriesinthedefenseworldtodayisthediesel-electricsubmarinemarket.SincetheendoftheColdWar,moreandmoresmall-tomid-sizenavieshaveseenthesecompact,cost-effectivecraftasawaytomakeupforwhateverprotectiontheymayhaveenjoyedfromwhicheversidetheyalliedthemselveswithduringtheColdWar.Unfortunately,becauseofcutbacksinthedefenseindustryworldwide,someofthenationsthatproducesuchboatshave

soldtheirwarestonationsthattherestoftheworldmightconsidersomewhatlessthanresponsible.China,India,Pakistan,Iran,andAlgeriaarejustafewofthecountriesthathavedecidedtoinvestheavilyindieselboats.

SurelytheVolkswagenofthecurrentgenerationofdieselboatsistheKilo-classboatproducedbytheCIS/Russia.Thistrimlittleboatiscompact,hasagoodcombatsystem,adequateweaponsandsensors,andisveryquiet.Thismakesitanexcellentcandidateforoperationsinstraitsandotherchokepoints.Inaddition,awell-handledKiloisalmostimpossibletodetectpassivelywhensheisrunningonherbatteries.Andsoourlittlestorybegins.

LetussupposethattheIslamicfundamentalistmovementtakesaseriousholdinAlgeria,alongthecoastofNorthAfrica.Andletusagainsupposethatthelocalayatollahdecidesthemerchanttrafficpassingalonghiscoastshouldhavetopaysomedutyfortheprivilege.ItmightthenbepossiblethattheAlgerianNavy,therecentrecipientofseveralKilo-classboats,willbeorderedtogivethewesternmerchantsademonstrationofwhatmighthappeniftheydonotcomplywiththewishesofthenewIslamicgovernment.

Anidealwaywouldbetosealthenearestchokepoint,thentrytocollectreparationstorefrainfromdoingitagain.Foracash-starvedcountrylikeAlgeria,thistollmightbeconsideredanexcellentwaytogeneratecapital.ThelikelyplaceforthisdemonstrationwouldbetheStraitsofGibraltar.Notonlyisitanidealplaceforadieselboattooperate,butthesymbolismofdoingitunderthenoseoftheBritishEmpirewouldbetoughtoresist.

Thefirstnoticeofwhatwashappeningwouldprobablybethe"flamingdatum"ofanexplodingmerchantship.Mostmoderntorpedoesaredesignedtoexplodeunderthekeelofthetargetship,snappingitintwo.Ifthisweredonetoatanker,forexample,therewouldlikelybeamassiveoilspillandfire,aswellaswreckagethat

mightfloatasahazardtonavigationforsometime.This,combinedwiththeinevitabledeclarationfromtheAlgeriangovernment,wouldundoubtedlycauseareactionfromtheWesternpowers.ForhundredsofyearsGreatBritainhasheldcontroloftheseasaroundGibraltar,andanymischiefintheareawouldprobablymakethemwanttodealwithitthemselves.ThelikelycandidateforthisASWexterminationjobwouldbeaTrafalgar-classnuclearboat,becauseofitsabilitytodeployrapidlytotheareathreatenedbytheAlgerianKilo.Mostfolksdonotrealizethatadieselboatisactuallyjustamobileminefield.Itsimplydoesnothavethestrategicmobilityorsustainedspeedofanuclearboat,asimplefactthatislostoncriticsofnuclearsubmarines.

ThedeployingT-boatislikelytohavesomehelpintheformofRAFNimrodASWaircraft.Inaddition,itisasafebetthattheBritishhaveseededthestraitswithavarietyofacousticsensors,andtheareaisaboutaswiredasapinballmachine.TheproblemfortheBritishhuntersistheadversenoiseconditionsinthestraits.Thereareseveralthermallayers,whichmakepassivesonaralmostuseless.Inadditionseveralcurrents,overlappingandopposedindirection,generatealotofflownoise.Allinall,theStraitsofGibraltarisamiserableplaceforpassiveASWhunting.

Fortunately,though,thenuclearsubmarinehasanotheradvantageoverthedieselboatbesidessheermobility.Thatadvantageisthehugeactivesonararraypositionedinthebulbousbowoftheboat,whichisabletosendoutpulsesofsoundandbouncethemoffatargetsubmarine.Aspecialoperatingmodemakesitevenmoreeffective:inareaswithrelativelyflat,hardbottoms,atechniquecalled"bottombounce"canbeused.Muchlikeskippingastoneacrossthewater,anactivesonarcanbouncesoundwavesoffthebottomtocontactanothersubmarine.Usingthistechnique,anuclearsubmarinemightcontactanalmost-silentdieselboatatrangesbeyond10,000yards.Andasanaddedbenefit,becauseofallthereverberationsfromthesoundwavesbouncingofftheseabed,thetargetsubmarineprobably

willnotbeabletotellwhatdirectiontheactivesignaliscomingfrom.

TheTrafalgarentersthestraitsfromtheAtlanticside.TheBritishmaytrytousetheirotherassets,theNimrodsinparticular,tohelpdrivetheKilointothehuntingTrafalgar.TheNimrodsmaybetaskedtodropactivesonobuoys.These,combinedwithactivesonarsfromASWhelicopters,mightjustmaketheKilocaptainmovedeeperintothestraits,rightintothewaitingT-boat.Theaircraft,however,willnotbeallowedtodropanyASWordnanceonit.Withmanysubmarinesofvariousnationstravelingthroughthestraits,andtheclosenessofoneoftheirownnuclearboats,thepossibilitiesfora"blue-on-blue"orfriendlyfireconfrontationaresimplytoohigh.TheTrafalgarislikeasurgeon'sscalpelcomparedtothebludgeonsoftheaircraft.

OncetheBritishthinktheT-boatiswithinrangeofabottombouncedetection,theTrafalgarwouldprobablyuseher2020activesonartoscanfortheKilo.ThiswillbeextremelydisconcertingfortheKilocaptain,withthebuoysandactivesonarsoftheaircraftandhelosdrivinghimfromtheMediterraneanside,andtheblastingfromtheactivesonaroftheTrafalgar.HemaychoosetofindashallowspotandbottomhisboatinanattempttowaittheBritishforcesout.Thiswillnotwork.Withtheonstationloitertimegrantedbyitsnuclearpowerplant,theKilowillbeoutofbatterypowerandsuppliestorunherenvironmentalcontrolsystemslongbeforethebeerrunsoutinthewardroomsoftheT-boat.

InevitablytheKilowillhavetomakearunforit,andthat'sthetimeforthekill.Theadvantageofactivesonaristhatrangeandbearingtothetargetareknownwithafairdegreeofaccuracy.AnaddedbonuswiththispowerfulgenerationofactivesonarsisthattheacousticinterceptreceiverontheKilowillbesoswampedwithnoise(likeastereosystemwiththevolumetoohigh--youcannotmakeoutanydiscretesound),theywillnothearanythingbutthesoundoftheBritish2020sonarblastingaway.OncetheT-boathasclosedtothedesiredrange(probablyover10,000yards),itistimetoprosecutethe

Kilo.TheTrafalgarmaylaunchapairofSpearfishtorpedoesinhigh-speedmode,activepinging,withthewiresactingasdatalinkstotheweapons.

TheKiloislikelytohearnothingofthis.OnlywhentheseekerheadsoftheSpearfishhaveacquiredtheKilowilltheactivesonaroftheT-boatbesecured,andthenthecrewoftheKilowillhearovertheiracousticinterceptreceiverthepingingoftwoSpearfishtorpedoesalreadycommencingtheirendgames.Unlikethepreviousscenarios,inwhichthenuclearboatscouldsometimesrunfromtorpedoesandpossiblyoutmaneuverthem,theKilojustdoesnothavethatoption.Itsrelativelyslowspeedmakesitsomethingofasittingduck,andtheendwillcomequickly.Thistimetherewillbenodoubt,forwhenthefirsttorpedohits,itwillkillthelittledieselboatandallitscrew.Inalllikelihood,allthatwillbeleftisscrapmetalandfishfood.

Andthat'sthewaytodealwithmodernBarbaryPirates.

TacticalExample--BattleGroupEscort

Thebiggunofthefleetisstilltheaircraftcarrierbattlegroup(CVBG),whichforthatveryreasonisitselfatarget.Thecarrierremainsthebestplatformforprojectingpowerfromseatoland,andthebestforestablishingpresence,atermthatmeansjustwhatitsays.Acarrierandherbattlegroupcanappearonthehorizonandjustbethere.Asapolicecarcancalmaneighborhoodmerelybycruisingdownthestreet,socanapowerfulair/surfaceforceletpeopleonlandknowthatsomeonecareswhatishappening.

Themostlikelythreattoacarrierisasubmarinearmedwithantishipcruisemissiles(SSMs).Thoughunlikelytocausefataldamagetoasupercarrier,afewwell-placedSSMscanforceherto

leavethesceneofactionforrepairs.Therangeofmoderncruisemissiles(upto300miles)makesthetaskofprotectingthecarrierfarmorecomplexthanitwasonlytwodecadesago.AnotherproblemisthedecreasingnumberofASWescortsavailabletothecommandersofCVBGs.InjustthelastcoupleofyearstheU.S.Navyhasretireddozensofcruisers,destroyers,andfrigates.Sincethesubmarineremainstheprimarythreat,anothersubmarinemustbeoneoftheprotectors.

Themostformidablededicatedcruise-missilesubmarine(SSGN)istheRussianOscarclass(nicknamed"Mongo"bysomeNATOsubmarinersbecauseofitsawesomesize).TheOscar-classSSGNis,insomeways,theRussians'firstmodernsubmarine.Itislargeandrelativelyquiet(muchlikeaSierra-classSSN)andisequippedtostreamalargetowed-arraysonar.Thisboat,designedspecificallytobeacarrierhunter,isequippedwithtwenty-fourSS-N-19ShipwreckSSMsaswellasafullarrayoftorpedoes.Itisthesinglemostpowerfulattacksubmarineintheworld,andthusmustbehuntedbythebestboatswehave,the688Is.

CurrentlyeachCVBGusuallyhasapairofSSNsassignedtoprovidelong-rangeASWprotection.Unlikethesurfaceescorts,whichhavetostaywithinafewdozenmilesofeachother,thesubsmaybehundredsofmilesfromthemaingroup.TheywilllikelyoperateinclearlydefinedASWkillzones,intowhichonlytheyareallowedtooperateandshoot.Thisisdesignedtominimizethechancesofa"blue-on-blue"ASWencounter.

Oscar-classguidedmissilesubmarine.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

HuntingSSGNsisamostinterestinggame,differentfromotherASWtasks.UnlikeSSBNs,whichrunsilentanddeep,theCVBGreliesonmobilityforitsdefense.Andwhenthecarriermovesswiftly,somustthehuntingSSGN.Speedrevealsanysubmarine'svulnerability.Speedcreatesnoiseanddegradessensorperformance.TheSSNstaskedtodefendthecarrierknowbothwhereandhowfastthebattlegroupisgoing,andcanpositionthemselvesinambushforwhatevermissile-carryinghuntermaybelistening.Inaddition,theAmericanforcemayhavetheedgeofaSurveillanceTowedArraySystem(Surtass)shipsupportingtheCVBG.Usinganadvancedtowedarray,theSurtassshipsarelikemobileSOSUSlisteningposts,andthedatacollectedcanbeforwardedtotheCVBGcommanderand

thehuntingSSNs.

Thepatternofthishuntwillbesprint-and-drift.Thehuntersonbothsidesalternatelyraceforward,thenslowdowntolisten.Asinallunderseaencounters,thesidethatcanhearfirstandfarthestawayhasthebiggestadvantage.KnowingwhereandwhenanSSGNwouldhavetoapproach,theU.S.subhastheabilitytostayquietandwaitfortheOscartocometoit.BecauseofitsneedtoobtaintargetingdatafromtheRussianRORSAT,theOscarhastocomeshallowperiodicallytoraiseitssatellitedatalinkmasts.Thiscauseshullpoppingandmastflownoises.Thusitisentirelylikelythatthe688IcanbeguidedbytargetingupdatesviatheELF/VLFradiocircuitstoapointwhereitwillbeabletoobtainadirectpathpassivesonarcontacttotheOscar.Thiswillprobablyoccuratadistanceof10,000to16,000yards.

AsinthehuntfortheTyphoon,the688Imustgotoanextremelyquietoperatingroutine,toremainundetectedbythetowedarrayoftheOscar.Butunlikethehuntfortheboomer,heretimeisoftheessence.Potentially,theOscarcanfireitsmissilesonceitiswithinrangeoftheCVBG.Thismeansitmustbeeliminatedquicklyandeffectively.TheU.S.skipperislikelytotrymaneuveringtoapositionbehindtheOscar,sothatanytorpedohitwillstrikenearthepropellershafts.Thisislikelytopoptheshaftseals,floodingtheengineroomoftheRussianboatandhopefullysinkingit.AllthewhilethefirecontroltechniciansoperatingtheBSY-1systemwillbe"polishingthecannonball"onthefiringsolutiontotheOscar.At6,000to8,000yards,assumingtheOscarhasnotyetheardthem,theU.S.skippermaylaunchapairofwire-guidedMk48ADCAPs.Thesearefiredinitiallyintheslow-speedsetting,usingthewirestoguidetheweaponsandprovidedatabacktotheU.S.boats.Thefirecontroltechniciansmayeventryto"swim"theweaponsunderathermallayertomasktheirnoisesignaturefromthesensorsoftheOscar.

Inevitablythough,theOscarhearsthetwoMk48sandbeginsto

react.ItcounterfirestorpedoesdownthebearingoftheattackingMk48s,forcingthe688Iskippertocuttheguidancewiresandrunforcover.ItsdistanceleadovertheRussianfish,aswellasefficientmaneuveringofdecoys,shouldallowtheAmericanboattosurvive.ThesamemaynotbetrueoftheOscar.ThecaptainoftheRussianboattriesthesameevasiontacticsashisAmericanopponent,buttheyareprobablynotaseffective.

AsintheTyphoonexample,atleastoneandpossiblybothADCAPsarelikelytohittheirtarget.Andifthedesiredshafthitshaveoccurred,thentheOscarisdeadinthewater.Evenifonlyasinglehithasbeenmade,the688Ihasaccomplisheditsmission.TheOscarisbadlyhurt,andlikelysufferingfromsevereshockdamage.Itmayevenhavetosurface.Inanycase,itwillbemakinghorrendousamountsofflownoiseandmechanicaltransients.TheU.S.skippermayreattackandfinishofftheOscar,orhemayalsocallthecarriertogiveitthecoordinatesofthedamagedmissileboat.WithinaveryshorttimethecarriergroupcouldhaveaflockofS-3BVikingASWaircraftandSH-60ASWhelosoverthedamagedRussianboattofinishitoff.Muchlikeawoundedbearbeingstungtodeathbyaswarmofbees,itwoulddie.AndtheAmericanboatcannowheadoutonanothermission.

Mission#2--AntisurfaceWarfare

Thenineteenth-centuryFrenchmanJeuneEcolefirstcodifiedtheideathatanavyisn'ttherealtargetofmaritimewarfare--therealtargetiswhatnaviesweredesignedtosafeguard,merchantshipping.Theseais,beforeallthings,ahighwayoverwhichnationstrade.Andnavieswereinventedtoprotectthat,firstfrompirateswhowerelittlemorethanthievesatsea,andthenfromforeignnavieswhosethieverywas

onasomewhatgranderscale.Onemightsaythattherealroleforthesubmarinegrewfromthisdoctrine.Thefirstsubmarinesweretooslowtobereallyeffectiveathuntingotherwarshipsbutquitefastenoughtoseekoutandkilltheslowerandmorefragilemerchanttubsthatcarriedthethingsnationsneed:food,rawmaterials,manufacturedgoods.Sincetheglobaleconomyhasmadeallcountriesintoislandnationssurroundedbywater,thevulnerabilityofinternationalmaritimetradeismadegreaterstillbythefewer,slower,larger,andmassivelyexpensivemerchantvesselsoftoday.Theenvironmentalconsequencesfromevenminordamagetoasinglelargecrudeoilcarrierrepresentyetanotherwayinwhichtheworldasawholecanbeatrisk.Naviesexisttoprotectthetradeandthetraders,andathreattoeitherisathreattoboth.

TacticalExample--HoldingaChokePoint(InterdictionofaSurfaceActionGroup)

Thesimplestexampleofachokepointisahighwayintersection,arelativelysmallareathroughwhichpeoplefromdistantplacesmustpassontheirseparatejourneys.Justastheintersectionisaconvenienceformerchantswhobuildshoppingcentersandpeoplewhoestablishmaritimetradingcenters,soitcreateshighlyrewardinghuntinggrounds.InWorldWarII,thefirstJapanesetaskgrouptobedetectedwaspreparingfortheinvasionoftheKraPeninsulaandthesubsequentdescentonSingapore,whichguardstheStraitofMalacca.Englandspentagreatdealofitshistoryseizingandbuildinguponsuchplacesasthese,evenbeforeAlfredThayerMahanpublishedhisthoughtsontheirimportance.TheFalklandIslandsbecameBritishpropertybecausetheyareconvenientlyclosetotheStraitsofMagellan.AscensionIslandisinthemiddleoftheAtlanticNarrows.MaltaliesclosetotheStraitsofSicily.Gibraltarsitsontheentranceto

theMediterranean.SuchwasthevisionoftheEnglishinthedaysofsail.

Shipsmovefasternow,butthechokepointsremain.Intheseplacesthatpeoplemustpassthrough,arrivaltimeandengagementrangearepredictablequantities.

Aluckysubmarinewillhugashallowbottom.Shallowwater,notuncommoninstraits,generallymakeslifeeasierforasubmarine,thoughSSNsusuallylikeatleast600feet/200metersofwatertooperate.Giventime,thesubmarinewillsniffaround,learningcurrentsandenvironmentalfactors.ThemouthoftheMediterraneanisknownforthetreacherousmixtureofwarmcurrentsandcold,makingforconfusedsonarconditions.Inotherplacessuchconditionsmightmitigateagainstasub,butlong-rangedetectionisoflessimportancewhenyouarealreadyastridetheplacewhereothersmustpass.

Theothersideknowsthis,too,ofcourse.Themerepossibilitythatsomeonemightbetheretothreatenyourbattlegrouporyourcrudecarrierforcesyoutotakethisthreatseriously.WillieSuttonrobbedbanksbecause,hesaid,"That'swherethemoneyis."Chokepointsarewherethetargetsare.Youcanbankonit.

Letusconsiderthemostfamoussubmarineactioninrecenthistory:thesinkingoftheArgentinecruiserGeneralBelgranoduringthe1982FalklandsWar.BeforetheBritishtaskforceenteredhostilewaterstheRoyalNavydeployedatrioofnuclearsubmarinesalongthemostlikelyapproachroutestotheislands.Becauseofhislimitedairpowerandsurface-to-surfacemissilecapabilities,Admiral"Sandy"WoodwardwascountingonthistrioofboatstobetheflankguardsagainstanytypeofcounterattackbytheArgentineNavy.Asitturnedout,theyweretheonlyunitsoftheRoyalNavytoengagethemajorsurfaceunitsofArgentinaduringthewar.

InthelastfewdaysofApril1982theArgentineansurfacefleetwassplitintothreetaskgroups.Theirplanappearstohavebeenbasedon

athree-prongedpincersmovementagainsttheBritishtaskforcefromthenorth,south,andwest.ThenortherngroupwascomposedoftheiraircraftcarrierVeinticincodeMayo(Twenty-fifthofMay)withasmallairwingofA-4Skyhawkattackaircraft,andseveralguidedmissiledestroyerscarryingExocetSSMs.ThewesterngroupwascomposedofseveralExocet-armedfrigates.Thesoutherngroupwaspotentiallythemostdangerousforceofall,composedofthecruiserGeneralBelgrano(theformerUSSPhoenix)armedwith6-inchguns,ExocetSSMs,andSeacatSAMs,accompaniedbytwoExocet-armeddestroyersofWorldWarIIvintage.

ItislikelythatnationalintelligencesourcesoftheUnitedKingdomandtheiralliesnoticedtheplannedmovementevenbeforetheshipsraisedanchorandlefttheirharbors.Andoncetheyhadsortied,itmusthavebeenfairlystraightforwardfortheRoyalNavyoperationscenter(knownasHMSWarrior)atNorthwood,England,tofeedtheupdatestothesubsviatheirsatellitecommunications.ThethreeBritishboatswereplacedalongthethreesurfacegroups'linesofadvance,andwereleftinwaitingwhiletheBritishnavalandcivilianleadersdecidedwhethertoshoot.

Mark-8torpedoesareloadedaboardaRoyalNavysubmarine.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

ThekeyquestionherewaswhetherornottheArgentineforceswouldattempttopenetratethe200-mile-radiustotalexclusionzone(TEZ)fromPortStanleyintheFalklands.Clearlyiftheytriedtopenetrateit,therewouldbenoquestionbuttoattackwiththenuclearboats.Buttheshipsdidnotcomeondirectlyandseemedtorallyjustoutsidethezone,thoughquitecloseenoughtodashinatamoment'snotice.ThenortherngroupwastryingtofindsomewindtolaunchherstrikeofA-4sattheBritishtaskgroup,though(amazinglyfortheweatherintheSouthAtlantic)itwascalmandwindless.

Thechokepointinthatareawas,ironically,notastraitbutthe

extremelyshallowwater.TheArgentineansoutherngroupwasoperatingoverashallowriseintheoceancalledtheBurdwoodBank,whichmadedifficultoperatingconditionsforHMSConqueror(S-48),thesouthernboatintheBritishbarrier.ThishydrographicchokepointwasamajorproblemfortheBritishSSN,andbecameafactorinthedecisioncomingfrom10DowningStreet.AlreadytheConquerorandanotherboatweretrackingtheirassignedtargetgroups,andadecisionwasneededfromonhigh.

TAperiscopeshotofaRoyalNavyfrigateonthereceivingendofaPerisherstudent'sthree-torpedopracticespreadduringanapproach.AspreadofMark-8torpedoesjustlikethissanktheArgentinecruiser

GeneralBelgrano.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

LateonMay2,1982,themessagewassentfromNorthwoodauthorizingthesinkingoftheBelgrano,andanyofherescortsthatattemptedtointervene.EventhoughitwasstillsomedistanceoutsidetheTEZ,theConquerorwasthefirsttostrike.Hercaptain,CommanderChristopherWreford-Brown,setupaclassicPerisherapproachontheGeneralBelgrano.LoadedinhisfivetorpedotubeswerethreeWorldWarII-vintageMark8torpedoesandapairofTigerfishMod1s.TheplanwastousetheMk8sfirstbecauseoftheirlargerwarheads(800lb/363kgversus200lb/91kgfortheTigerfish),andsavetheTigerfishforasecondshotifrequired.IftheMk8sworkedonthefirsttry,theTigerfishwouldbeavailableforashotortwoattheescortingdestroyersifnecessary.

IntheplottingareaofConqueror,LieutenantJohnT.Powis,theboat'snavigator,carefullyplottedtheinterceptfromrangesandbearingscalledbythecommanderontheperiscope,andinputsfromthesoundroom.Itwasatotallynormalapproach,whichlaterwouldbejudgedconsiderablyeasierthanmostoftheapproachesmadeduringaPerishercourse.Wreford-BrownmaneuveredtheConquerorjust1,200yardsofftheprojectedtrackoftheGeneralBelgranoandpatientlywaited.TheArgentineshipscontinuedblindlyalongtheirtrack,completelyobliviousofthecomingdanger.Andthenitwastime.

Justbefore1600hoursonMay2,1982,theonlycombattorpedoshotseverfiredbyanuclearsubmarinewerelaunchedfromConqueror.ThethreeMk8swereangledinawaydesignedtoensurethatatleasttwoofthemwouldhittheGeneralBelgrano.Andthatisexactlywhathappened.ThefirstMk8hitforwardnearthebow,tearingitfromtheship.Thesecondonestruckintheengineeringspaces,causingacompletelossofpowerandmassiveflooding.TheGeneralBelgranoimmediatelytookonaheavylisttoport,andwithinminutesitwassinking.Hercaptainhadnochoicebuttoabandonship

andhavehiscrewtaketotheliferafts.(Ironically,theexactsametypeofhitsinthesameplaceshadsunkhersistership,theUSSHelena,duringtheBattleofKulaGulfin1943.)Some400oftheBelgrano'screwofover1,000perishedinthesinkingandwhilewaitingtoberescued.

Inadditiontothetwohitsonthecruiser,thethirdMk8appearstohavehitoneoftheescortingdestroyers,thoughitfailedtodetonate.UnfortunatelyforthecrewoftheGeneralBelgrano,theescortingdestroyersdidnotevenknowwhathadhappeneduntiltheylookedandnoticedthatthecruiserwasnolongerinformation.Itwouldbealmostforty-eighthoursuntilallthesurvivorsofthesunkencruiserwerefinallyrescued.

HMSConquerorreturnshomeaftersinkingtheArgentinecruiserGeneralBelgranoduringthe1982FalklandsWar.Notethe"JollyRoger"flaghangingfromthemast.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

AlocalresidentoftheFalklandIslandspersonallygreetsandthanksthecrewofaRoyalNavysubmarinefollowingthe1982war.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

AboardtheConqueror,therewasthesatisfactionofhearingthesoundsoftwosolidhitsandthebreaking-upnoisesfromthecruiser.Inaddition,thesubreportedthedroppingofafewdepthcharges,thoughthishasneverbeenconfirmedbytheArgentines.Sincetheescortingdestroyershadjustcontinuedblindlyon,therehadbeennoopportunitytoimmediatelyfollowupthefirstattack.AndwhentheymovedawayfromtheTEZ,itislikelythattheprevailingrulesofengagementpreventedfurtheraction.TheConquerorcontinuedonstation,asassigned.

AsfortheArgentineNavy,theeffectswererapidandenormous.Onestory,toldatthebarswheresubmarineofficersgoafterhours,saysthatassoonasthecarriergrouptothenorthoftheFalklandsgotwordonthesinking,theyimmediatelyreversedcourseandheadedbacktoport.ThestorygoesontosaythatapparentlythisspoiledtheopportunityofanotherRoyalNavysubmarinecommander,whoallegedlywaswatchingtheoncomingcarriergroupthroughhisperiscope.RoyalNavygossiphasitthathewatchedthecarrierandherescortsturnforhomelessthanthirtyminutesbeforehehimselfwouldhavegotteninhisshotsattheVeinticincodeMayo.TheArgentinesurfaceforcesneveragainventuredoutofportduringthewar,andtheBritishhad,inessence,reducedtheconflicttoaset-piecebattleagainsttheairandlandforcesofArgentina.AllfortheexpenditureofthreeWorldWarII-vintagetorpedoes,perhapsthemostcost-effectivenavalvictoryinhistory.

TacticalExample--MaritimeInterdiction(AttackofaConvoy/AmphibiousGroup)

Thisisahigh-risksituationforeveryone.Aconvoybydefinitionis

alargegroupofvaluableshipsprotectedbyaforceofwarships.Ifyourenemyhasaconvoy,heistransportingsomethingimportanttohiswareffort,somethingthatyoudon'twanttoletarrive.Anamphibiouswarfaregroupisalittledifferent;inthiscasethecargoisthemostpreciousofallfortheenemyandthemostdangerousofallforyou:fullyequippedcombattroopswhohaveajobtodo.You'vegottotrytostoptheenemyineithercase,whilehemustguardamovingasset.Infact,thatassetwillbemovingasrapidlyaspossibletominimizetherisk--thefastertheymove,thelesstimeyouhavetoattack.Butunlikeacarriergroup,inwhicheveryshiphastheabilitytodefenditself,mostoftheflockinaconvoyisrelativelyhelpless.Fortheamphibiousgroup,thereisoneotherdifficulty.Whileaconvoyprobablywantstogofromonefriendlyporttoanother,theamphibsbydefinitionareheadingintoharm'sway--theywanttogowhereyouandyourallieslive.Thatmeansthesubmarineswillhavetohunttheirenemyontheenemy'sground.

Let'ssupposethatthegovernmentoftheUkrainehasdecidedtosupportsomeoftheirformeralliesintheBalkans,theSerbiansperhaps,withanamphibiousexpeditionfromtheBlackSeatotheAdriatic.Itmightbecomposedofsomesixtoeightex-SovietRopucha-orPolnocny-classlandingshipswitharegimentoflandingtroopsaboard.Thelandingshipsprobablyhaveanescortoffourtosixfrigates(likeKrivaksorGrishas)and/orcorvettes(likePauksorTarantuls),thoughnothinglikethekindofescortthattheoldSovietNavyusedtobeabletoputtogether.Inanycase,thisistheverykindofinterventionthattheUNisdesperatelytryingtoavoidinafesteringpartoftheworld.WhileNATOairandsurfaceforcescouldcertainlydealwithsuchagroup,itwouldbemessy.Andtherewouldberepercussions:furtherconfrontationsbetweeneastandwestmightdevelop.Or,someonecouldjustdealwithit.Someonewhohassomethingthatcanjustmakethingsdisappear.

Wordoftheexpeditionwouldnotbedifficulttofindout.Stateslike

theUkrainearefilledwithoppositiongroups,andthenationalintelligenceassetsoftheUnitedStatesclearlynoticethegatheringoftheshipsandthemovementsofthetroopsandvehiclestotheport.ThustheUnitedStateswouldhaveseveraldaystocoordinatethenecessaryassetsandmovea688IintotheAegeanorAdriatictointercepttheamphibiousgroup.

Whenitcomesout,theamphibgrouphasthelandingships(sayeightofthem)intwocolumns,withacircleofASWescorts(sayfourofthese)surroundingthemattheflanks.ThekeyproblemfortheU.S.skipperistodoenoughdamagetostopthegroupbutnotnecessarilykillallthetroopsonthelandingships.Onewaytodothisistodestroytheescortsinplainsightofthelandingships,sothattheywillrealizehownakedandvulnerabletheyare,andgobackhome.AndthisisexactlywhattheAmericanboatdecidestodo.

TheoneconstraintisthattheU.S.skippermustmakesurethattheweaponsusedarenotunique.Thisistosay,atorpedoisatorpedo,aHarpoonmissileisaHarpoonmissile.Manynationshavethesethings.Usingtheseweaponswouldnotleavea"smokinggun"pointingattheUnitedStates."Credibledeniability,"theycallit.ButusingauniqueweaponlikeaTomahawkantishipmissilewouldpointthefingerdirectlyattheUnitedStates,sothesepowerfulweaponssimplywillnotdo.

Themostfavorableangleoffireisdirectlydowntheamphibiousgroup'slineofadvance.SincethebestASWshipsintheescortwillprobablybeoutfront,thesewillbethefirsttargets.ThefavoredweaponswouldbetwopairsofMk48ADCAPs,eachpairbeingcontrolledbyafirecontroltechnicianattheBSY-1consolesinthecontrolroom.Inthisway,theonlythingtheoncomingescortswillhearisthehigh-speedsoundoftorpedoes.Therewillbenowaytoknowwhomanufacturedthem,orwhofired.

TheapproachmaybeaidedbytargetingassetslikeaP-3Orion

patrolaircraftorotherover-the-horizontargetingsystems.Everynowandagainthe688Ipokesitscommunicationsmastabovethewaterforashorttime,takesinthelatesttrackingdataontheamphibiousgroup,andthengoesbacktothejobofpositioningitselfalongthegroup'slineofadvance.EventuallytheBSY-1systembeginstopickupindicationsoftheoncomingvessels.Thefirstcontactsmaybe"convergencezone"(CZ)contacts,whichoccuratregularintervalsofaboutthirtymilesfromthetarget.Inthiswayasubmarinecanhearasurfacevesselatsomethinglikeninetymiles,orthethirdCZ.ButmostlikelythenoisydieselenginesofthelandingshipswillallowtheU.S.boattohearthemcomingfromoverahundredmilesaway.

Bynowtheboatisatitsmostquietroutine,sothattheoncomingescortvessels,aswellasanyASWaircraft,willnotbetippedtothepresenceoftheintruder.Nowthegamebecomesoneofpatience,stayingquietwhiletheUkrainianforcebearsdown.FinallythelastoftheCZcontactsdieout,andthefirstdirectpathcontactsbegintobeheard.ThecaptainoftheU.S.boatnowtriestoplacetheboatrightdownthemiddleofthegroup'scoursetrackandwaitsforthemtoclose.Whentherangegetsdowntoabout15,000or20,000yards,thetimeforactionhasarrived.ThefourADCAPsarelaunchedintheslow-speedmodeandguidedunderanythermallayerthatmightbepresent,sotheirpassagetothetwoleadingescortswillbeascovertaspossible.

Evenwhenthetorpedoesgetclosertotheirtargets,itisunlikelythattheescortswillfinallyhearthemandreact.NowisthetimetomovetheMk48suptohighspeed(60-plusknots)andrunthemrightintotheirtargets.Therewillbelittleforthetargetstodo.Withatopspeedofaround30knots,theescortswon'tbeabletooutrunthefishanyway,andwiththewiresstillguidingthem(eachADCAPhastenmilesofthestuff,remember),itshouldbeaneasymattertoguidethetorpedoesundertheirtargetsanddetonatethem.Theeffectswillbeincredible.AsingleMk48detonatedunderthekeelofafrigatewill,

attheminimum,snapitintwo.

AtthispointthenextmoveisuptotheseniorUkrainianofficerpresent.Ifheissmart,hewillturnaroundandrunforport.Ifheisstupid,hewillattempttochargehisremainingescortsintothearea,callforsomeairsupportifanyisavailable,andtrytofindtheintrudingboat.BythistimetheAmericanskipperhasreloadedhistubesandissettingupshotsonthetworemainingescorts.Thiswilllikelyleadtothedestructionofthoseshipsaswell.Shouldthishappen,thecaptainsofthelandingshipswillundoubtedlyhavethesensetorunforhome.TheUkrainianadventureisover.IftheUkrainiangovernmentissmart,theywillnotevenbringupthefactthattheincidenttookplace.

AsfortheAmericanskipperandhisboat,theironlyproblemisslippingquietlyanddiscreetlyaway.Andthistheywilldo....

Mission#3--CovertMissions/SpecialOperationsSupport

Intoaworldthatismovingawayfrommajorwarandtowardalong-hoped-forglobalpeacecomesanewandintermediatehazard:low-intensitywarfare.Actually,thisisnotanewphenomenon.Itusedtobecalledbanditry,brigandage,orotherdesultorynamesbyprofessionalsoldiers--whenasoldierdiesinsuchaconflict,he'sjustasdeadasonekilledonNormandyBeach.AsaformercommandantoftheMarineCorpsputit,"Ifthey'reshootingatme,it'sahigh-intensityconflict."Thatsaid,however,therulesarealittledifferent.Todayonemustbemorecircumspect.

Thenewrealityofwarfareisamodificationoftheold.Whatwasoncereconnaissancebecomescovertoperations,puttingsmallteams

ofexquisitelytrainedspecialistsintoaplacewheretheyoughtnottobe,allowingthemtodotheirjob,whateveritmaybe,andthengettingthemout.Ifthejobisdoneright,nobodywilleverknowwhodidit;andinmanycases,nobodywilleverknowwhatwasdoneatall.

Accomplishingsomethinglikethatmeansstealth,andstealthisthesubmarine'sstockintrade.

TacticalExample--SpecialOperationsInsertionandExtraction

Thequintessentialspecialopsmission:picturesthatneedtobetaken,anasset(humanorelectronic)thatneedstoberecovered,abridgethatneedstoberearranged.Whatevertheparticulars,itisessentialthatthemissionbecarriedout.Suchthingsare,bydefinition,outsidethescopeofnormalnationalintelligenceassetsandmaybeconsideredtobeactsofdesperation.Thustheymustbeundertakenbypersonnelwhohavenodesperationintheirsouls--inshort,submarinersandSEALs.

Thenicethingaboutcoastlinesisthattheyaredifficulttoguard.Thereisnosuchthingasastraightpieceofcoast;windsandtidesseetothat.A1,000-miletrawlforashipcanbedoubleortriplethatdistanceforaforceofsoldiersondryland.Thecovertentryteamneedonlyselectapiecethatisunguardedandthengetashore.It'snotaseasyasitsounds,though--it'sdangerouswork.Thesubmarinenosesasclosetothebeachasitcan.ThefirstthingabovethewateristhesearchperiscopewithanESMreceiver,sniffingforelectronicsignals--radarfirstofall,thenradiocommunications.Iftheseareidentified,thesubmarineskippergetsmovingtoavoidboth.

TheSEALs--theNavy'seliteandexclusiveSEa-Air-Landcommandoteams--willprobablyexitthesubmarinefromunderwaterusingoneoftheescapetrunks.AstheSEALsareapproachingland

withtheutmostcaution,thesubmarinecaptaintriestofindaconvenientplacetowait,perhapshuggingthebottom,probablypokingaradiomastupatpresetintervals,waitingtorecoverthereturningSEALswhentheirmissionisdone.

WhentheSEALshavecompletedthismissionit'stimetoreturntothesub.Despitewhatthemovieswouldhaveyoubelieve,usuallytheegressphaseisquitecalmandgoesaccordingtoplan.Iftheyhavecommittedviolence,therewillbeconfusion.Ifalltheyhavedoneistolookaroundandtakepictures,thenthevictimswillprobablyneverknowtheyhavebeenhad.OncetheSEALsareonboard,thesubmarine'sskipperquietlyleavesthearea.Anotherspecialoperationhasbeencompleted,andthejointSEAL/submarineteamwithintheNavyhasgrownjustalittlebitcloser.Andeachgroupofmenfeelsbothkinshipanddistantadmirationfortheother:thesubmarinersbecausetheyhavenodesirewhatsoevertogoontothebeach--iftheywantedtobeMarines,theywouldhaveaskedforit.TheSEALs,ontheotherhand,shudderatthethoughtofbeinginsideasteelpipeforweeksatastretch.Ittakesallkindstodothejob.

TacticalExample--SpecialInformationGathering

ItwascalledIvyBells.OnceuponatimetheU.S.Navylearned,nevermindhow,thattherewasatelephonecableontheflooroftheSeaofOkhotskthatranfromVladivostoktoPetropavlovsk.BothcitieswerethesitesofmajorSovietnavalbases,andsomeone,nevermindwho,wonderedifitmightbeworthwhiletotapthattelephoneline.Andso,anAmericanSSNenteredthearea.

TheRussiansclaimtheSeaofOkhotskasterritorialwaters.TheUnitedStatesdoesnotrecognizethatclaim.It'safinelegalpoint,overwhatclosureruleyouthinkisappropriate.Ineithercase,it's

relativelyshallowwater,alittletooshallowforasubmarinecommandertobecompletelycomfortable,allthemoresosincetheRussiansregarditashomewaters,holdexercisesthere,andprobablyhaveitthoroughlywiredforsound.

Butatsometimeinthelate1960sorearly1970s,aU.S.SSN(perhapsUSSSkate)madeacallandlocatedthatphoneline.Swimmerswentouttheescapetrunkandmadethetap.Thentheyattachedarecordingdevice,probablyusinganextremelylongcassettetape.Forthenextseveralyears,perhapsextendingintothe1980s,asubmarineperiodically(everymonthorso)hadtoreentertheSeaofOkhotsktodownloadthedataonthetapecassettefor"processing."

Sureenough,thephonelinewasusedbytheSovietNavy,andsosecuredidtheybelievethephonelinetobethatthedataonthelinewasnotencrypted.EverythingtheRussiansknewanddidatseacameacrossthattelephoneline,andafterabriefhandlingdelay,allofthatdatareachedtheU.S.Navy'sintelligenceheadquartersatSuitland,Maryland,justoutsideWashington,D.C.,notfarfromtheSmithsonianInstitution'sSilverHillAnnex.

OfalltheintelligenceoperationsconductedbytheUnitedStatessinceWorldWarII--atleast,allthosethathavecometothelightofday--thisisprobablyoneofthemostproductive,andcertainlythemostelegant.Whichisnottosayitwaseasy.OnatleastoneoccasionwhenaU.S.subwastryingtoretrievethedataonthecassette,aSovietlive-fireexercisewasunderwayoverhead,andtheAmericancrewhadnooptionotherthantohugthebottomandhopetheSovietweaponswereworkingproperly,becausetomoveawaywouldhavepresentedtheircounterpartswithatargetuponwhichtheymighthavefiredliveweapons.Itbecamedicierstilllater.AspybythenameofRonaldPelton,anemployeeoftheNationalSecurityAgency,revealedIvyBellstotheKGB--forwhichhewaspaidtheprincelyfeeofperhaps$15,000;theKGBwasnevergeneroustoitsspies--andthetapwasdiscovered.Atthiswriting,Mr.Peltonlivesinthebasement

leveloftheUnitedStatesPenitentiaryatMarion,Illinois.

Whathappenedwhenthenextsubmarinewentintodownloadthemonthly"take"?That'sanuntoldpartofthestory.SufficeittosaythatMr.Pelton,inadditiontodenyinghiscountryahugelyvaluablesourceofinformation,placedoverahundredmenatthegravestrisk.Wasthedataworththerisk?Yes.Cansubmarinesstilldothingslikethat?Whatdoyouthink?

Mission#4--PrecisionStrike:TomahawkAttacks

AswasshowninDesertStorm,asubmarinecandomanythings.Let'ssaythereisabuildingyoudon'tlike.Theotherguyhaslotsofradararoundit,andmaybetheF-117Astealthfighterscan'tgetthere.(Oneneedstorememberthattheso-calledblackjetisinvisibleonradar,buttheaerialtankersitrefuelsfromarenot.)Andyouwanttodothisjobwithminimumnoticetotheotherside.

Asubmarineapproachesthecoast--notallthatclose,actually--probablyatnight,andlaunchesaUGM-109TomahawkLandAttackMissile(TLAM).Forthefirstfewsecondsofflightthebirdrisesrapidlyonitsrocketbooster.Thenthewingsandtaildeploy,theintakefortheturbofanengineopens,andtheTomahawksettlesdown,easilytowithinahundredfeetorsoofthesurface.It'sasmallmissile,difficulttodetect,especiallywiththenewstealthfeaturesaddedtotheBlockIIImissilesnowinproduction.Themissile,knowingexactlywhereitlaunchedfrombecauseofGPSsatellitefixes(anotherBlockIIIinnovation),thenfollowsapathdefinedbyitsinherentlyaccurateterrain-followingnavigationsystems.Howaccuratewillitbe?Onagoodday,aTomahawkcanflyintothedoorofatwo-cargarageatadistanceofseveralhundredmiles.Andthatcanruinyourwholeday.

ATomahawkcruisemissileislaunchedfromtheUSSPittsburgh(SSB-720)duringOperationDesertStorm.AtotaloftwelveTLAMSwerelaunchedbysubsduringDesertStorm.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

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OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

TacticalExample--ExecutionofaTLAM-CStrikeonanEnemyAirfield

ItisnotoftenrememberedthatthemajorityofattackaircraftemployedbytheImperialJapaneseNavyinthePearlHarborattackweretaskedtocounterairmissionssothattheremaindercouldattacktheU.S.Navyinrelativepeace.Enemyaircraftarealwaysthemostenticingoftargets,especiallywhentheyaresittingstill.Butyouraircraftalsohaveflightcrews,andtheirlivesareprecious.That

makesthemtargetsalso.Iwill,foronce,blowmyownhorn.Iwasthefirst,Ithink,toconsiderthispossibilityintheopenmediawhenIincludedit(asOperationDoolittle)inmysecondnovel,RedStormRising.(AmoreprofessionalversionwasruninTheSubmarineReview,withmypermission.)I'ddecidedthatIwantedtodosomethingthatwasseeminglyoutrageousbutwellwithintherealmoftechnicalcapability.So,whynotusesubmarineslaunchingcruisemissilestotakeoutaircraft?Thiswas,accordingtoreports,amissiontheNavylobbiedforinDesertStorm,butwhichtheAirForcedenied.ThusafewRAFTornadoaircraftwereprobablylostasaresultofthefactthateventheUSAFwasn'tfullyawareofwhatTomahawkcoulddo.

AU.S.NavyTomahawkcruisemissilegainsaltitudeafterbreakingthesurfacefollowingitslaunchfromUSSGuitarro(SSN-665).OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

AconventionallyarmedTomahawklandatackcruisemissile,launchedfromasubmergedsubmarine400milesoffthecoast,approachesareinforcedconcretetargetduringalivewarheadtest.OFFICIALU.S.NavyPHOTO

Missilestrikingareinforcedconcretetarget.OFFICIALU.S.NavyPHOTO

Concretetargetexplodes.OFFICIALU.S.NavyPHOTO

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Theonlyhardpartoftheoperationistiming.Youwantallthemissilestoarrivewithinaveryshorttimeofoneanother.TheaccuracyofTomahawkmeansthatitcanflyrightdownthecenternotjustofrunwaysbutalsooftaxiways,sprinklingclustermunitions(inthecaseoftheTLAM-Dversion)asitgoes,toattacktheworld'smostdelicateartifacts--high-performanceaircraft.ThetrulyadventurouscanaimtheTLAM-Cversions(with1,000-lbhigh-explosivewarheads)rightatthedoorsofaircraftshelters.Butifyou'veplannedthisright,thosedoorswillbeopenanyway,andmanyoftheaircraftwillbeintheopen,becausethewholeideaofthissortofmissionistocatchtheotherfellowunaware.Therehaveevenbeenreportsof"specialwarhead"variantsoftheTomahawk,includingonethatfiresrocket-propelledconductingfilamentsoverhigh-tensionpowerlines

toshortoutanenemy'spowergrid.Yousee,theU.S.NavylearneditslessonatPearlHarbor.It'sbettertogivethantoreceive.

Sowhomighthaveaircraftthatwemightnotlike?Well,considerthoseperennialwesternfavorites,theIranians.SincetheendofDesertStorm(withitsunexpectedwindfallofIraqiwarplanes),theIranianshavebeenconductingatrulyhugearmsbuildup.Onereportevenhasthemtryingtobuyaregimentofex-SovietBackfirebomberscompletewithheavyantishipmissiles.Moremundane,butprobablyabitmoreuseful(andaffordable)arethelargenumberofSu-24FencerstrikeaircrafttheyhaveacquiredfromIraqidefectorsandtheRussians.Thesemediumbombershaveexcellentrangeandradar,andcanbeequippedwithavarietyofair-to-groundordnanceandantishippingmissilessuchastheKh-35(roughlyequivalenttotheU.S.Harpoonmissile).AndconsideringthattheRussianswillsellalmostanythingforhardcurrencythesedays,youcanbetthattheIranianscanbuyeventhelatestinCISmissiletechnologyatbargainprices.

JustsupposethattheIranians,havinginitiatedoneoftheirperiodicmisunderstandingswiththeirPersianGulfneighbors,begintohintthattheymightinitiateanothertankerwarthewaytheydidinthe1980s.Andlet'sjustsupposethattheIraniansfollowhabitanddecidetoholdalive-firedemonstrationfortelevisionoftheirnew-foundcapability.Theyseemtobelievethatsuchdemonstrationswillcauseotherstobowtotheirwill.Morelikely,though,itwillresultinthesigningofapresidentialfindingauthorizingtheuseofforcetopreemptivelyremovetheIranianSu-24threattoshippingintheregion.

Thequestionnowisjustwhatkindofforcetouse.Acarrierairstrike,longafavoriteofpresidents,risksthepossiblelossofaircraftandthedeathand/orcaptureoftheaircrews.UseofF-117As,sosuccessfulandinvulnerableduringDesertStorm,requiresthecooperationofafriendlygovernmentintheregiontoprovidebasing.

Anduseoflong-rangeB-2AsflyingdirectlyfromaU.S.base,suchasDiegoGarcia,wouldplaceatriskthecrownjewelsoftheAirForce'sAirCombatCommand.Allfortakingoutacoupledozenfighter-bomberswhosenetworthwouldnotpayforasinglelostB-2A.SurfacevesselscouldlaunchaTLAMstrikebutwouldbesittingtherevisibleafterthestrike.ClearlywhatisneededissomethingdiscreetandsafefortheAmericanattackers.Thatsomethingmaywellbeasubmarine-launchedTLAMstrike.

TorendertheairfielduselessanddestroytheSu-24FencersandKh-35swillprobablytakebetweentwenty-fourandthirty-sixTLAMs.ThusapairofVLS-equippedLosAngeles-classboatswillbeneededtodeliverthemissiles.Ifsubmarineswiththenecessarynumbersandtypesofmissilesarenotalreadyinplace,themissilescanbedeliveredtotheboatsataforwardbaseortender.Inadditiontothemissiles,thesubmarineswilltakedeliveryofthecomputerizedmissionplansdevelopedatoneoftheTheaterMissionPlanningCenters(TMPCs).Thisplan,whichcanbeusedasisorupdatedviaasatellitelink,willhavebeendesignedtoputthemaximumnumberofTLAMsoverthetargetairfieldintheshortestdurationpossible.ItshouldbenotedthatnotoneTLAMwillbeaimedattherunways.Thisisbecause,asDesertStormproved,itmakeslittlesensetoattackconcrete,whichisquiteeasytorepair.Destroyanairplane,itisgoneforever.Andthatisthegoaloftheplannedstrike.

Therun-intothetargetprobablycanbeonthecoastoftheIndianOcean,thoughUSSTopeka(SSN-754)recentlyoperatedinsidethePersianGulfitself.The688Isstandoffthecoastatarangeof50to100milesandawaitthefiringordersfromWashington.Oncethesecome,thefiringtimesandtime-on-targetofthemissileswillbecoordinatedbetweenthetwoboats.Themissioncanberunatalmostanytimeofthedayornight,aslongasthevisibilityoverthetargetisrelativelyclear.Forourpurposes,though,wecanassumethattheattackwillbemountedintheearlymorninghours,priortosunrise.

Thiswillhavetheeffectofcatchingthepersonnelattheairbaseintheirbeds,reducingcollateralcasualtiesaswellastheeffectivenessofthebasedefenses.

EachsubmarineprobablyloadsthreetorpedotubeswithTLAMs,andonlyonetubeisloadedwithanMk48ADCAP"justincase."Thethreemissilesinthetubeswillbefiredfirst,followedbythetwelveintheVLStubes.Approximatelyevery30secondsanotherTLAMisejectedfromitsfiringtubeandheadedonitsway.Whilethisisbeingdone,eachboat'storpedoroomcrewquicklyreloadstheemptytubeswiththreeadditionalTLAMs,sothesecanalsobelaunchedontheirwaytothetarget.Thismakesatotalofthirty-sixTLAMsheadedforthetargetairfield.Oncethisisdone,thesubmarinesjustslipquietlyaway,leavingnosignofeverhavingbeenthere.

Onceitsenginehasignitedandthewingshavedeployed,eachmissileskimstheoceanandmaneuverstowhatisknownastheprelandfallwaypoint.Thisaspotintheoceanthatleadstothefirstlandfallnavigationpoint.Fromhere,eachmissilenavigatesviaacombinationofGPSfixesandTercomupdates.Theideaisforallthirty-sixmissilestoarriveoverthetargetatpreciselytherighttimeandinorder.Thefirstfewmissiles,sayfourtosixofthe1,000-lbhigh-explosive(HE)warheadTLAMs,arededicatedtoreducingtheradarandSAMdefensesoftheairfield.Themissileshavebeenprogrammedeithertodiveintoaradarandexplode,ortoflyovertheradarvansanddestroythembyoverpressurescreatedbythehigh-explosivewarheads.

Withthewaynowclearfortheremainingmissiles,theactualattackontheairfielddevelops.Itwillprobablybeoverinjustamatterofseveralminutes.SeveraloftheTLAMsarmedwiththeCEMsubmunitionswillrundownthereadyramps,scatteringbombletsoveranyaircraftwaitingthere.Onceeachofthemissileshasexpendeditsloadofsubmunitions,itwillprobablybeprogrammedtodiveintooneofthesmallerbuildings(suchastheaircrewquarters)ontheairfield,

addingitsremainingfueltothedestruction.Inaddition,eachofthelargehangarshasprobablybeenallocatedapairofHE-warheadTLAMstodestroyanyaircraftbeingservicedthere.ThefuelstorageareasandweaponsbunkersalsoreceivetheattentionoftheirownTLAMs.ThelastitemfortheTLAMsisanyrevetmentsorhardenedaircraftshelters(HAS)thatmightpossiblycontainsomeoftheSu-24s.

AUGM-109CTomahawkcruisemissilelaunchedfromasubmarinesubmergedoffthecoastofCaliforniaapproachesitstarget,arevettedaircraft.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

The1,000-poundconventionalwarheaddetonatesoveritstarget.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

Explosionandblastfragmentsdestroythetarget.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

Beforethebasepersonnelhaveevenhadachancetoreact,theattackwillbeover.Mostifnotalltheoffendingfighter-bomberswillbeeitherdestroyedorseverelydamaged.Inaddition,theantishippingmissilesareprobablyblowingupintheirbunkers,andthejetfuelwillbeblazinginitstanks.Andwiththis,thethreatoftheseaircraftandmissilespreyingonthetankertrafficinthePersianGulfwillbeatanend.AllofthishasbeenaccomplishedwithoutasingleAmericanlifebeingplacedinharm'sway.

Mission#5--IntelligenceGathering

Nobodyreallylistensatkeyholesanymore,mainlybecausekeysaresmallerthantheyusedtobe.Butelectronicshavemadethedoorsratherwide,andtheyalsoallowthingstoleakoutmorereadilythanbefore.Themajorityoftheworld'smajorcitiesarenearthewater--theystartedoffasportsandtradingcenters--andthusarewithinthereachofsubmarinesandtheirsensors.ThosesensorsandtheirassociatedanalysisequipmenthelpgivetheUnitedStatesandheralliesanedgeinfiguringoutthepoliciesofforeigngovernments,andtheirpotentialtocausemischiefintheNewWorldOrder.

TacticalExample--ReconnoiteringanEnemyHarbor

Ithelpstobeinvisible.Thatmeansyoucangetinclose,andwhenyoudothat,youcanlearnthings.Theprimeintelligence-gatheringmissionforasubmarineiselectronicsurveillance.Asimple-lookingreedlikemastcangatherallmannerofelectronicsignals.Youmightwanttolearnabouttheotherguy'sradarsystems,andhe'llbecarefulwiththesesoasnottoletyouknowexactlywhatyouraircraftwillbeupagainst.Thereforehewon'tusethemmuchwhenunknownaircraftareabout--buthehastousethemsomeofthetimeinorderthathisownpeoplecanpracticeusingthem.Andsowhatyoudoissneakaboatintohiscoastaloperationszone,runupyourESMmast,andwait.Youcanalsolistenintoshort-rangeradiotraffic,theFMstuffthatstopsatthehorizon.Suchradiosarenormallynotencrypted,andit'samazingwhatpeoplewillsaywhentheydon'tthinkanyoneislistening.

Inshortorder,youcanmonitortheotherfellow'swholeelectronicspectrum,andoveraperiodoftime,toboot.Thisallowsoperatingpatternsandprocedurestobeexplored.Andyoucanlearnalotfromthat.Youcandocombinedoperations,withsubmarinesandaircraftworkingtogethertoseewhatisreallyontheotherfellow'smind,and

youcangetawaywithitbecausehecanseeonlyoneelementoftheoperation.Oryoucantrysomethingreallycrazy--takeacloselookforyourself.Whatisheuptoinsidehismainnavalbases?Ifthewater'sdeepenough,ifthesubisquietenough,youmightbeabletogoinandsnapafewpicturesthroughtheperiscope.Maybeevenafewhullshots.DoSSNseverreallydothiskindofthing?It'smuchtoodangerous,isn'tit?

Mission#6--MineWarfare

Question:Howmanyminesdoesittaketomakeaminefield?Answer:None;youonlyneedapressrelease.GeneralNormanSchwarzkopfsaiditallduringDesertStormwithonequestiontoanobtusereporter:"Haveyoueverbeeninaminefield?"Imaginewhatit'slike.Everystepyoutakemightplaceyouonthetriggerofanexplosivedevice.Everysinglestep.Youhavetogetwhereyouwanttogo.Butthesimpleactofgoingtheremaykillyou.Youdon'tknowwhenyou'reenteringtheminefield,andyouprobablywon'tknowwhenyou'refinallyoutofit.Soundlikefun?

Andsoitisforships.Aship,remember,isasteelbubbledesignedtokeepairinandwaterout.Andanyshipcanbeaminesweeper.Once.Minescanbelargeorsmall,butineithercasetheyblastholesinships.Improvingtechnologyhasmadethemmoredeadly.Nolongerthesphericalsteelcontainerswithacid-filledhorns(thoughthesestillexistandstillwork),modernminescanlieonthebottom,beactivatedweeksafterbeinglaid,andcanincludespecialtriggeringdevicessothatonemightgooffwhenthefirstshippassesover,anditsneighborwhentheeleventhdoes.Mines,therefore,haveaseverepsychologicalimpact,andinthenaturaldreadofsuchthingscomespanic,concern,andaninordinatedegreeofefforttogetridofthe

damnedthings,ataskbothtime-consumingandvery,veryiffy.Howdoyouknowwhenyouhavesweptthemall?Youdon't.Youcan't.

TacticalExample--Quarantining(Mining)anEnemyPort

Itonlytakesapressrelease,butasingleexplosionwillputalittleemphasisonit.Minesarerelativelysmallandcompact,andasubmarinecancarryagoodlynumberofthem,tradingoffroughlyonetorpedoforeverytwomines.Andthesubmarinecandeliverawidevarietyofthem:Mark57mooredmineswithsophisticatedsensorandtriggeringsystems.ThentherearetheMk67mobilemines.TheseareobsoleteMk37torpedoesthathavebeenrebuiltintobottommines.Asubmarinecanfirethemintoashallowchannel(whichitselfmightbemined)uptoadistanceof5to7miles.TheMk67thenliesonthebottom,waitingforashiptopassoveritbeforedetonating.Finally,forrealimpact,therearetheMk60Captormines.TheseareencapsulatedMark46torpedoesprogrammedtowaitfortherightkindofnoise(inthiscaseenemysubmarines),atwhichpointthetorpedoswimsclearandattacks.Forexample,youcouldprogramthemtolistenforacertaintypeofsubmarine(likeaKilo),whichisn'texactlycricket.Minesthatshootfirst?Justthethingsforclosingaportdown.

Letussaythatthereisacountry,NorthKoreaforexample,withanastyhabitofexportingmilitaryhardware,whichoffendsthesensibilitiesoftherestoftheworld.Let'ssaytheirnuclearweaponsprogramhasfinallyyieldedresults.Beingstrappedforcapital,perhapstheymightchoosetoselloffafewtothehighestbidder.Somehow(perhapsthroughsomeoftheircontactsintheSwissbankingindustry),theAmericanintelligenceservicesgetwordofthetransaction.ThisstartstheballrollingonaconfrontationbetweentheUnitedStateswithherallies,andtheNorthKoreans.It'sthekindof

confrontationthattheUnitedStatescouldgototheUNwith,andmakeapointtotheworldaboutarmsproliferation,orsufferamajorforeignpolicydebacle.Notsolongago,theUnitedStatesexpendedhugeresourcestrackingashiploadedwithacargoofNorthKorean-manufacturedmissilesonitswaytoIran.AtthelastminutetheCENTCOMmaritimesurveillanceforceslosttrackoftheship,andthecargowasdelivereddespitetheprotestsoftherestoftheworld.WoulditnothavebeenmoreeffectivetojustbottleuptheportinNorthKoreawithminesandneverlettheshipoutinthefirstplace?Thatway,wouldn'ttheUNhaveachancetoinspectthecargoandmakesureitdidnotcontaintheoffendingweapons?Youbet!Itisa"mustwin"kindofsituationthatrequiresadelicateanddiscreettouch.

Sohowdoesonedeploytheminestoclosetheportinquestion?TheproblemhereisthattheNorthKoreanshaveaproventrackrecordofhostilitytowardU.S.surfacevesselsandaircraftoperatinganywhereneartheirborders.(RememberthecaptureoftheUSSPuebloandtheEC-121shootdownin1968?)Thusitisimperativethatanysuchactionbehandledcarefully.Justthekindofjobsubmarinesarebestsuitedfor.

Theminesarequietlydeliveredtoa688IatatenderatGuamorsomeotherforwardbase.The688Iprobablyoffloadsallhermissiles(exceptperhapsforTomahawkantishipmissilesintheVLStubes),andmostofherMk48torpedoes.Otherthanthemines,heronlyweaponsarelikelyforself-defense.Inaddition,aSEALteammightbeembarkedtoassistinanyon-the-spotsurveysrequiredtosupportthemission.Theminingplanhasprobablybeencarefullyworkedout,withappropriateconsiderationgiventosuchthingsastheactivationtimes,tidalandseabedconditions,typesofmines,andappropriatewarningstotheotherinterestedpartiesinvolved.Ofcriticalimportanceisknowledgeoftheexactplacementofeachmine,aswewouldprobablyhavetosweepthem(aswedidinNorthVietnamin

1973)aftertheincidentisclosed.

Theoperationbeginswiththe688Ireconnoiteringtheareassurroundingtheport.PartofthisistoestablishtheoperatingpatternsofNorthKoreanpatrols,butalsotocheckforirregularitiesinthechartsandseabedsurveysthatmightaffecttheminingplan.Here,theNavstarGPSsystemiscritical,asitallowsforprecisenavigationoftheboatintheconfinesoftheNorthKoreancoastalwaters,andplacementofthemines.Oncethesurveyisfinished,thejobofminedeploymentbegins.

FirstoutofthetubesprobablyaretheMk57mooredmines,tobeplacedintheoutermouthoftheport.The688IgoesinslowlyusingeverysensoroftheBSY-1systemtolookfortrouble.Everyfewminutes,anotherminepackageisejectedfromhertorpedotubes,theiractivationclockstickingawaytoaprearrangedtime(probablyonetotwodayslater).Aseachmineisreleased,itspositioniscarefullynotedforfuturesweeping.Itwillnottakemanyofthese,asshipcaptainsarecreaturesofhabitwhofollowtheirchartsandrarelydeviateintolesstraveledchannels.Oncethisisdone,thesubmarine'scommandermayfiresomeoftheMk67mobileminesupintotheshallowchannelleadingtotheinnerharbor,saysixtoeightoftheseforeachsideofthechannel,tositonthebottom.Nowthe688Icarefullymovesoutofthearea.Justtokeepthingsfairinthecomingcrisis,theboatmightmovetooneofthenearbynavalbasesthathandlestheirfleetofdieselsubmarinesandpatrolboats.HereitcouldlayafewmoreMk67sinthechannel,andpossiblyabeltofMk60CaptorstokeeptheNorthKoreanNavy,particularlytheirforceofdieselsubmarines,bottledupduringthecomingconfrontation.Youdon'tevenhavetodoittoalloftheirbases.Justdoittoone,andsaythatyouhavedoneittoallofthem.Whoistoknow,right?

Younowhaveaforeignpolicyfaitaccompli.Anddon'tforgetthepressrelease....

Mission#7--SubmarineRescue

Itisanacknowledgedfactthatdutyonsubmarinesismorehazardousthanotherformsofmilitaryservice.Andunfortunately,theseextrahazardscantranslateintothelossofasubmarineanditscrew.Thisisthepartofsubmarinedutythatisalmostneverspokenof,evenbetweenmembersofthesubforceandtheirfamilies:ifaboatispostedasmissingandpresumedlost,itprobablyhasbeenlostwithallhandsatsea.Thiswascertainlytrueofsubmarinelossesduringtheworldwars,whenveryfewindividualssurvivedsubmarinesinkings.AndinbothofthenuclearsubmarinelossessufferedbytheUnitedStatesduringtheColdWar(theThresherandtheScorpion),thisprecedentheldtrue,withallhandsbeinglost.

Nevertheless,historyalsotellsusthatsometimesmendosurvivesubmarinesinkings.WhenthesubmarineUSSSqualussankbecauseofafaultyinductionvalveofftheNewEnglandcoastinthe1930s,promptactionbytherescueforcesoftheU.S.Navysavedabouthalfhercrew.AndwhenUSSTangwassunkbyacircular-runningtorpedoin1944,asmallnumberofhercrewwereabletoescapeandsurviveuntilbeingpickedupandtakenprisonerbytheJapanese.Thepointhereisthatcircumstancessometimesdoallowthecrewofadamagedorsunkensubmarinetosurvive.Andifanavyfailedtoprovidethosesurvivorsachancetoliveandberescued,moraleinthatforcewouldplummet.

Sothosenaviesthatoperatelargeforcesofsubmarineshaveinvestedconsiderablefundsintoprovidingtheirsubmarinerswithequipmentandskillstoallowfortheirrescueiftheysurvivewhateverinitialcalamitybefallsthem.Someofthese,liketheSteinkehoodsandMark8survivalsuitsissuedbytheU.S.NavyandRoyalNavy,aredesignedforusebythementhemselves.Butcertainlythemostvisiblesignsofcommitmenttothemissionofsubmarinerescueare

theDeep-SubmergenceRescueVehicles(DSRVs)operatedandmaintainedbytheUnitedStatesandEngland.InthewakeofthelossofThresherin1960,theUnitedStatesbuilttwooftheseminiaturesubmarines,andtheUnitedKingdombuiltone.Thesesmallsubmarines,operatedfromamothershiporanothersubmarine,canoffloadthecrewfromasunkenordamagedsubmarineandreturnthemtosafety.

TheAvalon(DSRV-2)isadeep-submergencerescuevehicledesignedforuniversalusewithNATOsubmarineforces.TheAvalonisattachedtotheaftsectionofitshostsubmarine,heretheUSSBillfish(SSN-676).OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

Example--RescueofaDownedSubmarine

It'safunnything:mostsubmarinersfeelthatthetimeoftheirgreatesthazardisduringthetransitstoandfromtheirhomebases.Thisisbecauseofthesimplefactthatsubmarinesare,bydesign,hardtoseeandfind.Thisisespeciallytruewhentheboatsareonthesurface,inthetransitlanesleadingintoandoutoftheirlairs.Theirlowsilhouettesandrelativelylowradarsignaturemakethemtoughtosee.Andifamerchantshipcrewbecomessloppyorlax,itisquiteeasytogetrunover.TheBritishlostaboatintheThamesestuaryinthe1950s,andtheFrenchalargecruisersubmarineinWorldWarII,tojustsuchaccidents.Andwiththesloppyhandlingofsupertankersthathasbeensoevidentoverthelastfewyears,itisnothardtoimagineaneventlikethistakingplace.

Soletussupposethattheworstcomestopass,andamerchantvessel,runninginheavyfog,collideswithaBritishnuclearattacksubmarineduringatransitbackintobaseatPlymouth.Wewillsupposethatthehitoccurswhilethesubisrunningonthesurface,strikingtheafterportionoftheboat,rupturingtheafterballasttanksanddestroyingthepropulsiontrain.Theboatwillprobablybegintosettlefromthestern,andthereisagoodchanceoffloodingbackintheengineeringspacesthroughtearsinthehullandtheshaftpackingseals.Withtheinrushofwateraft,theboatwillbeheadeddowntothebottom.Duringthistime,thecrewaretryingtosecurethefloodingandsealhatches.Theautomaticsafetysystemswill"scram"thereactor,makingitsafe.Ifthereistime,thecaptainwillordertheradioroomtogetoffadistresscalltotheoperationscenteratPlymouth.Ifnot,thecrewdeploysabuoy,whichwilltransmititsowndistresssignaltoattractattention.

BecauseofthelongcontinentalshelfaroundtheBritishIsles,thereisagoodchancethatthedamagedboatwillbottomoutinwatersomethinglessthan1,000feetdeep.Sincethisislessthantherated

crushdepthofaBritishSSN,thereisagoodchancethatsomeorallofthecrewwillescapeanyfloodedcompartments.Atthispoint,theirgoalistosurviveandwaitforrescueifpossible.Ifthereiscontinuedflooding,thecrewwillmovetotheforwardescapetrunk,dontheirMk8escapesuits,andfree-ascendtothesurface.Butifthesurvivingcompartmentsaredry,theywillprobablytrytostayput,hopingforrescuebyforcesfromPlymouth.

OncethePlymouthOperationsCentergetsthewordthatsomethinghasgonewrong,theysetinmotionaseriesofpreplannedactivitiestorescuethedownedsub'ssurvivors.OneofthefirstisacalltotheU.S.NavytogettheloanofoneoftheDSRVrescuesubmarinesfromSUBDEVGRU1atBallastPointinSanDiego,California.Asquicklyasitcanbearranged,aC-5GalaxyorC-141StarlifterwillarriveatNASNorthIslandtopickuptheDSRV,itscrew,andthenecessaryfittingsandequipmenttoconducttheoperation.TheideaisthatSUBDEVGRU1candeliveraDSRVtoanypointonearthwithintwenty-fourhours,andrescueanycrewwithinforty-eighthours.Inthiscase,thedeliverypointwillbethepointclosesttooneofthe"R"classSSBNs,whichareequippedtocarryandoperatetheU.S.DSRVsfortheRoyalNavy.Whenthetransportaircraftarrives,theDSRVandhersupportequipmentaretruckedtotheport,tobeloadedontoaspecialrackonthebackoftheBritishSSBN.

AcasualtyisevacuatedbyaSeaKinghelicopterfromthediesel-electricsubmarineHMSOsiris.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTOBYDAVIDPERFECT

Whileallthisisgoingon,thecrewofthedownedsubmarinearedoingtheirbesttodoabsolutelynothingbutstayalive.Topurifytheairinthesurvivingcompartments,thecaptainwillorderthelightingofspecialcandleswhich,whentheyburn,releaseoxygen.Everyonewillbeorderedtostayquiet,sleepifpossible,andjustwaitcalmly.Bythistime,theRoyalNavyhasprobablyassembledarescueforce,whichwilltrytomakecontactwiththesurvivorsandhelporganizetherescueeffort.Thefirstvesselatthesiteofthesinkingmaywellbeanothersubmarine,becauseoftheirrapidmobilityandtheirabilitytostayonstation,whatevertheweatherandseaconditions.(WhentheUSSSqualuswaslostinthe1930s,itwasasisterboat,theUSSSculpin,thatmadefirstcontactwithsurvivorsofthatdownedboat.)

Withluck,the"R"classSSBNwillabletoreachthesinkingsitenearPlymouthwithintwenty-fourtothirty-sixhoursofthesinking.Andatthispoint,thingsbegintohappenratherquickly.Oncethesiteofthesinkinghasbeenestablishedandtheattitudeofthesunkensubascertained,theSSBNwillsubmergeandloiternearthedownedboat.ThecrewoftheDSRVwillentertheirboatviatheafterescapetrunkoftheSSBN,sealtheirbottomhatch,andliftoff.Sincetheafterpartofthesunkensubisflooded,allthesurvivorswillhavetoexitthroughtheforwardescapetrunk,andthecaptainwillhavetoorganizethesurvivorsintogroupsoftwenty-four,themaximumtheDSRVsarecapableofcarryingononetrip.Atthispointtheoperationbeginstolookmoreliketwospacecraftdockinginorbit.TheDSRVmaneuversoverthehatchofthedownedsub'sforwardescapetrunkandcarefullymaneuversdowntodock.Oncesecure,theDSRV'screwblowthewateroutofthedockingcollarandbangonthehatchoftheescape

trunktotellthecrewofthesubthatitistimetostartthetransfer.Ifthesurvivorsrequireanymedicalattention,theDSRVwillprobablytransferamedicalteamfortheinjured.Atthispoint,thefirstloadofsurvivorsenterthetwospheresoftheDSRV,sealthehatches,andliftofftoreturntotheSSBN.Oncethere,theDSRVdockswiththeboomeranddischargesthefirstloadofsurvivors,thenrepeatstheprocessasmanytimesasrequired.Iftheentirecrewofthedownedsubhassurvived,itwilltakefourtofivetripstooffloadthemall.Atthispoint,anysurvivorswhoareseriouslyinjuredareMedEvackedviahelicoptertoashorehospital.

Withthesuccessfulrescueofthedownedsub'screw,thenextjobwillbetobeginsalvageofthedownedboat.Andhavenodoubtthatthiswillbedone,bothfortheobviouspoliticalreasons,andhopefullytoputherbackintoservice.Andbeforeyoudoubtthepossibilityofsuchathing,rememberthataftertheUSSSqualuswassunkinthe1930s,shewasraisedandrenamedUSSSailfish.Shewouldgoon,rebornwithanewnameandcrew,toanoutstandingcombatrecord,includingthesinkingofthefirstJapaneseaircraftcarrierbyaU.S.submarine.Sometimesfromthedepthsofdisastercomethetoolsofvictory.

TheEndofHistory:SubmarinesinthePost-ColdWarWorld

Whatadifferenceadecademakes.SincethepublicationofthefirsteditionofSubmarine,therehavebeennumerouschangestothesubmarineforcesoftheworld'snavies,especiallythatoftheUnitedStates.PerhapsthemostobviousofthesearetheintroductionoftheSeawolf-class(SSN-21)boatsintoserviceandthecontinuingworkonanewsubmarine--theVirginia(SSN-774)class.Therehavebeenotherdramaticchangesaswell,especiallyinthefieldsofengineering,sensors,andweapons.Theseadvanceshaveledtobreathtakingimprovementsinthewaywedesignandplansubmarinesofthefuture.Atthesametime,theywillhaveaprofoundimpactonthewaytheNavy'snewestsubmarineswillfightthepotentialbattlesofthetwenty-firstcentury.

SubmarineOperationsinthe1990s

Thedecadeofthe1990sopenedwithAmericansubmarinessupportingtheirfirstshootingwarsince1945.OperationDesertStormallowedtheU.S.submarineforcetoparticipateinamajorconflict,throughtheuseofBGM-109Tomahawklandattackcruisemissiles.TheAmericanboatsalsoprovidedothervaluableservicesduringthe1990-1991war,suchasintelligencegathering,maritimesurveillance,andspecialoperationssupport.Thistrendcontinuedthroughoutthedecade,despitetheradicaldrawdowninthesizeofthesubmarineforcesofallnations.Infact,thecollapseoftheSovietUnionandits

navyinthe1990sactuallyfreeduptheU.S.submarinefleettoundertakeamuchbroaderandmoresignificantsetofrolesinadditiontosuchdangerousyetessentialtasksaskeepingtrackofenemy"boomers"andtheirescortingattacksubmarines.

Twoartists'conceptsforfutureRoyalNavynuclearsubmarinedesignsforthetwenty-firstcentury.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

Submarinesinthe1990sbecamesignificantstrikeplatforms,launchingTomahawkattacksintoIraq,theBalkans,andeventheretaliationstrikesagainsttheOsamabinLadenterroristorganization.Sovaluablewasthecapabilityofsubmarine-launchedcruisemissilesthattheUnitedKingdomboughtasupplyofTomahawksfortheirownboats,firingseveraldozenatSerbiantargetsduringOperationAlliedForcein1999.Thiscovertprecision-strikecapabilityhasbecomesoattractivethattheRoyalNavyhaslookedatequippingeveryBritishsubmarine,includingstrategicballisticmissileboats,withasupplyofAmericancruisemissiles.TheU.S.NavyhasalsoconsideredaddingTomahawkstostrategicmissileboats,proposingtoconvertthefouroldestOhio-classSSBNsintohugeguidedmissile/specialoperationsplatforms.11

Anotherrolethatsubmarineshavemadetheirownhasbeeninthearenaofspecialwarfareandoperations.WhiletheBritishhavealwaysusedtheirfleetofboatstodeliverandextractspecial-operationsforce(SOF)unitsliketheRoyalMarinesandtheirSpecialBoatSquadrons,AmericannuclearboatsspentmostoftheColdWarchasingSovietsubsandships.Theexception,ofcourse,wasthehandfulofso-calledSpecialProjectsboats,whichwereconvertedfromexistingSSNs.12However,theendoftheEast-WestconflictandtheemergenceoftheU.S.SpecialOperationsCommandasaresultofthe1980sdefensereorganizationactshaschangedallthat.Today,SOFunitsfromnotonlytheNavy(thefamousSEALteams)butfromtheArmySpecialForces(the"GreenBerets")andMarinesnowregularlypracticetheirtradefromnuclearsubmarines.13TwoolderstrategicballisticmissileboatshaveevenbeenconvertedintotransportsubmarinestosupporttheSOFmission.14

Another"growth"missionforsubmarinesinthe1990shasbeenintelligencegathering,thoughobviouslywithlessofafocusontheformerSovietUnion.TheendoftheUSSRin1991freedupAmericanandBritishboatstokeepaneyeonanumberofother"hot"spotsaroundtheworldandprovidetheintelligenceserviceswithevenmoretoolsandresourcestokeepaneyeandearonthings.Onerecentexampleofthisprobablyoccurredfollowingthein-flightcollisionofaU.S.NavyEP-3EArieselectronicsurveillanceaircraftandaChineseJ-8interceptorovertheSouthChinaSea.Thoughtherewasa"gap"inthecoveragefortheU.S.fromtheairpriortotheflightsbeingresumed,restassuredthatelectronicandcommunicationsactivityalongtheChinesecoastwasprobablybeingmonitoredbyoneormoreU.S.submarines.Notonlydidthisfulfillourminimumintelligence-collectionrequirements,butitalsomaintainedacovertdiscretionthatsurfaceshipsandaircraftcannotmaintain.

Finally,therearethenow-mundanebutterriblyvitaljobsthatnuclearboatsdidthroughouttheColdWar:watchingandtrackingtheshipsandsubmarinesofpotentialenemiesandhostilenationsaroundtheworld.ThishasmeantthatinadditiontowatchingthedwindlingfleetofRussianshipsandsubmarines,U.S.andBritishboatshavebeenkeepinganeyeonthosenationswhowerequietlydevelopingtheirownfleetsinthe1990s.Thismaysoundsurprising,giventheworldwidedrawdownofnavalandsubmarineforcesthatfollowedtheendoftheColdWar.However,anumberofcountriesbegantobuilduptheirnavalforcesinthedecadejustpast,andAmericanandBritishsubmarineswereoutthere,watchingthemeveryimportantstepoftheway.

IntotheTwenty-firstCentury:SubmarineForcesattheMillennium

TherehasbeengoodnewsandbadnewsforthesubmarineforcesoftheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain.ThegoodnewsisthatduetothedemiseoftheUSSR,severalregionaleconomicdownturns,andthegeneraloutbreakofpeace,thesizeoftheworldwidesubmarineforcehasshrunkentoafractionofitsColdWarpeak.Literallyhundredsofsubmarines,fromancientdieselboatstostate-of-the-artnuclearattackandmissilesubmarines,weretakenoutofservice.Inthemostradicalcases,someoftheunitsfromtheformerSovietfleetwerejustdrivenupontoshoreandditchedlikewhalesbeachingthemselvestodie.Itwasapitifulendingfortheworld'slargestsubmarineforce.

Thebadnewsisthatthesubmarinesthatremaininworldwideusearegenerallythepickofthelitter:thebesteverynationstilloperatingthemcanaffordtomaintain.Thismeansthatifashootingwareverbreaksout,theboatsandcaptainsfacingU.S.andBritishsubmarineskipperswilllikelybeverycapableenemiesindeed.Thenthereisthematterofthosenationsthathavefailedtonoticethegeneraloutbreakofpeaceinthe1990s.CountrieslikeChina,Iran,andIndiahavebeenbuildinguptheirnavies,andatthecoreoftheseeffortshavebeentheexpansionoftheirsubmarineforces.ManyofthesehavebeenexportedRussianProject877/Kilo-classdiesel/electricsubmarines(SSKs),armedwithsomeofthebestweaponseverofferedforsaleontheopenmarket.

Similarly,theU.S.andmanyofouralliesareproducingthefinestsubmarines,skippers,crews,andweaponsthattheirtreasuriescanbuy.However,theseforceswillbelargelybasedon"legacy"designslikethe688IsandTrafalgars,withonlylimitednumbersofnewboatstoreplacethemanyunitsthatwereretiredinthe1990s.Thismeansthatfriendlyforceswillhavetomakedowithwhattheyhavewhilethenewdesignsmatureandcomeintoservice.Whiletherecanbelittledoubtoftheoutcomeofaone-on-onebattlebetweenaU.S.orBritishSSNandasubmarinefromsomeroguenation,thereisalwaysthesmallchancethatthe"badguys"willscorealucky"kill."The

godsofwarareaficklelot,andtheworstfrequentlyhappenswhenordnancebeginstofly.GiventhepublicreactiontothelossofeighteenU.S.specialoperationssoldiersinSomaliain1993,onecanonlyimaginewhatthenationalreactionmightbetothelossofabillion-dollar-plusnuclearboatandoverahundredsailors.TheaccidentallossoftheRussianKursk(K-141)inthesummerof2000gaveeveryonewhooperatessubmarinesashock,andsomethingtothinkaboutastheyheadedintothenewmillennium.

Sowhatdoesthisallmeanintermsofnumbersofboats?Well,notasmanyastheleadersoftheU.S.orBritishnavieswouldlike,ofcourse.FromaColdWarhighofalmost100and20,respectively,thetotalshavedroppedtoaroundhalfthat.Today,theAmericansplanonmaintainingaforceofaroundfiftySSNs,whiletheBritisharehard-pressedtokeeptentotwelveinservice.Thisrepresentsaverysmallnumberofplatformstoaccomplishalargerangeofmissions.Wearethankfullywithoutanactivenavalconflicttofight,andthisnumberwillhavetodo.

TheprogressivelylowernoiselevelsemittedbyvariousU.S.,Soviet,andRussiansubmarineclasses.Ascanbeseen,theSoviet/RussianboatshavegottenmuchclosertothestealthofU.S.boatsovertheyears.OFFICALU.S.NAVYGRAPHIC

TheSeawolf(SSN-21)Class:TheUltimateColdWarAttackBoat

Withoutadoubt,themostadvancedsubmarineevertoenterservicedidsoatagrandcommissioningceremonyonJuly19,1997in

Groton,Connecticut.TheUSSSeawolf(giventhehullnumberSSN-21)wastobethetouchstoneoftheU.S.Navy'ssubmarineforces'transitionintothetwenty-firstcentury.15CertainlySeawolfisanimpressiveforeshadowingoftechnologicaladvancestocome,thoughthisisachievedatanalmostunacceptablecost.Also,asimpressiveasSeawolfis,sheisnotwithouthershareofdisputesanddetractors.Infact,SeawolfhasoftenbeenreferredtoasthemostcontroversialsubmarineinAmericanhistory,andthereisalotoftruthtothisclaim.

Authorizedtothedefensebudgetinfiscalyear1989(FY89),Seawolfwasoriginallyintendedtobetheleadunitofaclassofalmostthirtyboats.ThisrevolutionarysubwasdesignedtosucceedtheImprovedLosAngeles(688I)classattacksubmarines.Assuch,shefallsintothesameclassofweaponsastheF-22ARaptorfighterandB-2ASpiritbomber:unlimitedColdWardesignsputintoproductionwithlittleconcernforcostattheirtimeofconception.Inthisregardsheisasuccess,asSeawolfisreportedtobeanimprovementovertheLosAngeles-classboatsinnearlyeveryaspect.Thebiggestpureattacksubmarineeverbuilt,SeawolfalsowasthelastSSNtobeartheimprintofthefatherofAmerica'snuclearnavy,AdmiralHymanG.Rickover.Inparticular,theSeawolf'sS6Wreactorwasthelastwhosedevelopmenthesupervised,thecrowningachievementofhiscareerinmanyways.Perhapsthemostimportantimprovementsoverthe688Iswereintheareasofmachineryquieting,sensorsandelectronics,andweaponsloadoutandhandling.Allofthiswillbecoveredlater,butfirstlet'sexaminethepost-ColdWarenvironmenttogetabetterideaofwhytheSeawolfbecamesuchahotlydebateddesign.

USSSeawolf(SSN-21)layout.RUBICON,INC.,BYLAURADENINNO

Seawolf(SSN-21)DesignConceptsandHistory

Everyweaponssystemhasacoreconceptbehindit,andSeawolfisnoexception.Backin1989,theSovietUnionwasstillconsideredamajorthreattotheUnitedStates,thoughmuchlessofonethanithadbeenduringthepreviousdecades.Thelastyearofthe1980swasoneofthemostdramaticinworldhistoryandincludedthefalloftheBerlinWallandwithdrawalofthelastSoviettroopsfrom

Afghanistan.However,asPresidentGeorgeH.W.BushwasenteringtheWhiteHouse,theU.S.governmentwasjustifiablycautiousandunsureofhowpermanentthechangesinsidetheSovietUnionreallywere.TheDepartmentofDefense(DoD)evencontinuedpublishingafamousannualdocumentassessingtheSovietmilitarythreat,thoughwithaminorsubtitle--SovietMilitaryPower:ProspectsforChange--recognizingapossiblethawingoftheColdWar.Thenextfewyears,though,wereaveryconfusingtimeforthemilitaryplannersatDoD.

USSSeawolf(SSN-21)conductsherfirstat-seatrialsonJuly3,1996.

OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

PerhapsthebiggestproblemDoDfacedinthechangingglobalclimatewasthatwhiletheendoftheColdWarfinallyappearedtobeapossibility,theAmericanmilitarystillneededtopreparefortheworst.TheSovietNavystilloutnumberedtheUnitedStatesNavyinmanyshipcategories,includingtheall-importantareaofsubmarines.NewclassesofSovietsubmarinesseemedtobecontinuallyenteringserviceinthe1980s,andtheUnitedStatessimplycouldnotrestonthehopethattheLosAngeles-classwouldforeverremainthebestboatsintheworld.ItwasthisenvironmentinwhichtheUSSSeawolfwasconceived.

Fromanavalcombatpointofview,itwasclearlyunderstood(infactitwasofficialU.S.Navypolicy)thatantisubmarinewarfare(ASW)wastobetheU.S.Navy'stopwar-fightingpriority.TheSovietUnionandtheirWarsawPactalliescoulddeploymoresubmarinesthantheAmericansandNATO,andmanyoftheirattackandcruisemissilesubmarinesweredesignedwithtwodangerouslyimportantpurposesinmind--antishippingandanticarrieroperations.ThefirstofthesemissionsdealtwithdestroyingEuropean-boundshipping,alongwithescortingwarshipsthatprovidedthevitallifelineoftheAtlantic--whichtheUnitedStateswouldhavetocrosstoreinforceandsupplyitsNATOalliesintheeventofWorldWarIII.

ThesecondroleofSovietattacksubmarineswastheso-calledanticarrierrole,designedtodestroyAmericanandNATOaircraft-carrierbattlegroups,thealliance'smostpowerfulandmobilestrikeweaponatsea.TheSovietsandtheAmericansbothknewthatwhileacarrier'saircraftandescortsmightdetectandinterceptenemybombersatgreatdistances,thenatureofthesubmarinethreatmeantthattheywouldnotbeabletodefendagainstSovietboatswiththesamelevelofefficiency.Theroleofcarrier-huntingsubmarines,likethemissile-armedProject670/CharlieI/IIandProject949/OscarI/IISSGNs,wastosneakintorangeofanAmericanbattlegroupand

attackthepreybeforetheywereeverdetected.ThiswasaveryrealthreatduringtheColdWar,anditwasforthisreasonthatASWwassovitallyimportant.

Oneofthebestwaystokillasubmarineiswithanothersubmarine.ContinuedimprovementstotheLosAngelesclassofsubmarineswereextremelyeffectiveandsignificantlyincreasedthe688I'sabilitytoconductmanytypesofmissions.However,asmuchasthebudgetcuttershatetoadmitit,therecomesatimewheneventhemostadvancedweaponsdesignsbegintoreachtheirtechnologicallimits.Intheearly1980s,justastheNavywasorderingthefirst688Is,thinkingbeganinearnestaboutthefollow-ontotheLosAngeles-classboats.

Inthepast,muchofthesilentEast-Westsubmarinebattlehadbeenfoughtinthedeepoceandepths,farfromviewofthenearestland.ThiswastohavebeentheSeawolf'struehome.Shewouldbefaster,deeperdiving,andquieterthananyattacksubmarinetheworldhadeverproduced.WithASWalreadyacknowledgedastheU.S.Navy'stopmission,Seawolfwouldbecomethetoolformeetingthisessentialpriority.Asmightbeimagined,theprojectwasgoingtocostsomemoney--lotsofmoney!InitialFY89costestimatesforthesubmarineranintheneighborhoodof$39billionforthefullclassofthirtyboats,whichmadethemthemostexpensivesuchvesselsinAmericanhistory.Initialplanscalledforbuildingthreesubsperyear,whichwouldallowtheU.S.NavytomaintainasufficientforceofboatstoconducttherequiredoperationsintheeventtheColdWareverturnedhot.Itwasagoodplan,exceptforthefactthatthewarithadbeendesignedtofightdisappearedwithinalittleovertwoyears.

Thattypeofmoney--$39billion--washardenoughtocomebyduringtheheightoftheColdWarandbecameimpossibleonceitended.AsanuneasyfriendshipbetweentheU.S.andtheformerSovietUnionbegantogrow,sodidpressuretotrimtheAmericandefensebudget,whichhadbeenslowlydecliningsincetheendoftheReaganyears.AsU.S.politiciansclamoredfortheirshareoftheso-

calledPeaceDividend,theDefenseDepartmentandtheNavybegantoreexamineexactlywhatroleSeawolfmightplayintwenty-first-centurysubmarine-forcestructure.OneoftheprimarylessonslearnedfromthePersianGulfWarwasthatwhilesubmarinesweredesignedtooperateinthedepthsoftheblueocean,therewasalsoanalltoofrequentlyignoredrequirementforthemtosupportoperationsonland.Quickly,theNavybegantoseethewritingonthewallconcerningspendingonthisveryexpensiveweaponsprogram.Severalmonthsaftertheendofthe1991GulfWar,thechiefofnavaloperations(CNO)announcedthatSeawolfconstructionwouldbecutfromtheplannedthreesubsayeartoamoremodestoneperyear.However,eventhisplanwasmodifiedoncetherealitiesofpost-ColdWarfinancesandtechnologybegantomakethemselvesknowninthe1990s.

Thefirstoftheproblemsforthenewclassweretechnical,asmightbeimaginedforsuchastate-of-the-artweaponssystem.High-strengthHY-80steelhadbeenusedinnearlyallpreviousAmericannuclearsubmarinedesignssincetheSkipjack(SSN-585)classofthe1950s.Nevertheless,forthedeep-divingSeawolf,strongermetalwouldbeneeded.InitialplanslookedatmaterialasstrongasHY-130steel,butthiswaseventuallyshelvedinfavorofHY-100.TheHY-130wasjusttoohardtoworkandweld,andproductionproblemswithitlookedinevitable.Therefore,theNavyandElectricBoatthoughtHY-100wouldbeagoodcompromisebetweeneaseofmanufactureandgreaterdivingdepth.Unfortunately,eventheHY-100steelhaditsproblemswhenElectricBoatgotworking.Inmidsummer1991,theNavyannouncedthatmassiveweldfailureshadbeenuncoveredonSeawolf'shullasitunderwentconstruction.Theseweldingcracks,whichmightverywellhavebeendeadlyhadtheynotbeendiscoveredandrepaired,meantthatallweldingdonetodateneededreplacement.ThiscausedproductionofSeawolftobedelayedanadditionalyearandaddedmorethan$100milliontothealreadyhighpriceofthenew

boat.

Thenfurtherbadnewsarrived.In1992,afterconcludinganagonizinganalysisofthesituation,theDoD(underthenSecretaryofDefenseDickCheney)decidedtocutfundingforalloftheplannedSSN-21-classsubmarinesexceptfortheSeawolfherself,whichwasalreadyunderconstruction.Asmighthavebeenpredicted,withthe1992presidentialelectionlooming,theSeawolfprogramwouldbecomeahotlycontestedpoliticalissue.

RunninginatightDemocraticprimary,ayounggovernorfromArkansasnamedWilliamJeffersonClintonannouncedin1992thatifelectedpresident,hewouldsavetheSeawolfprogramandcontinueproductionpastthefirstunit.ThoughcriticizedbysomeDemocratsassupportingaweaponsprogrameventheRepublicanswantedtocancel,Clinton'sgambitpaidoff.WhenhewontheWhiteHousein1992,hetookwithhimConnecticut'selectoralvotes,somethingthatmighthavebeenimpossiblewithoutthesupportofoneofthatstate'sbiggestemployersanditsworkers--GeneralDynamicsElectricBoatDivision--theSeawolfsubmarine'sprimecontractor.ItisinterestingtonotethatthesecondsubmarineoftheclasswasappropriatelynamedUSSConnecticut(SSN-22).

Theyear1992alsomarkedthebeginningofachangingstrategyforU.S.Navyforces.ItwasduringthisyearthattheNavyandMarineCorpsreleasedtheirseminaldocumentthatwastoserveasaguideforplanningtheNavyandMarineCorpsofthetwenty-firstcentury.EntitledFromtheSea:PreparingtheNavalServiceforthe21stCentury,thedocumentspelledoutthebiggestchangeinU.S.navalstrategyandpolicysincetheendoftheSecondWorldWar.DeclaringboldlythattheNavy'scurrentcommandoftheseasallowedittoconcentrateonareasofmorelikelyfutureconflicts,namelythe"littoral"orcoastalzonesoftheearth,theNavywoulddramaticallyaltertheplannedenvironmentinwhichtheywerepreparingtofight.Inessence,FromtheSeadeclaredthattheabilityoftheNavyand

MarineCorpsteamtoprojectpowerfromthewaterandimpacteventsonlandwouldbeofdramaticallygreaterimportancetofuturenavalplanning--moresoeventhanthedeepoceanoperationsoftheColdWar.Gonewerethedayswhentheso-calledblue-waternavytooktopprioritywhilebrown-waterunits(riverine,mine-hunting,andamphibiousforces,amongothers)languishedasaresultofalackoftraining,funding,andattentionfromtheseniorleadership.ImpactingeventsonlandwassomethingtheU.S.MarineCorpsandSEALscommunityhaddonefordecades,butitwassomethingthemajorityofU.S.NavyofficersandsailorshadtolearnquicklyiftheNavywastohaveaseatatthetablewhennewconflictserupted.

WhilethisconfidentnewplanwasessentialtotheNavy'sfuture,itwasnotgoodnewsfortheSeawolfprogram.SeawolfhadbeendesignedtofightintheoceandepthsandtohuntSovietsubmarines.Tothisend,itwasthequietest,deepest-divingattacksubmarineAmericahadeverplanned.Theproblemsfacingwarshipsintheshallow,murky"brown"waterofthecoastalregionswereentirelydifferentfromthoseencounteredintheopenocean.Thiswasespeciallytrueforsubmarines,whichreliedondeepdivingdepthsandsensitivepassivesonarstomaintaintheirstealth--bothofwhichwouldbeoflimiteduseinthebrown-watercombatenvironment.

Asifthiswasnotbadenough,thenewSeawolf-classboatswerealsoextremelyexpensive.PracticallyeverypartoftheSeawolf'sdesignwascontroversial.Whilethiswaslargelyduetothehighcostofincorporatingadvancedsystemsintoarevolutionarydesign,thereseemedtobeproblemsallalongtheway,whichsomeoftheworld'sbestexpertswereputtoworksolving.Theresultwasatrulyamazingpieceofmachinery,whichhasruntaxpayerssomewhereintheneighborhoodof$2.8billionperunitoftheclass.Whilethismaysoundlikealot,takeintoconsiderationthattheAirForcepaid$2billionforeachoftwentyoneB-2ASpiritstealthbombers.

Fortunately,plansforanewsubmarinethatwouldincorporatethe

technologyoftheSeawolfintoaboatthesizeandcostoftheLosAngelesclasswerealreadyintheworks.Facedwiththesefiscalandstrategicrealities,theNavyputnewemphasisonasubmarinetheywerecallingCenturion--todayknownastheVirginia(SSN-774)class.Itthuscameasnosurprisewhen,inOctober1993,SecretaryofDefenseLesAspinreleasedtheresultsoftheBottom-upReview(BUR)inwhichitwasexplainedthatSeawolfproductionwouldendafteronlythreeboats,holdoversfromClinton'selection'92promise,hadbeenconstructed.

Seawolf(SSN-21):AGuidedTour

Onceyougetoverthesticker-priceshock(somethingCongressneverseemedtodo!),youcandiscoverexactlyhowrevolutionarySeawolfactuallyis,andit'ssomethingofwhicheveryAmericancanbejustlyproud.Let'sstartoutbydiscussingthedesignofthisbig,beautifulboat.PriortoSeawolf'sdesign,everyclassofU.S.submarinesincetheSkipjack(SSN-585)classofthe1950shadbeenan"iterative"design.Thatistosay,thebasicdesignofsubmarineswasmodifiedsothateachnewclasswasbasedonthesoliddesignofanoldership,incorporatingamixofoldandnewtechnology.

ThustheclassesbetweentheSkipjackandLosAngeleswereallmodifieddesignsofthesameoriginalboat.ThisallchangedwiththeSeawolfdesign.Seawolfwasthefirstsubmarinedesigninoverthirtyyearstobeplannedtotallynewfromtoptobottom.

USSSeawolf(SSN-21)interiorlayout.RUBICON,INC.,BYLAURADENINNO

EverythingabouttheSeawolf(SSN-21)andhersisterboats,Connecticut(SSN-22)andthenot-yet-in-serviceJimmyCarter(SSN-23),isnewandimproved.Sheisbig,displacinganimpressive9,137tonssubmerged.Startingfromthestern,webeginourlookwithwhatmanypeoplewouldmistakenlythinkisoneofthesimplestpartsofasubmarine:itsscrew.KnownasapropellertothoseoutsidetheNavy,thescrewisactuallyoneofthemostcomplicatedpartsofasubmarine,anditsconstructionisacloselyguardednationalsecret.TheconstructionoftheSeawolf'sscrewhasbeenessentialtoherrequirementforquietrunningathighspeeds.

Asmentionedearlier,theBritishbuilttheirTrafalgar-classSSNswithashroudcoveringthepropeller,whichhadthebenefitofquietingexcessnoisegeneratedbythesub'sscrewoutintothewater.AsimilardesignisusedintheU.S.Navy'sMk48torpedo,albeitonasmallerscale.Knownasa"pumpjetpropulsionsystem,"thedesignworkswell.Accordingtoonereport,runningat25knots,Seawolfisquieterthana688Ithatisjustsittingatthepier!OtherstoriesindicatethatSeawolfisabletorunquietlyattwicethespeedofanypreviousAmericanattacksubmarine.OthersourcesaremoredirectandattributetoSeawolfavirtually"silentspeed"of20knots.Whilenumerouselementsgointothesequietingsecrets,youcanbetthattheSeawolf'spumpjetpropulsorplaysakeyrole.HiddeninsidethecoveringshroudofthepropulsorisasinglepropellershaftsimilartothosethathavebeenusedbyU.S.attacksubmarinessincetheadventofnuclearpropulsion.

IfyouweretolookataphotographofaSeawolfunderconstructionorindrydock,youwouldbeabletoseemanyofthesub'ssensorsasyouglanceatthesidesofitshull.Inparticular,theboatisdesignedwithauniquesurfacetailconfigurationandgivestheimpressionofsixthin,flat"finstabilizers"juttingfromtheaftoftheboat,whichfaceoutatvaryinganglesfromtheshroudedprop.Fittedtothestabilizeratthefour-andeight-o'clockpositionsareshroudsthroughwhichthesensitiveTB-16DandTB-29towedarraysonarsarestreamedoutfromtheboat.Asyoumovearoundtothesidesofthelowerhull,you'llnoticeoneofthebiggestadvancesperfectedbetweentheconstructionofthelastofthe688IboatsandthenewSeawolf.ThisistheadditionoftheBQG-5DWideApertureArray(WAA)systemsensorfittings.Althoughinvisiblewhenthesubliesinthewater,theWAAisoneofthemostdistinctivefeaturesofthisrevolutionarywarshipdesign.Anadvancedpassivesensorsystemfittedintothreerectangularhousingsattachedtoeachsideofthelowerhull,theWAAperformsanessentialmissionwhentheboatisinthedetectionandtrackingphasesofanengagement,andSeawolfisthefirstfullclassofsubmarinesfittedwiththesystem.TheWAAhasbeensosuccessfulintrialsthatplanscurrentlycallforfittingitintothefutureVirginia(SSN-774)classaswell.

Inthebowisalarge,24-foot/7.3-meter-diametersphericalsonararray,whichistheheartoftheBSY-2combatsystem.BasedontheearlierBSY-1systemweshowedyouaboardMiami,BSY-2is,intermsofsoftware,processingpower,andintegration,agenerationaheadoftheearliersystem.BytyingtogetherallthevarioussonarandothersensorssystemsintotheBSY-2,SeawolfhasacapabilityformultitargetcombatengagementsandsituationalawarenessmatchedonlybytheAegiscombatsystemontheTiconderoga(CG-47)andArleighBurke(DDG-51)missilecruisersanddestroyers.

AswecontinuealongourjourneyonSeawolf,you'llnoticemanybulgesandbumpsalongthehull,eachofwhichservesavitalpurpose.

Walkingalongthelonghull,whichis353feet/107.6meterslongand40feet/12.2meterswide,you'llseealong,thinfaringthatisraisedseveralinchesoffthedeck.Thisiswherethetowedarraysonarsarestored.Also,asduringourvisittoMiamiandTriumph,you'llnoticethatthedeckismadeofathick,spongycoatingknownasanechoictiles.TheseblackrubberliketilesdomuchtosealsoundinsidetheSeawolfaswellaskeepothersoundsfrombouncingofftheboatandreflectingsonar"pings"backtoprowlingsurfaceships,sonobouys,orenemysubmarines.Everynowandthenyoumightseeasubmarine,especiallythoseoftheformerSovietUnion,missingatileortwo.Theseoccasionallyfalloffandmakeforsomeinterestingphotoops!

Navyandcontractorpersonnelmantheunderwaymaincontrolwatch,aboardSeawolf.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

UnderneaththetilesisoneofthehardeststeelhullseverconstructedonanAmericanship.OncetheweldingworkofSeawolfwasfixed,therealbenefitsofHY-100steelbecameapparent.Withasignificant(meaningclassified)increaseindivingdepthoverthe688Iclass,SeawolfisabletooperatefartherintotheoceandepthsthananyattacksubmarineinAmericanhistory.ThishasrestoredmuchofthetacticalcapabilitylostwhentheHY-80hullsoftheLosAngeles-classboatswerethinneddowntosaveweightanddisplacement.AstherecentlossoftheRussiansubmarineKurskillustrates,theoceandepthscanbeanythingbuthospitable,andthedeeperasubmarinegoesthemorepressureisexertedonitshull.ItwasjustthesedangersthatthesubmarinedesignershadinmindwhentheybuiltinthenextfeaturewerunacrossaswetourSeawolf'sdeck--thesubmarineescapetrunkandDeepSubmergenceRescueVehicle(DSRV)matinghatch.

Thisafthatch,alongwithasecondhatchfartherforward,iswherearescuechamberorsubmarineliketheDSRVwouldmatewithSeawolfintheeventshesufferedacatastrophicaccidentandthecrewmemberswerestillsafe.Thisis,ofcourse,areallybigif.Itis,however,averyrealpossibilitythatwasdemonstratedquitesadlybythelossoftheKurskandhercrewin2000.AnumberoftheKursk'screwsurvivedthesinkingoftheirboatandmighthavebeensavedhadtheirgovernmentallowedU.S.orBritishDSRVstobedeployedearlierduringthesearch-and-rescueoperations.

TherehavebeensomechangesinthefieldofsubmarinerescuesincethefirsteditionofSubmarinewenttopress,andthisseemslikeagoodplacetocoverthem.ThefirstisthattheAmericanDSRVsarerapidlycomingtotheendoftheirusefulservicelivesandrequirereplacementorupgrade.Also,thededicatedrescueshipsthatcouldoperatetheoldMcCannrescuechambershavebeenretired,meaningthattheDSRVsdeliveredonthebacksofsubmarinesarenowtheonly

deep-waterrescuesystemintheU.S.inventory.Ontheplusside,though,newrescuetechnologiesarebeingdesignedandtested,andmaybebackfittedontoexistingDSRVs.

Thearrangementofperiscopes,sensors,andcommunicationsmastsontheconningtower/sailofUSSSeawolf(SSN-21).RUBICON,INC.,BYLAURADENINNO

Oneofthemostpromisingoftheseisanewkindofmatingcollar,composedofangularslipringsthatallowdockingevenifthedownedboatisrestingatasevereangle.WhetherthisnewsystemwillberetrofittedtotheexistingDSRVsaspartofacomprehensiveoverhaulortoacompletelynewvehicleremainstobeseen.Fornow,though,submarinerescuestillremainsan"iffy"propositionatbest.

Fartherforwardisthesail,whichis,frankly,oneoftheslickestsuchstructureseverbuiltontoaU.S.submarine.UnliketraditionalAmericannuclearsubs,Seawolfhasacurvedfaringblendingthefrontofhersailintothehulltohelpreduceresistanceandflownoise.ItisjustoneofmanylittletouchesdesignedtokeeptheSeawolf-classboatsthequietestevertoroamtheworld'soceans.AsinpreviousAmericanSSNs,thesailcontainsallofthesensormasts,aswellasthecontrolstationforconningtheboatonthesurface.Themast-

mountedsensorsinclude:

*Periscopes:AsinpreviousU.S.submarinedesigns,theSeawolfisequippedwithapairofopticalperiscopemasts.TheseincludebothType8Mod3andType18scopes,ofthesamevarietyasthosedescribedearlieronMiami.*Radar:Toprovidesurfaceandsomelimitedairsearchcapabilities,aBPS-16setisinstalledforoperationsinpoorvisibilityandatnight.*RadioMasts:ApairofAN/BRA-34communicationsmastsareprovidedtosupportthegrowingbandwidthrequirementsforlittoraloperations.*Electronic/SignalsCollectionMasts:Tosupportintelligencecollectionandtacticalsituationalawareness,SeawolfhasanAN/BRD-7/BLD-1mastwiththecollectionheadsfortheWLQ-4(V)1andBLD-1D/Fradarandsignalsreceptionssystems.*TrailingAntenna:Toprovidecommandcueingwhilesubmerged,theSeawolfhasanOE-315trailingwireantennathatcanreceivetransmissionfromtheNavy'sExtremelyLowFrequency(ELF)communicationssystem.

Allthis,alongwiththeimprovedprocessinganddisplaytechnologyoftheBSY-2combatsystem,makesSeawolfatrulyrevolutionarydesign--andjustthink,we'venoteventouchedontheweaponsloadyet!That,too,isamajorimprovementoverthatoftheolder688Is.

Aswecontinuewithour"hullwalk,"you'llprobablynoticealargehatchdirectlyaftofthesailstructure.Thisistheoddlyshapedweaponsshippinghatchandisusedintheslow,monotonousprocessofloadingtorpedoes,weapons,andotherstoresinsidetheboat.Onebyone,eachofthetorpedoes(uptoamaximumloadoffifty)and

otherweaponsmustbebroughtdownintothesubandlaidinthetorpedoroomforstorageintheeventofcombat.TheweaponsloadoftheSeawolf,twicethatoftheFlightILosAngeles-classboats,wasmandatedbythedesiretohaveenoughwarshotstosustainmultipleengagementsduringprolongedwartimeoperations.Togettheseweaponsofftheboatquickly,Seawolfisequippedwitheight26.5-inch/673mmtorpedotubes,thebiggesteverfittedtoanAmericansubmarine.Utilizinganewairturbinepumpsystemtoexpeltheweaponsmorequietlythanearlierwater-rammethods,thenewtubesarealsocapableoflaunchingunmannedsurveillancevehiclesandevendivers,shouldthatbenecessary.Onethingthe688IshadthathasbeendeletedfromtheSeawolfisthebankofVerticalLaunchSystem(VLS)missilelaunchersinthebow.Withherhugeinternalweaponsstowageandeighttorpedotubes,theSeawolfwasconsideredwellenougharmedtoeliminatetheVLStubes.

Aswitheveryotherelementofsubmarinetechnology,tenyearsmakesabigdifferenceinweapons.Sincetheearly1990s,therehavebeensignificantchangesandimprovementstotheweaponscarriedbytheSeawolf-classboats.Firstoff,alloftheUGM-84sub-HarpoonantishipmissileshavenowbeenwithdrawnfromserviceintheU.S.submarinefleet.ThisismostlyduetothefactthateachHarpoontakesupspacethatmightbeusedtoholdamorefrequentlyusedtorpedoorTomahawkcruisemissile,somethingthathasmadethesub-launchedversionoftheseformidableweaponsgothewayofthedodobird.

Whilenotcompletelymakingupforthemid-rangesurfaceshipattackcapabilityaffordedbytheHarpoon,theNavyhasbeenhardatworkimprovingtheirsupplyofMk48ADCAPtorpedoes.ThesenewestmodificationstothealreadyadvancedtorpedoareknownastheADCAPMods5and6.TheMod5changesincludeaguidanceandcontrolmodificationthatimprovestheacousticreceiver,addsmemorytotheinternalcomputer,andallowsthetorpedotohandleincreasedsoftwaredemands.Thesecondmodification,knownasMod

6,includestheTPUorTorpedoPropulsionUnitupgradeandwillprovidetheADCAPwithgreaterspeed,range,anddepth.TheseimprovementstotheMk48swillenabletheweapontobetterconductoperationsinthecoastalzoneswheretheSeawolf-classboatswillbelurkingandworking.

AsailoraboardtheSeawolfoperatesthefirecontroltrackingsystem,whichusesthelatestinruggedtouchscreencontrols.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

Asmentionedearlier,oneofthemajormissionsofSSNsinthe1990shasbeenthatoflaunchingBGM-109Tomahawkcruise

missilesagainstenemytargets.Thepreferredversion,knownasBlockIII,hasaGPS-basedguidancesystemaswellasanewwarheadandsatellitetelemetrysystem.TheproblemisthatmanyoftheTomahawksmodifiedtotheBlockIIIstandardwerefiredduringthe1990sinplacesliketheBalkansandSouthwestAsia,andearliervariantslacktheeasymission-planningcapabilitiesofthenewermissiles.Severalplanswereputforthtomodifymoreoftheearlymodelmissilestoaso-calledBlockIVconfiguration,butwouldhavecosttoomuch(over$700,000permissile).

ToprovidebothsurfaceshipsandsubmarineswithenoughofthepreciousTomahawksintothetwenty-firstcentury,abrand-newversion,knownasTacticalTomahawk(TACTOM),isbeingdevelopedbyRaytheon.TACTOMwillincorporateanumberofnewfeatures,includinganewinjectionmoldedplasticairframe,satellitedatalink,andturbojetengine,toreducecosts.Ataround$500,000acopy,thenewmissileswillbeabargaincomparedwithreworkingolderairframes.However,theBlockIIIswillbetheprimaryvariantuntilthemiddleofthedecade,whenTACTOMsshouldbegintoarriveinseriousquantitiesoutinthefleet.

Ifyouduckdowninsidethehatchaftofthesail,atfirstyouwillfeeljustlikeyouhavesteppedintoanyotheradvancedsubmarine.However,movingforwardintothecontrolroom,yourapidlycanseethedifferencesbetweenSeawolfandtheLosAngeles-classboats.Whereolderboatsstillhavealotofconventionaldials,gauges,andotherreadouts,mostofthecriticalcontrolpositionsonSeawolfhavebeenequippedwithredplasmacomputerdisplayswithtouchscreens.Theseallowamuchwiderrangeofcontrolsandgraphicstobefedtooperatorsinthecontrolroomandotherpartsoftheboat,andstandupquitewelltoerrantelbowsandspilledcoffee!

Otherwise,thebasiclayoutofSeawolfisverysimilartothatofMiami,withperhapsabitmoreelbowroomthantheolderboat.Nevertheless,Seawolfstilldoesnothaveallthecreaturecomfortsyou

mightexpectonasubmarinewithover25percentmoreinternalvolumethana688I.TheproblemisthatwhilethereismoreroominsideofSeawolf,therealsoismore"stuff"insideherhull.TheS6Wreactor,whilethesamebasicunitastheoneonthe688Is,nowfeedstwosteamturbinesputtingoutanadditional10,000horsepower.Thisprovidesatotalof40,000shafthorsepower,givingSeawolfatopspeedofaround35knots,ifyoubelievereportsfromtheinitialseatrials.

ThediningareaontheSeawolfduringchowcall.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

Theseenginesinturnhavemorequietingmountsandequipment

thanthoseontheLosAngeles-classboats,allofwhichtakeuplotsofspace.VirtuallyeveryotherpieceofmachineryonSeawolfhassimilarquietinggear,whicheatsupalotofvolume.Theresultisthatanumberofthejuniorenlistedpersonnelstillhaveto"hotbunk,"duetoashortageofberthingspace.Thisisashortcoming,whichwillprobablyhaveadownsideinthelongrun,intermsofhabitabilityandpersonnelretention.However,itisthepricethatmustbepaidtomakeSeawolfthequietest,mostdeadlysubmarineintheworld.

TherestofSeawolfismuchlikethatofMiami,thoughputtogetherverydifferently.ElectricBoat,theprimeSeawolfcontractor,designedhertobebuiltwithamodularconstructiontechnique,muchlikethatofNewportNewsinVirginiaandLitton-IngallsinMississippi.16Thismeansthatmoreoftheboatcanbe"stuffed"andfinishedbeforethehullisweldedandfloatedintothewater.ItwouldhavebeeninterestingtoseewhatthiswouldhavedonetoproductioncostsifevenasecondflightofthreeSSN-21shadbeenorderedbyCongress,insteadofproceedingtotheVirginia(SSN-774)classboatsdirectly.Asitis,thesailorsassignedtotheSeawolfandConnecticutconsiderthemselvesveryluckysailorsindeed.BothareinthewaterandassignedtotheAtlanticfleet,startingtomakepatrolsandbeingtestedinexercises.

AcomparisonoftheUSSSeawolf(SSN-21)(top)andtheUSSJimmyCarter(SSN-23)(bottom).Theroughly100foot/30.5metergreaterlengthoftheJimmyCarterwillaccommodatea"plug"toconduct"SpecialProjects"and"Research"missions.RUBICON,INC.,BYLAURADENINNO

TheJimmyCarter--thethirdandfinalSeawolf--will,however,besomethingverydifferent:atrue"SpecialProjects"boatfromthekeelup.ThebasicSeawolfhullishavinganapproximately100-foot/30.5-meter"plug"addedaftofhersail,withallkindsofroomforberthingofextrapersonnel,stowageofspecialequipmentandsensors,aswellasalargelockoutchamber.ThiswillbebigenoughtoallowthelaunchingofthenewgenerationofUnmannedUnderwaterVehicles(UUVs)beingdevelopedforusebythefleet.Theplanistohaveherinthewaterby2004,whenshewilljoinParche(herselfscheduledforretirementin2006)attheTrident-missilesubmarinebaseinBangor,Washington.JimmyCarterwillbetheultimateexpressionofAmericansubmarineintelligencegathering,thoughjustwhatthatwillmeaninthetwenty-firstcenturyisstillunknown.However,givenwhattheNavy'ssmallforceofspecialprojectsboatsdidduringtheColdWar,theJimmyCarterwillbedoingthingsthatwillsomedaybe

asubjectfornovelists.

TheVirginia(SSN-774)ClassBoats:TheNewGeneration

Inthemid-1990s,whenonlythethreeSeawolf-classboatswereauthorizedforconstruction,theNavyrealizeditclearlyhadaproblemonitshands.Howwasthesubmarineservicetomeetitsquantitativerequirementsforkeepingapproximatelyfiftysubmarinesinthefleet?AttheendoftheColdWar,theU.S.Navyhadagoalof100SSNs(excludingthestrategicmissileboatforce)aspartofa600-shipNavy.Whileneitherofthesegoalswaseverreached,bythelate1980sthesubmarineforcewasvery,veryclosetoachievingitsforcestructuregoals.In1987,forexample,theU.S.Navyattacksubmarineforceconsistedofninety-ninenuclearattackboats.

Allthischangedin1993whenDoDreleasedtheresultsoftheBottom-upReview(BUR),which,attemptingtoalterthemilitarytoapost-ColdWarforce,cutalittletooclosetotheboneforthecomfortofthoseinthesubmarinecommunity.Callingfornewsubmarine-forcelevelsaslowasforty-fivesubmarines,theBURdrasticallychangedthegoaloftheNavy'ssubmarineforceawayfromacquisitionandforceenhancementtowarddrasticcutsandgettingridofoldboats.Theresultingdearthofsubmarineconstructioninthemid-1990smeantthatonlyahandfulofnewboatswerefinished.However,2004promisestobethebestyearinalongwhilefortheU.S.submarineforce.ThatwillbetheyearthefirstVirginia-classSSNsentertheNavyandtheyeartheJimmyCarteriscommissioned.However,ithastakenaveryroughdozenyearseventoseethepromiseof2004forthesubmarinecommunity.

ThecurtailingofSeawolfproductiontojustthreeunitsmeantthattheNavywouldinevitablyhavetodevelopasmaller,morecost-effectivedesignthatwouldbetterfittherolesandmissionssetoutinFromtheSea.Fortunately,aseriesofdesignstudieswasalreadyunderwayatthetime,themostpromisingknownasCenturion.Fromthebeginning,Centurion,whosenamewaschangedseveraltimesbeforeshewasofficiallynamedtheVirginia(SSN-774)class,wasaneasiersellthanwastheSeawolf.TheconceptbehindtheVirginiawastobuildasubmarineasgoodastheSeawolfintheblue-waterenvironment,yetabletoconductoperationsinthelittoralregionsoftheworld.Additionally,VirginianeededtocounterthebiggestdrawbacksofSeawolf--itscostlinesstoproduceandthefactthatitwasbuiltbyasingleyard.ThemonopolyonconstructionoftheSeawolfclassbyElectricBoatrankledthefolksatNewportNewsShipbuilding,andalsotheirpowerfulcongressionaldelegation.

TheinteriorandexteriorlayoutsoftheUSSVirginia(SSN-774)RUBICON,INC.BYLAURADENINNO

CostsdroveVirginia'sdesigntoafargreaterdegreethananysubmarinedesignedfortheU.S.Navy.WhileitpossessedroughlythesamecapabilitiesandquietingasSeawolfinamoreaffordableandmultimissionconfiguration,initialplanscalledfortheclasstobebuiltatanoptimisticrateoftwoorthreeperyear.Originalcostprojectionsaimedforaboatdisplacingroughly6,000tons,costingaroundone-halfthatofSeawolf.

Thehopewas--andstillis--thatthisdesignwilldoforsubmarineswhattherelativelymoderatelypriced,multiroleF/A-18Hornetsdidfornavalaviation.CurrentplanscallfortheVirginiaclasstoconsistofthirtyunits,whichwillbeconstructedatvaryingratesforstaggereddelivery.Thefirstoftheclass,Virginia(SSN-774),willenterservicearound2004;thesecond,namedUSSTexas(SSN-775),willfollowayearlater.Afteraone-yearbreak,thecurrentschedulecallsforUSSHawaii(SSN-776)tojointhefleetin2007,followedbyUSSNorthCarolina(SSN-777)in2008.Whileplansinevitablyfallbythewaysideandarecontinuouslyaltered,thisseemstobeagreatstart.

Atfirst,theideawasthattheNavywouldbuytheVirginiastocomplementratherthansucceedtheSeawolfs.TheresultingbudgetcutsandcostoverrunsontheSSN-21programturnedouttobesosevere,however,thattheNavysawnochoicebuttomoveaheadwithVirginiaafterSeawolfproductionended.TheDoDdirectedin1992thattheNavyshouldholdthecostsofthenewsubmarinedesigntoamaximumof$1billionperboat.TheDoDalsochargedtheNavywithexaminingalternativestothisentirelynewclassofwarship.Thesestartedoffwithabaseline(forcomparisonpurposes)ofcontinuedSSN-21productionatarateofoneperyear.Thealternativesincluded:

*AlowercostvariantoftheSeawolf.*FurtherimprovedversionsoftheLosAngeles(688I)

class.*Thepossibleprocurementofnon-nuclear(i.e.,conventional)submarinesintothefleet.

HymanRickovermusthavebeenturningoverinhisgraveatsuchthoughts,butthenheneverlivedtoseethepost-ColdWarworldofthe1990s!Intheend,theNavystayedcommittedtotheCenturiondesign,thoughnotwithoutalotofpressurefromcriticsandCongress.

In1993,thenameCenturionwasofficiallychangedto"NewAttackSubmarine"andgiventheabbreviationNAS,whichwaslaterchangedtoNSSN(forNewSSN).Thefollowingyear,theNavybegantoprovidethefirstrealcostestimatesontheclass.Theseindicatedthattheleadsubmarine,whichwouldbeauthorizedintheFY98budget,wouldcost$3.4billion,includingnonrecurringresearchanddesigncosts.ThiswasasmuchasSeawolfherself,andsomepeoplewonderediftheNavyshouldhavebuiltmoreoftheSSN-21sinstead.However,theNavystudyindicatedthatadditionalNSSN-classboats,startingwithnumberfive,wouldcostaround$1.54billioninFY98dollars.Whilethiswasstillslightlyhigherthantheprojectedgoal,itwasfarbelowthe$2.8billionforaproductionSeawolf,hadsuchathingeverbeenbuilt.Withtheplannedproductioncostsnowundercontrol,itappearedasifNSSNmightactuallybecomeareality.

Aswithanymultibillion-dollardecision,theconstructionissuesoftheVirginiaclasswerenowbeginningtopointawayfromtheoperationalsideandtowardthefinancialandpoliticalones.Shipbuilding,especiallysubmarinemanufacturing(andparticularlythatofnuclearsubmarines),isafieldthatisespeciallydifficultforanationtomaster.SeveralgenerationsofAmericanshipbuildershavebeentoilingonnuclearsubmarinessinceworkbeganontheprogramundertheleadershipofAdmiralHymanRickover.Ifproductionweretosuddenlyendorshrinktolessthanoneboatperyear,oneofthetwoAmericansubmarinemanufacturers,ElectricBoatorNewport

NewsShipbuilding,wouldinevitablybeforcedtoleavethebusiness.Withtheirpowerfulpoliticalsupporters,bothcontractorsbeganaspiritedcompetitionfortherighttoproducetheNSSNboats.

Longago,Congresshaddeterminedthatitwasinournation'sinteresttomaintainaminimumoftwoshipyardscapableofbuildingnuclearsubmarines.Thisindustrial-base-preservationargumentwasanimportantkeytokeepingSeawolfaliveforthreeboatsandbecameequallyimportanttotheideaofa"teaming"arrangementbetweenthetwoAmericansubmarinemanufacturers.Asaresultofthe1993BUR,DoDconcludedthatitwouldbeill-advisedtoconsolidateallsubmarineconstructionatjustoneshipyard.ThiswasprobablyagooddecisionfortheNavybecauseitpreservedatleastasemblanceofcompetitionbetweenElectricBoatandNNS.Additionally,becausenuclearsubmarinedesignandproductionissocomplicated,itisextremelymanpower-intensive.Therefore,anylossofproductionorastrikeatayardmeantinevitablelayoffsofhighlyskilledworkersatsubcontractors.Ashipyardmightevenbeforcedtocloseitsdoorsforeverifproductionlevelscontinuedtodrop.Thishashappeneddozensoftimestosomeofthebiggestshipyardsinthenation.OneonlyneedrememberthedemiseofgreatnameslikeToddandKaiserontheWestCoasttorealizethatAmericanshipbuildinghangsbyaslenderthreadthesedays.

Howthen,wastheNavytokeepbothsubmarineyardsalivewithsofewsubmarinestobuild?Notsurprisingly,theNavydidn'thavetolooktoofarforhelp.Itcamedirectlyfromthetwoshipbuildersthemselves--ElectricBoatandNewportNews.Thesetwocompaniesknewthatitwasinthenation'sinterests--andtheirown--tosolvethisdilemma.WhichisexactlywhattheydidinDecemberof1996whenElectricBoatandNewportNewsShipbuildingofferedtheNavyadeal.Howwouldthegovernmentlikeitifthetwocompanies"teamedup"andproducedtheVirginiaclasstogether?

ItwasaremarkableofferandonethattheNavycouldnotrefuse.

BothshipbuilderswouldtakeadvantageoftheDigitalDesignDatabaseElectricBoathadusedinconstructingtheSeawolfclass,tohelpkeepdowncostsandkeepqualityup.Additionally,eachyardwouldbuildspecificpartsorsectionsoftheboats,whileeachcompanywouldbuildand"stuff"theirownreactorplantmodules.Thebow,stern,andsailsectionsofallthenewsubswouldbebuiltbyNNS,alongwiththehabitabilityandmachineryspacesandthetorpedoroom.ElectricBoat,astheprimecontractor,would,inturn,constructnearlyallremainingportions,includingtheengineroomandcontrolspaces.Finally,ElectricBoatwouldassemblethefirstandthirdboatswhileNNSwouldhandlethesecondandfourth.

Thecurrentplancallsforteamingononlythefirstfourboats.TheNavy,Congress,andthetworemainingsubmarinebuilderswilleventuallyhavetoexaminewheretheygofromthere.Suchconstructiondecisionsaremomentousindeed.EspeciallywhenyoulookathowlargearoletheVirginiaswillplayintheAmericansubmarineforceofthetwenty-firstcentury.

USSVirginia(SSN-774):AVirtualTour

NowthatyouhaveseenthefutureproductionplansforthisnewclassofSSN,let'stakealookatwhatnewthingstheywillbecapableofaccomplishing.Wehavetodothisinavirtualfashion,astheVirginiasarestillmostly"paper"submarines.Theofficial"keellaying"ofVirginia(SSN-774)onlyoccurredonSeptember2,1999,andshewillnotbedeliveredtothefleetuntil2004.Officially,though,thePentagonhasprovideduswithagreatstartingpointinitsnewpubliccampaignofopennessaboutsubmarineoperationsandweapons.Goneforeverarethedayswhenthe"SilentService"wastrulymutetotheworldoutsideoftheirpressurehulls.

Asonemighthaveguessedforamultimissionboat,theNavyhasbestowedupontheVirginiasnearlyeverypossiblesubmarinemissionunderthesun,whichspeaksvolumesabouttheirversatility.Thesemissions,accordingtothePentagon,includetakingtheenemybycompletesurprisewhileconducting:

*CovertStrikeWarfare:HittinginlandtargetswithTacticalTomahawksandpossiblyfuturebattlefieldsupportmissiles.*AntisubmarineWarfare(ASW):Destroyingenemysubmarineswhileconductingareaunderwatersurveillance.*CovertIntelligenceGatheringandSurveillance:KeepingAmericaneyesonpotentialhotspotsandenemyoperations.*AntisurfaceWarfare(ASUW):Clearingthesea-lanesofenemysurfaceships.*CovertMineWarfare:Laying,detecting,andpossiblyclearingfriendlyandenemynavalminefields.*BattleGroup/AmphibiousGroupSupport:ProtectionandsupportforCarrierBattleGroupsandAmphibiousReadyGroups.*SpecialWarfareSupport:Awholevarietyofclandestinemissions,includingdirectactionraids,reconnaissance,combatsearchandrescue,directingairstrikes,andtacticalintelligencegathering.

WhilethisisjustabrieflistofmissionsVirginiacan"officially"carryout,imaginethepotentialforaclasssuchasthis.ThereareevendiscussionsaboutmakingtheVirginiadesignthebasisforanewclassofSSBNstoreplacetheOhio-classboats,shouldthisberequired.

ThegenerallayoutoftheVirginia-classboatswillnotbeunfamiliartothosewhohavebeenaboardpreviousnuclearattacksubmarines.Inmanyways,sheisaLosAngeles-sizedhullpackedwithsystems

pioneeredbytheSeawolf-classboats.ThebiggestdifferencewithVirginiaisthatflexibilityisthekeyinherdesign.Inaddition,theuseofCommercialOff-The-Shelf(COTS)technologyhasbeenmaximizedinordertoreduceoverallproductioncostsandallowforrapidintegrationofnewsystemsandsoftware.AnotherkeyelementtoreducingproductioncostshasbeentheuseofComputerAidedDesign(CAD)forthisclassofsubmarine.Infact,theVirginiawillbethefirstAmericanwarshipdesignedsolelybycomputer.Inherownway,sheisasmuchofarevolutioninconstructionandsystemsasSeawolfwas,withcontrolledcostmanagementthrownintotighteneveryone'sbeltabit!

We'llstartourbrieflookaroundtheVirginiaattheheartoftheboat'spower.ThenewS9GpressurizedwaterreactorproducessufficientshafthorsepowerforatopspeedonlyslightlylessthanthatofSeawolf.ThisisoneofthefewareaswheredecreasedcosthasbeenallowedtoreduceVirginia'scapability.Thereactorrunstwosteamturbinesgearedtoasingleshaft.Inturn,thisshaftwillconnecttoaveryquietpumpjetpropulsor,similartothosefoundintheBritishTrafalgarsandtheSeawolfs.

Equallyimportantlyfromamaintenancepointofview,Virginia'sreactorwillhavea"lifeoftheship"reactorcore,meaningthereshouldneverbeaneedtoreplacethereactorcore!Thenewreactordesignhasbeensimplifiedand,amazingly,itshouldmatchSSN-21'simpressivequietinglevelswithina25percentsmallervolume.Becausetheoveralldesignhasbeensimplified,fewercomponentsarerequiredandtheVirginiahasfewerpumpsandvalvesthananyofherpredecessors.Thissmallersizeisoneofmanyimprovementsthatallowheroverallsubmergeddisplacementtoremainbelow8,000tons--a1,000-plustonreductionfromthatoftheSeawolfs.

ThehulloftheVirginiaismadefromsimilar-strengthsteelasSeawolf,althoughbecauseofVirginia'slittoral-operationsemphasis,thesteeldoesneedtobeasthickasSeawolf's--providingadditional

costandweightsavings.Thesub'smaneuveringperformancewillalsobeunprecedentedforaboathersize.TheVirginia'scontrolsurfaceswillbepartofadigital"fly-by-wire"shipcontrolcapabilitysimilartothoseusedsoeffectivelyonfighterssuchastheF-16FightingFalconandF/A-18Hornet.ThiseliminatesmuchoftheheavycablingandhydraulicpipingthatrunsthroughoutolderclassesofSSN.

ThoughVirginiaisnotfasterthanSeawolfanddoesnotdivedeeperorevencarryasmanyweapons(onlythirty-eightversusfiftyfortheSSN-21boats),thesefactscanbemisleading.TherealdifferencebetweenthetwosubsliesintheirabilitytoconductoperationsandfightintheNavy'snewhomeofthelittorals.WhilestillabletofightwithmuchofSeawolf'sprowessintheopenoceans,Virginiahasincorporatedspecialweapons,sensors,andothernewequipmentparticularlywellsuitedtohercoastalmissions.

ThesonarsuiteonboardtheVirginiawillincludespecialhigh-frequencyacousticsensorsdesignedtohuntandclassifybothdiesel-electricboatsandthosewithadvancedairindependentpropulsion(AIP)systems.AswithotherSSNs,Virginiawillcarryasphericalactive/passivesonararrayalongwiththeTB-29Thin-LineTowedArrayandtheTB-16Fat-LineTowedArray.VirginiawillalsocarryanewlightweightWAAsystem,specificallyoptimizedtolocatesuper-quietdiesel-electricandAIPsubmarines.Inthelittoralregions,specialattentionwillneedtobedevotedtonavalmines,soVirginiawillhaveahigh-frequencysonarsuitetodetectthedeadly"weaponsthatwait."Thesensorswillincludesail-andchin-(beneaththesonarsphere)mountedarraystoprovidethenewboatswiththeirbest-evermine-detectionand-avoidancecapability.Alongwithhersonarsuite,Virginiawillalsohaveanarrayofsail-mountedsensors,almostidenticaltothatoftheSeawolf-classboats.

Ifthereisonepieceofequipmentmanysubmarinersthoughtwouldneverchange,itwastheold-fashionedperiscope.Well,theNavyhasgotnewsforusperiscopelovers--eventhisinstrumentisinfora

drasticoverallintheVirginiaclass.ForthefirsttimeanentireclassofU.S.submarinesisbeingfittedwithoutalltheprisms,mirrors,andlensesfoundintheoldopticalperiscopes.Intheirplacewillbetwonon-hull-penetrating"photonicsmasts,"whichwillconsistofanumberofhigh-resolutionvisualsensorsthattransmitvisualimagesbacktolargedisplayscreensfittedwithintheboat.Inadditiontoacolortelevisionpickup,thereisalsoanadvancedthermalandlow-lightimagingsystem.Thephotonicssystemwillalsocontainalaserrangefinder,somethingthatwillcomeinhandywhileworkingintheclose-incoastalregions.Bestofall,astheirnameindicates,thesemastsdonotpenetratethemainpressurehull,makingonelessweakspotforwatertoleakthroughintheeventofbattledamageorapackingfailure.

Thearrangementofsensorandcommunicationsmastsontheconningtower/sailofUSSVirginia(SSN-774).RUBICON,INC.,BYLAURADENINNO

Inaddition,whentheVirginiafirstentersservicein2004,shewilllikelybefittedwiththenewAN/BLQ-11ALong-termMineReconnaissanceSystem(LMRS).TheLMRSsystemisbasicallyateamofUUVs(UnmannedUnderwaterVehicles),with21-inch/553mmdiameter(sotheyfitinthetorpedotubes),thatswimout

andhuntfreelyformines.TheseUUVswillnotbeconnectedtoVirginiabyafiber-opticcable,aswereearliermodels.Instead,theywilluseatwo-wayacousticdatalink.TheUUVscanbelaunchedandrecovered(viaaroboticarminoneofthetorpedotubes)fromVirginia'storpedotubesandwilldetectandclassifyminesprimarilyofthebottomandmooredvariety.AstheLMRSprogramcontinuestomature,additionalimprovements,suchasunderwatermappingandbeachreconnaissance,willprobablybeaddedtothisrevolutionaryUUVsystem.

Overall,theVirginiaswillhaveaweapons-storagecapacityremarkablysimilartothatoftheSeawolf-classboats.WhileVirginialackstheSeawolf'sabilitytocarryfiftyweaponsinternally(Virginiawillonlyhavefour21-inch/533mmtorpedotubes),shemakesupforitbyhavingtwelveVLStubeslikethoseonthe688Is.ThismeansthatVirginiawillhavetheabilitytocarryatotalofthirty-eightweapons(twenty-sixinternally),includingTomahawkcruisemissiles,Mk48ADCAPtorpedoes,UUVs,andmines,tonamejustafewpossibilities.

OneotherkeyelementoftheVirginia'swar-fightingsuiteisgoingtobeherabilitytooperateinthespecialoperationsrole.Similartomanyofthenewersubmarinescomingoutoftheyardsinthenextseveralyears(mostnotablytheJimmyCarter[SSN-23])theVirginiaswillbecapableofcarryingaDryDockShelterandthenewAdvancedSEALDeliverySystem(ASDS).TheASDSisasmallmini-submarine65feet/21.7meterslongand9feet/2.75meterswide.Thistinysubisfittedwithaforward-lookingandside-lookingsonartodetectnaturalandman-madeobjectsandconductmine-detectionandbottom-mappingoperations.Inaddition,theASDShastwomasts--oneaperiscopeandtheotherforcommunicationsandGPSnavigation.TomakelifeeasierfortheSEALsandotherspecialoperationsunitsthatmightbecarried,thetorpedoroomonboardtheVirginiaswillbeeasytoreconfigure.Ifneedbe,thecenterweapons-

stowagestructurescanberemovedinordertomakeroomforspecialmissionpersonnel,whethertheybetechnicians,SEALs,ortroops.Thesepersonnelwillhaveaccesstoanunusualnine-manlock-in/lockoutchamberinadditiontotheuseoftheASDSand/ordrydockshelter.

Withalltheseextrabodiesonboard,onebeginstoaskthenextquestion:hassubmarinehabitabilityimprovedinthepasttenyears?Unfortunately,advancesintechnologynotwithstanding,theanswerislikelytobeno.Submarineshavealwaysbeensocrammedwithequipmentthatitappearsattimesasifthedesignersforgottoincludethesailors!Fortunately,numerousspace-savingfeatureshavebeenincludedintheVirginiaclass.ThecurrentmanningfiguresappeartobeinthesameneighborhoodastheLosAngelesandSeawolfclasses--around120enlistedandchiefs,alongwith14officers.WiththesignificantlysmallersizeoftheVirginias,thislargecomplementcouldposeaproblem.However,themanningnumbersmayendupdroppingsignificantlyasaresultoftheuseoftheNavy'snew"Smart-Ship"technology.17

AlreadytheNavyisplanningonusingthismanpower-savingtechnologytoreducefifteencrewwatchstandersfromthecontrolroomofVirginia.Thistechnologywillallowtheboat'sadvancedcontrolsystemtobeoperatedbyapilot,copilot,andreliefpilot,therebyreplacingthedivingofficer,chiefofthewatch,helmsman,planesman,andmessengerofprevioussubmarineclasses.Itistechnologiessuchasthesethatwillinevitablybringdownthenumberofsailorstoamore"comfortable"level.Alas,asanysubmarinerknows,assoonastheygetmoreroominasub,designerswilladdmoregadgets,notmoreracks!

Well,nowthatwe'vetakenalookattheVirginia,it'sprettyapparentthataboatlikethiscanbeusedforvirtuallyanymissiontheNavymightrequire.Whetherit'sCVBGsupportintheAegean,monitoringanembargoorcommunicationsinthePersianGulf,deliveringSOF

unitsinAfrica,orhuntingenemysubmarinesandshipsanywhereelse,Virginiaisoneclassofsubmarinethatshouldbeabletodoitall!NowAmericajustneedstobuildthem,whichmaybethebiggestchallengeofall.

TheBritishA-Class(Astute)Boats

WhiletheUnitedStatesNavywasgoingthroughitspost-ColdWar"shrinkingpains,"whatwashappeningtotheRoyalNavy(RN)ofourclosestmilitaryally,theUnitedKingdom?Well,youcanrestassuredthattheRNsubmarineforcewasgoingthroughsomeequallypainfulexperiencesofitsown!LiketheUnitedStates,theBritishwereinthemiddleofplanningforthefutureoftheColdWarwhentheSovietUnionthrewinthetowelattheendof1991.YouwouldhavethoughtthatwhentheBerlinWallfell,itlandedrightontopoftheAdmiraltyinLondon.Aslateas1987,theBritishhadbeendiscussinganewclassofattackboattobeginreplacingtheSwiftsure-class(S-126)SSNs.In1987,VickersShipbuildingandEngineering(VSEL),LTD,wonacontracttobegindesigninganew"W"class,alsoknownasSSN-20,andwastostartconstructioninthemid-1990s.ThisnewsubmarinewassimilarindesignandconcepttotheAmericanSeawolf,largeandoptimizedforblue-water/open-oceanoperations.

The1990sweretohavebeenoneofthebusiestandmostaggressivedecadesforBritishsubmarinedevelopment.However,whiledesignworkontheSwiftsure'sreplacementcontinuedatVSEL,theRNwasalsointhemidstofreplacingitsResolution-class(S-22)ballisticmissilesubmarineswithavauntednewgroupofSSBNsknownastheVanguard(S-28)class.Whilethesetrulyawesomeboatswereinproduction,readyingfortheircommissioning,theUpholder-class(S-40)SSKswerealsoscheduledtocomeintoserviceduringwhatwould

turnouttobeoneoftheworstpossibletimesimaginable.Thisclass,consistingofUpholder(S-40),Unseen(S-41),Ursula(S-42),andUnicorn(S-43),werecommissionedintoservicebetween1990and1993,butby1992thedecisionwasmadetodecommissionallfourofthebrand-newSSKsasacost-cuttingmeasure.

TheUpholderboatswereeventuallyleasedtoCanada,but1992wasaparticularlydarktimefortheRoyalsubmarinefleet.Alsointhatyear,theentireSSN-20/W-classprojecttoreplacetheSwiftsurewascanceledwithVSEL.Withinmonths,however,aseedofhopewasplantedwhentheRNandMinistryofDefense(MoD)realized(asdidtheircounterpartsintheUnitedStates)thatcostandnotadvancedblue-wateroperationalcapabilitieswasgoingtobethedrivingfactorforgettinganewclassofSSNsordered.Oncethisfactbecameapparent,priorityswitchedfromanewclassofsubmarinestoanimprovedversionofthealreadyprovenTrafalgar(S-107)classSSNs.

Britishsubmarinedesignerswereaskedtosubmitaplanforalessexpensivegenerationofsubmarinesthanhadoriginallybeenenvisioned.ThisnewsubmarinewastovaryonlyminimallyfromthepreviousTrafalgar-classSSNs.Theboats,whichsoontookonthenameBatch2TrafalgarclassorB2TC,begantolooklikearealitywhenarequestforbidswasissuedtobothVSELandcompetitorGEC-MARCONIinJulyof1994.GECendedupwinningthiscontract,whichcalledforconstructionofthreeboatswiththeoptionformoreasdeemednecessaryandaffordablebytheMoD.

Initialprogresswasnotexactlyrapid,ascomplexdefenseconsolidationissuesstalledeffortstofinalizethecontract.ThefirstactualordersfortheB2TCboatswereplacedinMarchof1997.ThePS2billioncontractcalledforthreenewboats,HMSAstute,Ambush,andArtful.Finally,theB2TCshadarealname--the"A"orAstuteclassofnuclear-poweredattacksubmarines.ThecurrentoutlookfortheAstuteclassisexcellent,basedonboththeneedsoftheRoyalNavyandthedesignexpertiseofthemanufacturer.Thekeelofthe

AstuteherselfwasofficiallylaiddowninJanuary2001.Thankfully,MoDsupporthascontinuedunabatedforAstute.Infact,itwasannouncedinJuly1998thattheRoyalNavywouldgettwomoreAstutes,foraclasstotaloffiveboats.Thoughthesetwomostrecentboatshaveyettobenamed,youcanbetthattheirfutureswillbefullofadventure.

WhilethebusyprocessoffindingasuitablereplacementfortheSwiftsureswasunderway,anequallycomplexdanceofconsolidationwasgoingonwithintheBritishdefenseandshipbuildingindustries.In1994,GEC-MarconimadeanoffertobuyVSEL,whichhadbeenworkingontheoriginalW-class/Swiftsurereplacementdesigns.Thefollowingyear,BritishAerospacealsomadeanofferforVSEL,butintheendVSELacceptedtheGEC-Marconioffer--thoughonlyaftertheyhadsuccessfullyraisedtheaskingpriceseveralhundredmillionpounds!Asyoumightimagine,thiscausedconsiderableconsternation,asVSELhadbeenindirectcompetitionagainstGEC-MarconitobuildthenewAstutes.Theseissueswerefinallyresolved,however,andallwasquietonthesubmarineindustrialfrontforseveralmoreyears.Thislasteduntil1999,whenitwasannouncedthatBritishAerospacewasmergingwithGEC-Marconi.ThismeantthatBritishAerospacenowtookoverconstructionofthenewAstutes.Indoingso,andasaresultofitsmergerwithGEC-Marconi,BritishAerospaceofficiallychangeditsnametoBAESystemsandcontinuedwithAstute'sconstruction.Becauseofthis,HMSAstute'sprimecontractorhasbeenreferredtoasVSEL,GEC-Marconi,BritishAerospace,andBAESystems.Thefreemarketofthe"NewWorldOrder"--whatacrazyworldwelivein!

Nowlet'swalkdownthegangplankandtakeavirtuallookinsidethisnewwarship.TheA-classboatswillbebasedonadesignconceptsimilartothatoftheVirginiaclass.Thatistosay,theAstuteswillneedtomaintainthecapabilitytofightinnearlyeveryunderwaterenvironment,fromtheopenoceanoftheAtlantictothelittoralzones

offthePersianGulf,allwhilekeepingcostsdownandweaponsloadsandcapabilitiesup.FromprotectionoftheBritishhomelandtofar-offTLAMattacks,themissionsofAstuterequirethatshecontainonlythebestelectronicsandweaponsavailable.

OneofthebiggestdifferencesbetweenTrafalgarandAstuteisthesizeoftheboats'hulls.Astutewilldisplacearound7,000tonssubmergedand6,390tonssurfacedcomparedwith5,208tonsand4,740tonsfortheTrafalgar-classSSNs.Muchofthistonnage,alongwithAstute'slongerlength(318feet/97meterscomparedwith279feet/85metersoftheT-classboats--anincreaseofmorethan36feet/10meters!),canbeattributedtothenewerboat'slargerweaponsloadout.WheretheTrafalgar-classboatscarriedatotaloftwenty-fiveweapons,thenewwarshipswillbeabletoholdthirty-six(atleastthat'sthenumberofficiallybeingclaimed).Theywillbefiredbysixtorpedotubesversusthefiveintheearlierclass.SomeconsiderationwasgiventoprovidingtheAstute-classSSNswithaVLSsystem,butinlightofcostconstraints,thenewboats'warloadwasdeemedsufficient.

AnotherkeyupdateincludedinAstutehasbeenherreactorplant.Astute'spowerplantwasoriginallydevelopedfortheVanguard-classSSBN.DesignatedPWR2,itwillbebuiltbyRolls-Royceandisratedat15,000shafthorsepower.However,theAstuteversionissignificantlymoreadvancedthantheearliervariants,andsomepressreportsspeculatethatthenewpowerplantiscapableofcirclingtheglobeliterallyscoresoftimeswithoutasinglerefueling.Reportedlythereisalifetimereactorcoredesign(knownasan"H"core)thatwillgiveittwenty-five-tothirty-yearservicelife.AccordingtotheRoyalNavysubmarinefleet'scurrentplan,bythetimerefuelingisneeded,thefirstAstutewillhopefullyberestingherkeelonthefrontporchofasubmarineretirementcommunity!

Lastbutcertainlynotleast,Astute'spropulsionsystemswouldnotbecompletewithoutthetwoturbineswithasingleshaftconnectedto

thenowstandard(andveryquiet)pumpjetpropulsor.Ofcourse,quietingisthemostimportantcharacteristicforsubmarinesurvivalinahostileenvironmentthesedays,andAstute'simprovedreactorwillbesignificantlyquieterthanTrafalgar's.Asawhole,Astutewillbecapableofoperatingnotjustinlittoralandblue-waterregions,butalsoinsuchvariedclimatesasthosethatarefoundunderthearcticiceorinthewarmwatersofthetropics.

Inthecontrolroomofsubmarineseverywhere,processingandcomputerpowerhasalsobeenincreasingatanastoundingratefordecadesnow.Thusanynewclassofboats,evenimprovedmodelssuchasAstute,willhaveitsshareofbothupdatedlegacysystemsalongwithnewgadgetsandsensors.RadarandsonarsystemsfortheAstuteswillbeessentiallythesameunitsaswerefoundintheTrafalgars,albeitwithsomeimprovements.ItnowappearsthattheAstuteswillbefittedwiththesameType2076sonarsystem,whichhasalreadybeensuccessfullyintegratedintothemostrecentTrafalgar-classboats.ItisalsoallbutcertainthattheAstutewillbefittedwithtowedarraysonar,ashaveherpredecessors,althoughthespecificvariantandconfigurationhaveyettobeannounced.Finally,currentplanscallfortheAstuteclasstocontainherownnon-hull-penetrating"optronics"mastswithall-electronicdisplays,minusthelenses,mirrors,andprismsoftraditionalperiscopes.ThesearesimilartothosethatwillbecarriedonVirginiaandwilllikelyprovidesomebrand-newcapabilitiesandchallengesforthePerisher-trainedskippersoftheRN.

Whatisasubmarinewithoutitsweapons?RNattacksubmarineshavenowbeenfittedwithBlockIIITomahawkcruisemissiles,andastheworldlearnedduringNATO'sOperationAlliedForcein1999,RoyalNavysubmarinescanshootalotofthem,too!HMSSplendidlaunchedmorethantwodozenagainstheavilydefendedSerbiantargets,asizableportionofthelimitedsupplypurchasedfromtheU.S.WhenAstuteentersserviceinJune2005,shewillbeequipped

withasizablecomplementofTLAMs,andtheRoyalNavyisalsolookingatdevelopmentofatube-launchedversionoftheTACTOMmissilecurrentlyunderdevelopmentfortheU.S.Navy.Landattackmissilesaside,Astutealsohastherequirementtoengagesurfaceshipsandothersubmarines.Forthismission,Astute'ssixtorpedotubeswillbecompatiblewithboththeRNversionofthesea-skimmingUGM-84Block1CHarpoonmissile(forattacksagainstsurfacevessels)andthefast,albeitexpensive,wire-guidedSpearfishtorpedo(foruseagainstbothsubmarinesandsurfaceships).Minescanalsobecarriedandmayhaveaparticularuseinthelittoralregions.

Habitabilityandsustainabilityarealwayskeyissuesonanuclearsubmarine.Whenjudgingasubmarinewiththecapabilityofspendingextendedperiodsoftimeawayfromportandbeneaththesurface,habitabilitymustalwaysbetakenintoconsideration.Currentplanscallforacrewoftwelveofficersandninety-sevenenlistedsailorsaboardAstute.WhileincreasedsizehasledtotheimprovementofsomeaccommodationscomparedwiththeTrafalgars,someAstutesailorswillstillprobablyhavetohotbunkwiththeirshipmates.Thispracticewillberequiredforonlythemostjuniorofhersailors,sincecurrentestimatescallforthesharingofaroundeighteenofthecrewbunks.

AlloftheimprovementsandmodernizationsbuiltintotheAstuteswillbecomearealitywhenthefirstoftheclassiscommissionedintoservicein2006,followedbyAmbushin2007andArtfulin2008.Asmentionedearlier,itnowappearsthatatleasttwoadditionalA-classboatswillbebuilt,andpossiblyevenmore,thoughthesehaveyettobenamedorofficiallyordered.

WhatcomesnextfortheRoyalNavy'ssubmarineforce?WorkhasalreadybegunonasubmarinetoreplacetheinitialsevenTrafalgarboats.Theboatsaresofarunnamed,butwhatisknownisthattheywillbenuclearpoweredandhaveasubmergeddisplacementofbetween5,000and8,000tons.Theywillalsobefittedwitha"lifeof

theboat"nuclearreactor,similartothosefoundintheAstutesandVirginias.Inaddition,VLStubesmaybefittedtothisnextclasstoallowforanincreasedloadoutofTomahawkBlockIIIorTACTOMlandattackmissiles.AswiththeVirginias,anynewattacksubmarinetheRoyalNavybuildswilllikelyhaveprovisionsforUUVs.ThereiseventalkthattheAstuteswillbethelastmannedsubmarinetoenterservicewiththeRoyalNavy,somethingthatrequiresmorethanaminorleapoffaithandvisioninthefutureoftechnology.Intheend,though,therealstrengthoftheRNSSNforcewillbewhatitalwayshasbeen--superblytrainedcrewsandPerisher-qualifiedskippers,abletooutguessandoutguntheirenemies.

Conclusions:TowardtheUnknown

Yes,adecadereallydoesmakeadifference.Tenyearsagoweaskedwhatthenextdecadeofsubmarinedevelopmentwouldbelike.Well,afterreadingthislastchapter,youcanseethatquestionhasclearlybeenanswered.Fortunately,theworldhasalsolearnedsomelessonsaboutthenatureofnavalwarfarealongtheway.Mostimportantly,we'velearnedthatifthere'sonethingwecan'tpredict,it'sthefuture!NoonecouldhaveaccuratelypredictedtheendoftheColdWar,andlikewisenoonewilleverbeabletoaccuratelypredictexactlywhatthenextgenerationofsubmarineoperationsandmissionswillbelike.

Wedoknowthatthepasttenyearsofsubmarineoperationshaveconsistedoftheunexpected.FromOperationDesertStormtoourNavy'sinvolvementintherecentNATOactionsintheBalkans,theonethemethathasremainedthesamethroughoutthe1990shasbeendoingmorewithless.ThesubmarinecommunitiesoftheU.S.andRoyalnavies,alongwiththoseofourotherallies,havehadtheirbudgetscut,theirsubmarinesretiredfromservice,andtheircrews

downsized,allwhilebeingaskedtoconductmoreactivitiesandoperationsthanatanytimeinrecentmemory.AllthishasbeenhappeningwhilehighlycapablesubmarinessuchastheProject877/Kilo-classboatshavebeenenteringthenaviesof"rogue"nationsatafargreaterpacethannewclassessuchasSeawolf,Virginia,andAstutewillbeenteringours.

What'sthesolutiontothisproblem?Intoday'shigh-threatenvironment,wherewedon'thavethebenefitoflookinginaspecificdirectiontowatchforflyingbullets,wemustbepreparedforeverycontingency.Andweare.AquicklookatAmerica'smodernsubmarineforceshowsthat.They'reoutthereonpatrolforthenation,inthebackyardsofourenemiesandcompetitors--literallyontheirdoorstepdayinanddayout--alreadypreparedforanycontingency.Whetherit'saTLAMstrikeagainstafutureenemynationoraspecialoperationsrescuemissionlaunchedfromthedepthsofasubmarinedrydockshelter,thesailorsoftoday'ssubmarinefleetaredoingtheirbesttostaypreparedforanyemergency.Andforthatweowethemourrespect.

Gettingbacktoourfirstquestion,whatexactlydoesthefutureholdforthesubmarineforce?Thetruthis,wedon'tknow.MaybetheVirginiasandtheAstuteswillbethelastmannedsubmarinestheU.S.andBritainwilleverbuild,eventuallytobereplacedbyadvancedunmannedsubmersibles.Orperhapsourfleetswillbecomemoreandmoresubsurface-centricasthesurfaceshipbecomesincreasinglyvulnerabletoantishipmissilesandotherweapons.Wejustdon'tknowyetwhatthefutureholds.However,whateveritmaybe,ournation'ssubmariners(hopefullyalongwiththoseofourallies)willbeonpatrol,readytodefendournationalinterestintimesoftroubleandthreat.Canweaskforanythingmore?

OtherPeople'sSubmarines

Itissomethingofanodditythatinaworldwherethenumbersandsizesofmilitaryforcesaredecreasing,submarinescontinuetobebuilt.Infact,whileitisnotquiteagrowthindustry,productionofdiesel-electricsubmarinesiscontinuinginanumberofcountriesandyardsworldwide.Inaddition,thosecountriesthathavethecapabilitytobuildnuclearsubmarinesarefightingdesperatelytomaintaintheindustrialbasetodoso.Whilethenationsoftheworldhavebeendownsizingtheirownsubmarineforces,theyhavealsobeentryingtomarkettheproductsoftheirbuildingyardstodevelopingcountriesthatdesireanentryintotheworldofsubmarinecapabilities.

Italsoisratherironicthatwhilethenumberofsubmarinesintheworldhasdecreasedradically,theoverallqualityandageoftheremainingboatshasimproved--ratherastrangesituationforthosewhosuggestthatpeacehasbrokenoutaroundtheworld.Thus,anyonechoosingtohuntothersubmarinesisfacingtherealitythatthetaskisprobablygettingtougher.Inaddition,nationsthataregenerallyconsideredasoutlaws(likeIranandAlgeria)areobtaininganumberofnewproductiondiesel-electricboats.ThisproliferationmeansthattheUnitedStatesandouralliesmayhavetohuntenemysubsinplaceswehavenevergonebefore.TherecentdeploymentoftheUSSTopeka(SSN-754)tothePersianGulf,atthesametimethefirstoftheIranianKilo-classboatswasbeingdelivered,isprobablynotacoincidence.Evenmoreinteresting,though,wouldhavebeentoseeifanotherU.S.boat,perhapsevenanother688I,wasinvisiblytrailingtheKiloonitsdeliverytrip.

Thesectionthatfollowsisacompendiumofthemoremodernsubmarines,bothnuclearandconventionallypowered,thatmightface

theU.S.subforce.Someofthem,likethoseoftheUnitedKingdomandFrance,areoperatedbynationsthatareconsideredallies.Others,likethoseoftheRussianNavyandtheclientsoftheGermansandtheFrench,mightstillposeathreattotheforcesalliedwiththeUnitedStates.Thisshouldnotbeconsideredalistofeverysingleboatintheworld,however.Forthat,IdefertoA.D.Baker'sincomparablebiannualwork,CombatFleetsoftheWorld(NavalInstitutePress,Annapolis,Md.).

Forthebenefitofthereader,thefollowingexplanationsofthetermsusedisprovided:

Classname:Nameofthefirstboatoftheclassorbuildingprogram

Producer(country/manufacturer):Countryoforiginandproductionsite

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):Surfacedandsubmergedinlongtons(2,240lbsper)

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:Bowtostern;Beam:Sidetoside;Draft:Tokeel

Armament:Numberoftubes/launchersandweapons

Machinery:Powerplant(s),numberofscrews,propellerblades,andshafthorsepower(SHP)

Speed(knots):Maximum

Numberinclass:Inservice+building+planned

Users:AllcountriescurrentlyusingComments:Somethoughtsandfeaturesoftheclass

Russia/CommonwealthofIndependentStates

Whilethe"evilempire"oftheSovietUnionmaybedead,thenavybuiltbytheUSSRisaliveandstilluseful.Despitehavingsufferedthebreakupofthenationitwasdesignedtoserve,andhavingscrappedoverhalfofallitswarships,theRussianNavyisstilloneofthemostpowerfulfightingforcesafloat.Theystilldeploysomethinglike240submarinesofvarioustypes,aswellasalargearrayofsurfaceships.AndwhiletheRussianNavyanditsCISbrotherservicesaresufferingfromashortageofalmosteverything,themissileboatsarestillmakingtheirdeployments,withtheattackboatsstillsupportingtheminthebastions.

ThebigchallengefortheRussiansubmarineforce,likeeveryoneelse,issurvivingthepresenttomoveontothefuture.Theirfirstproblemis,ofcourse,howtomaintaintheirexistingforceofattack,guidedmissile,andballisticmissilesubmarines.ThisproblemhasbeenmadeextremelydifficultbythefinancialtroublesoftheRussianRepublic,thoughtheyhavemanagedtoholdthingstogetheruntilnow.Anotherproblemisthefleetofagedsubmarines(manyofthemnuclearpowered)thattheyhave.TherecentnewsphotographofanabandonedRussiansubmarinepokingitsbowthroughthewinterpackiceinVladivostokisachillingstatementontheinabilityoftheRussianstodealwiththisproblem.Clearly,justhowtodisposeofover150obsoletenuclearsubmarinesisaproblemthatwillrequirethehelpoftheUnitedStatesandherallies.

Asforthefuture,onlyeventswilltellusthat.TheonethingthatdoesseemcertainisthattheRussianswillcontinuedevelopmentofsubmarinesandtheirrelatedtechnology.Whilemanyofthedesignbureausforaircraftandtanksareindesperatetrouble,therearecontinuingreportsthattheyarestillfunnelingtheirlimitedmilitaryR&Dfundsintodesignsfornewerandquietersubmarines.Themost

likelyprojectsforsuchresearchwillprobablybeareplacementfortheDeltaIVSSBNs,anewSSNderivedfromthehighlysuccessfulAkula-classboats,andpossiblyanewdiesel-electricdesigntoreplacetheKiloandsupportexportsales.ThereplacementSSBNmakessenseinlightofthenewSTARTarmsagreements,whichhavetheRussiansplacingoverhalftheirdeliverablenuclearwarheadsonsubmarine-launchedmissiles.Andjustasobviously,theAkulaandKiloreplacementswillbeneededtoprotectthoseSSBNsandmaintainthecredibilityoftheCISnucleardeterrent.

Overall,thisisamajorreductionfromseveralyearsago,whentheR&Deffortwasprobablytwotothreetimesthissize.RumorhadtheRussiansworkingonreplacementsfortheOscar-classSSGNs,theTyphoonSSBNs,theSSNsoftheSierraclass,andevenaRubis-sizedSSNforexporttotheIndianNavy.Allofthisthoughisbasedonwhatweseehappeningtoday.AndasanyhonestwatcherofRussianmilitarytrendswilltellyou,thecrystalballiscloudyandthetealeavesunreliablewheretheyareconcerned.Intheend,itwillprobablycomedowntowhetherBorisYeltsincanholdthingstogetherlongenoughforanactualtrendtodevelop.Sohereitisasoftoday.

VictorIII.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

RussianVictorIIInuclear-poweredattacksubmarineunderway.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

Classname:VictorIII(Project671RTM)

Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/RussianAdmiralty;Komsomolsk

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):4,900/6,000

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:341.1/104Beam:32.8/10Draft:23/7Armament:Four650mmandtwo533mmtorpedotubeswith24weapons

Machinery:TwoPWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingonetandem8-bladedscrew;30,000SHP

Speed(knots):30(submerged)Numberinclass:26

Users:Russia

Comments:WhileitsoonwillbetheoldestclassofSSNintheRussianinventory,theVictorIIIisstilladangerousandcapableopponent.Wellarmedandrelativelyquiet(roughlysimilartotheSturgeonclass),thisboatwasthefirstSovietSSNcapableofmatchingWesternboats.Thesternpod,firstfoundonVictorIIIs,isnowafeatureofeverymodernRussianSSN;itcontainsapassivetowedarraysonarsystem.

Akula.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

RussianAkula-classnuclear-poweredattacksubmarineunderway.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

Classname:Akula(Russian:Barsclass)(Project971)

Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Severodvinsk,Komsomolsk

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):7,500/10,000

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:370.6/113Beam:42.6/13Draft:32.8/10

Armament:Four650mmandfour533mmtorpedotubeswith30+weapons

Machinery:TwoPWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingone7-bladedscrew;45,000SHP

Speed(knots):35(submerged)

Numberinclass:7+?Users:Russia

Comments:Whenwesternsubmarinershavenightmares,theyusuallyrevolvearoundthisclassofSSN.AkulaisthequietestSSNyetproducedbyRussiaandrepresentsaboatintheclassofaFlightILosAngeles.Probablyutilizesaraftsoundisolationsystemtokeepnoisedown.ReportedlythelastremainingRussianSSNclassstillinproduction.PresidentYeltsinhasannouncedthattheKomsomolskshipyard,locatedinthefareast,isgoingtobeconvertedtocivilianproductionby1995or'96.Afterthat,onlytheSeverodvinskshipyard,locatedintheKolaPeninsula,willproducesubmarinesfortheRussianNavy.

Sierra.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Aerialview,RussianSierra-classnuclear-poweredattacksubmarineunderway.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

Classname:SierraI/II(Russian:Barrakudaclass)(Project945Aand945B)

Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/KrasnayaSormova

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):SierraI--6,050/7,600;SierraII--6,350/7,900

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:351/107or367.4/112Beam:41/12.5Draft:24.3/7.4

Armament:Four650mmandtwo533mmtorpedotubeswithanestimated30weapons

Machinery:TwoPWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingone7-bladedscrew;45,000SHP

Speed(knots):35(submerged)

Numberinclass:2/1+1Users:Russia

Comments:TheevolutionarydescendantoftheAlfa,theSierraisatitanium-hulledfollow-ontothepreviousclassesofSovietSSNs.Veryquietandwellarmed,ithasbeenovershadowedbythehighlysuccessfulsteel-hulledAkula-classboats.Reportedly,oncethelastSierraIIiscompleted,KrasnayaSormovawillconverttocivilianshipproduction.

CharlieII.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

RussianCharlie-classnuclear-poweredcruisemissilesubmarine.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

Classname:CharlieII(Project670M)

Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/KrasnayaSormova

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):4,300/5,500

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:337.8/103Beam:32.8/10Draft:26.2/8

Armament:EightSS-N-9sinexternaltubes;six533mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons

Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingone5-bladedscrew;15,000SHP

Speed(knots):24(submerged)

Numberinclass:6Users:Russia

Comments:TheseboatsmaypossiblybetheoldestguidedmissilesubmarinesthatwillberetainedbyRussia.Relativelynoisy,buttheycanstillpackapowerfulpunchwiththeirbatteryofSS-N-9Sirenantishipmissiles.

Oscar.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:OscarI/II(Russian:Granite/Anteyclasses)(Project949&949A)

Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Severodvinsk

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):OscarI--13,900/16,700;Oscar;II--15,000/18,000

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:478.9/146or505.1/154Beam:59/18Draft:32.8/10

Armament:Twenty-fourSS-N-19sinexternaltubes;six650mmand533mmtorpedotubeswith24weapons

Machinery:TwoPWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingtwo7-bladedscrews;90,000SHP

Speed(knots):33(submerged)

Numberinclass:2/7+Users:Russia

Comments:Oscarcarriesthenicknameof"Mango"forhersizeandfirepower.ShealsoisasquietasSierraandcarriesthesamesonarsystem,includingatowedarrayfromthetubeontopoftherudder,astheSierra-classboats.With24SS-N-19Shipwreckheavyantishipmissilesandafullarrayoftorpedoes,thisisthelargestandmostheavilyarmedattacksubmarineintheworld.Probablycapableoftakingoneormoretorpedohitsandstillsurviving.

Classname:FourthgenerationSSN(Akulafollow-on)(Project:?)

Producer(country/manufacturer):

Russia/Severodvinsk

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):[?]10,000(submerged)

Dimensions(ft/m):(unknown)

Armament:Sixtoeight650mmand533mmtorpedotubeswith30+weapons

Machinery:PWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingone7-bladedscrew;?SHP

Speed(knots):[?]30-35(submerged)

Numberinclass:?

Users:RussiaComments:IftheRussianschoosetocontinueSSNproduction,theywillprobablybasethefourth-generationdesignontheirformidableAkulaclass.Intermsofcapability,thisboatwillprobablybetheequalofa688Iintermsofquieting,andwillhaveimprovementsinsonar,computers,andweapons.Shouldadecisionbemadetoproduceit,thefirstboatwillprobablybecommissionedsomewhereinthe2003-2005timeframe.

Typhoon.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Typhoon-classballisticmissilesubmarine.OFFICIALU.S.NAVYPHOTO

Classname:Typhoon(Russian:Akulaclass)(Project941)

Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Severodvinsk

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):18,500/25,000

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:560.9/171Beam:78.7/24Draft:41/12.5

Armament:TwentySS-N-20SLBMs;six650mmand533mmtorpedotubeswithanestimated24weapons

Machinery:TwoPWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingtwoshrouded7-bladedscrews;90,000SHP

Speed(knots):25(submerged)

Numberinclass:6Users:Russian-operatedbutunderCIScontrol

Comments:Theworld'sbiggestsubmarine,pureandsimple.TheTyphoonseemstohavebeendesignedasadirectcountertotheOhio-classSSBNs.Shecarries20equallyhugeSS-N-20(RSM-52)Sturgeonsubmarine-launchedballisticmissiles.EssentiallytwoDeltaIVpressurehullsslappedtogether,withadditionalspacesfortorpedotubesandstorageandshipcontrol,thismonsterofthedeepisequippedforlong-termoperations,particularlyintheArcticareas.Becauseofitsdoublehullandmassivebulk,tosinkitwithjustasingleheavytorpedohitwouldbenearlyimpossible.TheRussianscallthisbeastAkula.

DeltaIV.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:DeltaIV(Russian:Del'finclass)(Project667BRDM)

Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Severodvinsk

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):10,800/13,500

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:537.9/164Beam:39.4/12Draft:28.5/8.7Armament:SixteenSS-N-23SLBMs;six650mmand533mmtorpedotubeswith18weapons

Machinery:TwoPWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingtwo7-bladedscrews;50,000SHP

Speed(knots):24(submerged)Numberinclass:7

Users:Russian-operatedbutunderCIScontrol

Comments:AdirectdescendantofthehighlysuccessfulDeltaIIISSBNs,theDeltaIVwasoriginallyseenasa"justincase"programshouldtheTyphoonsnotperformasdesired.UnveiledinthelightoftheSTARTIIworld,thisformidabledesignhasbeenseenforwhatitis,averycapableandquiet

SSBNabletosustainlongoperations,evenintheArcticregions.DeltaIVscarry16liquid-fueledSS-N-23(RSM-54)Skiffsubmarine-launchedballisticmissiles.

DeltaIII.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:DeltaIII(Russian:Kal'marclass)(Project667BDR)

Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Severodvinsk

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):10,600/13,250

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:510/155.5Beam:39.4/12.0Draft:28.2/8.6Armament:SixteenSS-N-18SLBMs;six533mmtorpedotubeswith18weapons

Machinery:TwoPWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingtwo5-bladedscrews;50,000SHP

Speed(knots):24(submerged)Numberinclass:14

Users:Russian-operatedbutunderCIScontrol

Comments:Firstappearinginthemid-1970s,theDeltaIIIswerethefirstSovietSSBNstotrulyrival

theAmericanSSBNsinweapons.Specifically,herlong-rangeSS-N-18(RSM-50)StingraymissileswithmultiplereentryvehiclesgavehertheabilitytohitnumeroustargetsinNorthAmericafrompiersideateitherPetropavlovskorMurmanskbases.DeltaIIIswillprobablybetheoldestSSBNsretainedbytheRussianNavyunderSTARTII,andsomewillprobablyserveuntilthebeginningofthetwenty-firstcentury.

ARussianNavyDeltaIII-classnuclear-poweredballisticmissilesubmarine,

shortlyaftercompletingatransitoftheArctictojointheRussianPacificFleet.OFFICIALU.S.NAVY

PHOTO

Classname:Fourth-generationSSBN(DeltaIVfollow-on)(Project:?)

Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Severodvinsk

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):[?]13,000-15,000(submerged)

Dimensions(ft/m):(unknown)

Armament:est.sixteenSS-N-?SLBMs;six650mmand533mmtorpedotubeswithabout20weapons

Machinery:PWRswithsteamturbinesdrivingtwo7-bladedscrews;?SHP

Speed(knots):[?]25-30(submerged)

Numberinclass:?

Users:RussiaComments:ShouldtheRussianschoosetobuildafourth-generationSSBN,itwillprobablybebaseduponthehighlysuccessfulDeltaIVboat.Improvementswillprobablybelimitedtofurtherquietingandsomerefinementtoweapons(improvedtargetingandaccuracy),aswellassensors.

Kilo.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:Kilo(Russian:Varshavyankaclass)

(Project877)

Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Komsomolsk,KrasnayaSormova,UnitedAdmiralty

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,325/3,076

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:243.7/74.3Beam:32.8/10Draft:21.6/6.6

Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith18weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone6-bladedscrew;5,900SHP

Speed(knots):17(submerged)

Numberinclass:20+Users:Russia,Poland,Algeria,Romania,India,Iran

Comments:Currentlytheonlydiesel-electricsubmarineknowntobeinproductioninRussia.TheKiloisamedium-sized,inexpensiveSSKwithexcellentquietingandweapons,althoughthelackofatowedarraylimitsitintheareaofsensors.Somethingofabestseller,theKilohasbecomeanimportantsourceofhardcurrencyforthestrugglingRussiansubbuilders,thoughnewer,moreadvancedWesterndesignsmayintrudeonsales.

Tango.JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:Tango(Project641B)Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/KrasnayaSormova

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):3,100/3,900

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:300.1/91.5Beam:29.5/9Draft:23/7Armament:Ten533mmtorpedotubeswith24weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewiththree5-bladedscrews;6,000SHP

Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:18

Users:Russia

Comments:OneofthelastbigclassesofdieselboattobeconstructedbytheSovietUnion,theTangoswereoriginallydesignedtobeopenoceanSSKswiththeprimarymissionsofattackingaircraftcarriersandinterdictingmerchantships.Extremelyquietandcapable,theyhaveexcellentrangeandweapons.AnumberoftheTangoswillcontinuetoserveuntiltheturnofthecentury.

Classname:Fourth-generationSS(Kilofollow-on)(Project:?)

Producer(country/manufacturer):Russia/Severodvinsk

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):[?]2,500-3,000(submerged)

Dimensions(ft/m):(unknown)

Armament:six533mmtorpedotubeswithabout20weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;probableAIPsystem;?SHP

Speed(knots):[?]25-30(submerged)

Numberinclass:?Users:Russiaand?

Comments:IfRussiachoosestokeepbuildingconventionallypoweredsubmarines,theywillprobablybasethenextdesignonaprototypeboatknownasBelugathathasbeenundergoingtestingintheBlackSea.ThenewdesignSSmayutilizeanovelAirIndependentPropulsion(AIP)systemtoextendslow-speedsubmergedendurance,whichreducesthetimethesubmarinewouldhavetospendsnorkeling.Inaddition,withahullformbasedontheAlfa-classSSNsthefourth-generationSSmaybecapableofhighSSN-likespeedsforshortperiods.

People'sRepublicofChina

WhiletheRussiansranheadlongintothebusinessofbuildingnuclearsubmarines,thePeople'sRepublicofChina(PRC)tookaslow,steadypace.TheirfirstSSN,theHanclass,isasimpleboatwithverylittleofthehightechnologythatwouldbeconsideredstandardonanAmericanorBritishboat.FromtheHanshavecometheXiaclass,thePRC'sfirstSSBN.ItappearsthatboththeHanandtheXiahave

finishedtheirproductionruns.Withonlysixfirst-generationunits,theChineseappeartohavemixedfeelingsaboutthesuccessoftheHanandXia.Nevertheless,itislikelythatwithintheforeseeablefuture,theChinesewillbeginproductionoftheHanandXiafollow-ons.

Classname:HanProducer(country/manufacturer):PRC/Huludao

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):4,500(submerged)

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:295.2/90Beam:32.8/10Draft:?Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubes

Machinery:OnePWRwithturboelectricdrive;one-bladedscrew;15,000SHP

Speed(knots):30(submerged)Numberinclass:5

Users:PRC

Comments:ThisisthefirstclassofSSNproducedbythePRC,anditshows.Rathernoisyandlimitedinitsweaponsloadandsensors,itisstillrelativelyfastandbetterthannothing.RoughlyequaltoaSkipjackorVictorIinperformance.

Classname:Xia

Producer(country/manufacturer):PRC/Huludao

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):7,000(submerged)

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:393.6/120Beam:32.8/10Draft:?

Armament:TwelveCSS-N-3SLBMs;six533mmtorpedotubes

Machinery:OnePWRwithturboelectricdrive;one-bladedscrew;15,000SHP

Speed(knots):20(submerged)

Numberinclass:1

Users:PRCComments:ThefirstclassofSSBNsbuiltbythePRC,theXiasareroughlysimilartotheSovietYankeeII-classboatinperformanceandweaponsloadout.AderivativeoftheHanclass(thehullandreactorarevirtuallyidentical),theXiasgivethePRCleadershipaminorandsomewhatcredibleFBMcapabilityintheirpartoftheworld.

France

TheFrencharesomewhatunusualbecausetheychosetodevelopnuclearsubmarinestocarryballisticmissiles(SSBNs)beforetheydevelopednuclearattacksubmarines(SSNs).ThiswasduetothedesireofGeneralCharlesdeGaulleinthe1960stohaveanucleardeterrentindependentofNATO.Consequently,theydevelopedaforceoffourSSBNs,theLeRedoubtableclass,first,andonlyrecentlydevelopedaforceofSSNs.CurrentlytheyarefinishingtheconstructionoftheAmethyst-classSSNs,aswellasworkingonanewclassofSSBNs,thefourunitsoftheLeTriomphantclass.Inaddition,theFrenchmaintainasmallforceofdiesel-electricsubmarines,thoughthenumberofthesewillsurelydecrease.Asforthefuture,the

FrenchplansarenotclearbeyondtheattemptsofcommercialyardstomarketconventionalversionsoftheAmethyst-classboats.

Classname:AmethystProducer(country/manufacturer):France/DCAN,Cherbourg

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,400/2,660

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:241.4/73.6Beam:24.9/7.6Draft:21/6.4Armament:Four533mmtorpedotubeswith14weapons

Machinery:OnePWRwithturboelectricdrive;one7-bladedscrew;9,500SHP

Speed(knots):28(submerged)Numberinclass:1+2

Users:France

Comments:BasicallyanimprovedRubiswitharoundedbow,theseboatsaresuperiorinbothradiatednoiseandsensors.CurrentlytherearenoplansbytheFrenchNavyforalargerSSNforce,andthesewillbethelastonesbuiltintheforeseeablefuture.

Amethyst(French).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Rubis(French).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:RubisProducer(country/manufacturer):France/DCAN,Cherbourg

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,385/2,670

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:236.5/72.1Beam:24.9/7.6Draft:21/6.4Armament:Four533mmtorpedotubeswith14weapons

Machinery:OnePWRwithturboelectricdrive;one7-bladedscrew;9,500SHP

Speed(knots):25(submerged)Numberinclass:4

Users:France

Comments:ThefirstoftheFrenchSSNs,theRubis

classappearedonlyinthelastdecadeorso.ThesecompactlittleboatsarethesmallestSSNseverbuilt,andthisisreflectedinthesmallcrewsize(8officersand57men)andtheweaponsloadout(14weapons).Theearlyunitsoftheclasswerereportedtoberelativelynoisy,requiringamajorrefit.AllunitsarecurrentlybeingbroughtuptothestandardoftheAmethyst-classboats.

Classname:LeTriomphantProducer(country/manufacturer):France/DCAN,Cherbourg

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):12,640/14,120

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:452.6/138Beam:41/12.5Draft:?Armament:SixteenM45SLBMs;four533mmtorpedotubeswith?weapons

Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingonepumpjetpropulsor;41,500SHP

Speed(knots):25+(submerged)Numberinclass:1+3

Users:France

Comments:NewgenerationofFrenchSSBN.Considerableattentionpaidtoquietingmeasuresincludingmainpropulsionmachineryraftandapumpjetpropulsor.MorestreamlinedhullformoverL'InflexibleandearlierSSBNs.Willbeequippedwiththelatestinsubmarinesonarsystemsincludingalargeflankarray,andnewcombatsystem.

L'Inflexible(French).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:L'InflexibleProducer(country/manufacturer):France/DCAN,Cherbourg

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):8,080/8,920

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:422.1/128.7Beam:34.8/10.6Draft:32.8/10Armament:SixteenM4SLBMs;four533mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons

Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingone7-bladedscrew;16,000SHP

Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:1

Users:France

Comments:EssentiallyaLeRedoubtableclasswithsomeimprovementsinquieting,hullsteel,andsensors.

LeRedoubtable(French).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:LeRedoubtableProducer(country/manufacturer):France/DCAN,Cherbourg

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):8,000/9,000

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:419.8/128Beam:34.8/10.6Draft:32.8/10Armament:SixteenM4SLBMs;four533mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons

Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingone7-bladedscrew;16,000SHP

Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:4

Users:France

Comments:ThefirstclassofSSBNsconstructedbytheFrenchNavyand,infact,thefirstnuclearshipbuiltindigenouslyinEurope.LeRedoubtablewasdecommissionedinDecember1991;allothersintheclassundergoingmodernizationtoL'Inflexiblestandard.

Agosta(French).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:AgostaProducer(country/manufacturer):France/DCAN,Cherbourg

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,490/1,740

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:221.7/67.6Beam:22.3/6.8Draft:17.7/5.4Armament:Four550mmtorpedotubeswith20weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;4,600SHP

Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:4

Users:France,Pakistan,Spain

Comments:Thelastgeneralpurposediesel-electricsubsbuiltbytheFrench.Anexcellentdesign,theyarebeingupgradedtothestandardsoftheAmethystclass.

Dauphne(French).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:DauphneProducer(country/manufacturer):France/DCAN,Cherbourg

Displacement:(surfaced/submerged):869/1,043

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:188.9/57.6Beam:22.2/6.8Draft:17.4/5.3Armament:Twelve550mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithtwo3-bladedscrews;2,000SHP

Speed(knots):16(submerged)Numberinclass:19

Users:France,Pakistan,Portugal,Spain,SouthAfrica

Comments:OlderSSK(diesel-electricsubmarine)design,thoughquitesuccessful.Extensivelyupgraded,theclasscontinuesinservicetoday.

UnitedKingdom

Ofallthenationsthatoperatesubmarines,noneholdscloserinstitutionalandengineeringtiestotheUnitedStatesthantheUnitedKingdom.CurrentlytheU.K.subforceisundergoingitsowndownsizingafterseveraldecadesofsteadygrowth.Partofthisisduetofinancialconstraints,thoughtheentire"V"classofSSNsisbeingretiredratherprematurelybecauseofhydrogenembrittlementofvalvesandotherplumbingfixturesintheirpropulsionplants.Asthisbookisbeingwritten,theBritishareheadedforaforceoftwelveSSNs(SwiftsureandTrafalgarclasses),fourSSBNs(theVanguardclass),andfourSSKs(diesel-electricsubmarines)(theUpholderclass).Eventhisforcemaybewhittleddown,withtheUpholdersreportedlybeingconsideredforsaletoexportclients.Astofuturesubconstruction,theBritishwouldliketobuildasecondbatchofTrafalgarspoweredbytheBritish-builtPWR-2powerplant,thoughonlytheBritishParliamentandtheMinisterofDefenceareabletodeterminewhetherthiswillhappen.

Trafalagar(British).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:TrafalgarProducer(country/manufacturer):UnitedKingdom/VSEL,Barrow-in-Furness

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):4,700/5,208

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:280.1/85.4Beam:32.2/9.8Draft:27.2/8.3

Armament:Five533mmtorpedotubeswith25weapons

Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingonepumpjetpropulsor;15,000SHP

Speed(knots):30(submerged)

Numberinclass:7Users:UnitedKingdom

Comments:Quitesimply,thebestSSNeverbuiltbytheBritish.Thisclassisquick,quiet,andcarriesasubstantialpunch.IftheTrafalgarshaveaweakness,itisthelackofanintegratedcombatsystemliketheU.S.AN/BSY-1.AfutureupgradeknownasType2076maycurethis.Theyhandlewellandarequitegoodboatsforthemoney.

Swiftsure(British).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:SwiftsureProducer(country/manufacturer):UnitedKingdom/VSEL,Barrow-in-Furness

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):4,200/4,500

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:271.9/82.9Beam:32.2/9.8Draft:27.2/8.3Armament:Five533mmtorpedotubeswith25weapons

Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingonepumpjetpropulsor;15,000SHP

Speed(knots):30(submerged)Numberinclass:5

Users:UnitedKingdom

Comments:TheoldestSSNsintheRoyalNavy,theSwiftsuresarefineboatsthathavebeenupgradedinrefitstoalmostthesamestandardastheTrafalgars.

Classname:TrafalgarBatchII(?)

Producer(country/manufacturer):UnitedKingdom/VSEL,Barrow-in-Furness

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):[?]5,200(submerged)

Dimensions(ft/m):(unknown)

Armament:Five533mmtorpedotubeswith30weapons

Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingonepumpjetpropulsor;15,000SHP

Speed(knots):[?]30(submerged)

Numberinclass:?

Users:UnitedKingdom

Comments:Thebig"If"inthefutureoftheRoyalNavy.Theseboats,iftheyareeverbuilt,willbepoweredbytheBritishPWR-2reactor,andmaybeequippedwithcruisemissiles.

Upholder(British).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

HMSUnseen,oneofthenewgenerationofdiesel-electricsubmarinesoperatedbytheRoyalNavy.U.K.MINISTRYOFDEFENCE

Classname:Upholder

Producer(country/manufacturer):UnitedKingdom/VSEL,Barrow-in-Furness;CammellLaird,Birkenhead

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,185/2,400

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:230.6/70.3Beam:24.9/7.6Draft:18/5.5

Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith18weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;5,400SHP

Speed(knots):20(submerged)

Numberinclass:4Users:UnitedKingdom

Comments:AreallyniceclassofSSKs,theseboatsareprobablythefinestdiesel-electricsubmarinesintheworld.FullytheequaloftheTrafalgarsinsensorsandarmament,theymaybesoldofftoexportcustomers.

Classname:VanguardProducer(country/manufacturer):UnitedKingdom/VSEL,Barrow-in-Furness

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):15,850(submerged)

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:489.7/149.3Beam:42/12.8Draft:33.1/10.1Armament:SixteenTridentII(D-5)SLBMs;four

533mmtorpedotubeswith[?]18weapons

Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingonepumpjetpropulsor;27,500SHP

Speed(knots):25(submerged)

Numberinclass:1+3

Users:UnitedKingdomComments:TheseareprobablygoingtobethelastclassofSSBNseverbuiltfortheRoyalNavy.RepresentingeverythingeverlearnedbytheRoyalNavyinsubmarinedesign,theseelegantlydesignedboatshavesomethingofa"bigshoulders"lookbecauseofthewaythebowplanesaremounted.

Resolution(British).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:Resolution

Producer(country/manufacturer):UnitedKingdom/VSEL,Barrow-in-Furness

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):7,600/8,500

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:424.8/129.5Beam:33.1/10.1Draft:30/9.2

Armament:SixteenPolaris(A-3)SLBMs;six

533mmtorpedotubeswith[?]18weapons

Machinery:OnePWRwithsteamturbinesdrivingone7-bladedscrew;27,500SHP

Speed(knots):25(submerged)

Numberinclass:3

Users:UnitedKingdomComments:TheoldwarhorsesoftheBritishsubmarineforce,theunits(threeremainincommissionasofthiswriting)ofthe"R"classhavebeenkeepingthepeaceforoveraquartercenturynow.Beingretiredasthenew"V"classboatscomeonline,theyareroughlyequivalenttotheU.S.Lafayette-classSSBNs.

Sweden

Ofallthenationsthatoperatesubmarines,noneisprobablylessunderstoodandmoreunderestimatedthanSweden.TheSwedeshavealwayshadanindependentstreakwhenitcomestodefenseissues,andthisiscertainlytrueoftheirsubmarineforce.Atthemoment,theyproducesomeofthemostadvancedconventionallypoweredsubmarinesintheworld.Theirboatshaveadecidedlyinshoredesignphilosophy,consistentwiththeSwedishrequirementsofoperatingintheBaltic.Inaddition,theSwedesareleadersinnon-nuclearAirIndependentPropulsion(AIP)systems.CurrentlytheyarefinishingdevelopmentoftheGotland(A-19class)boats,equippedwithaSterlingAIPsystemtokeepthebatterieschargedforlongersubmergedendurance.Likeallothernations,theSwedesare

aggressivelymarketingtheirboatsforexport.Theyhavehadaparticularsuccesswiththesaleofsixboats(theCollinsclass)toAustralia.

Gotland(A-19)(Swedish).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:Gotland(A-19class)Producer(country/manufacturer):Sweden/Kockums,Malmo

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,300(submerged)

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:172.2/52.5Beam:19.9/6.1Draft:18.4/5.6Armament:Six533mmandthree400mmtorpedotubeswith18weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone5-bladedscrew;[?]4,500SHP;SterlingengineAIPsystemtobeinstalled

Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:0+3

Users:Sweden

Comments:EssentiallyanupdatedA-17class,withimprovedsensorsandcombatsystemsandthe

incorporationoftwoSterlingengine-drivengeneratorsforimprovedslow-speedsubmergedendurance.

Vastergotland(A-17)(Swedish).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:Vastergotland(A-17class)Producer(country/manufacturer):Sweden/Kockums,Malmo,andKarlskronaVarvet

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,070/1,140

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:159.1/48.5Beam:19.9/6.1Draft:18.4/5.6Armament:Six533mmandthree400mmtorpedotubeswith18weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone5-bladedscrew;[?]4,000SHP

Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:4

Users:Sweden

Comments:EssentiallyimprovedNackens,theseboatsarequitecapableforBalticoperations.

Nacken(A-14)(Swedish).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:Nacken(A-14class)Producer(country/manufacturer):Sweden/Kockums,Malmo,andKarlskronaVarvet

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,030/1,125

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:162.4/49.5Beam:18.7/5.7Draft:13.4/4.1Armament:Six533mmandtwo400mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone5-bladedscrew;[?]4,000SHP

Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:3

Users:Sweden

Comments:TheoldestSSKsintheSwedishNavy.NackenwasthetrialsubmarinefortheSterlingengineAIPsystem,whichwillbeincorporatedintheGotlandclass.

Netherlands

TheDutchenjoyanoutstandingsubmarinetradition,withparticularprideinthenumerousenemysinkingstotheircreditduringWorldWarII.Infact,duringtheearlydaysof1942inthePacific,thetinyDutchforceactuallysankmoreshipsthantheentireU.S.subforce.TodaytheDutchhaveanexcellentfleetofSSKsandareaggressivelytryingtomarketthemoverseas.

Classname:Walrus

Producer(country/manufacturer):Netherlands/RotterdamseDroogdokMaatschaooij

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,450/2,800

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:222.2/67.7Beam:27.6/8.4Draft:23/7Armament:Four533mmtorpedotubeswith20weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone5-bladedscrew;5,430SHP

Speed(knots):21(submerged)Numberinclass:1+3

Users:Netherlands

Comments:AreallynicelittleclassofSSK,theWalrus-classboatshaveagoodbalanceofweapons,sensors,andendurance.Theleadboatoftheclasssufferedafireduringbuildingandwasdelayedindelivery.

Germany

Ofallthenationsonearth,nonehasastrongersubmarinecombattraditionthanGermany.TwiceinthiscenturytheGermanU-boatfleetshavedrivenEnglandtothebrinkofstarvationanddefeat.Today,though,theU-boatsofthemodernGermanNavyareamuchmoremodestforce,thoughtheyprobablyreflectthemissionstheywouldberequiredtoexecutebetterthantheircounterpartsfromthetwoworldwars.ThenewgenerationofU-boatsaretailoredtothecoastalwatersoftheBaltic,withenduranceandweaponsloadstomatch.TheGermanboatshaveproventobeagreatsuccess,particularlyinexportsales.InfacttheType209hasactuallyoutsoldtheRussianKiloclassinexports,makingittheVolkswagenofconventionalsubmarines.Theirnewestboats,theType212s,arecapableofbeingequippedwithaliquidoxygen/hydrogenfuelcellAIPsystem.

Type212(German).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:Type212Producer(country/manufacturer):Germany/Howaldtswerke-DeutscheWerft,ThysseenNordseewerke

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,200/1,800

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:167.8/51Beam:22.6/6.9Draft:21/6.4Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith[?]18

weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;?SHP;fuelcellAIPsystemtobeinstalled

Speed(knots):[?]20(submerged)

Numberinclass:0+12

Users:GermanyComments:ThenewestoftheGermanU-boats.TheseboatswillbeequippedwithafuelcellAIPsystem,thoughdefensecutscouldseverelyaffectconstruction.

Type206(German).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:Type206/206A

Producer(country/manufacturer):Germany/Howaldtswerke-DeutscheWerft,RheinstahlNordseewerke

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):450/520

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:159.4/48.6Beam:15.4/4.7Draft:14.1/4.3

Armament:Eight533mmtorpedotubeswith16weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladed

screw;2,300SHP

Speed(knots):17(submerged)Numberinclass:18

Users:Germany

Comments:Type206AsaremodifiedwiththeAtlasElectronicCSU83integratedsonarsuiteandtheaccompanyingSLW83integratedcombatsystem.Propulsionplant,navigation,andaccommodationshavealsobeenupgraded.

Type205(German).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:Type205

Producer(country/manufacturer):Germany/Howaldtswerke-DeutscheWerft

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):419/455Dimensions(ft/m):Length:142.7/43.5Beam:15.1/4.6Draft:12.5/3.8

Armament:Eight533mmtorpedotubeswith8weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;2,300SHP

Speed(knots):17(submerged)

Numberinclass:5Users:Germany,Denmark

Comments:AnearlierversionoftheType206,theseunitswillprobablybesoldorretiredinthecurrentroundofGermandefensecuts.

Type209(German).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:Type209(1100,1200,1300,1400variants)

Producer(country/manufacturer):Germany,Turkey,Brazil,SouthKorea/variousshipyards

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,207-1,586(submerged)

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:177.4/54.1-200.7/61.2Beam:20.5/6.3Draft:18/5.5Armament:Eight533mmtorpedotubeswith14weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;5,000SHP

Speed(knots):22(submerged)

Numberinclass:34+15Users:Argentina,Brazil,Chile,Colombia,Ecuador,Greece,Indonesia,SouthKorea,Peru,Turkey,Venezuela

Comments:TheType209variantsdifferpredominantlyinlengthanddisplacement,althoughthesensor,combat,andotherelectronicsfitswillalsovarydependingonwhentheparticularunitwasbuilt.Eventhoughthedesignisovertwentyyearsold,theType209isstillbeingbuiltforcustomerstoday,andisthemostsuccessfulsubmarinedesignoutsideofRussiaandtheUnitedStates.

IKLType1500(German).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:IKLType1500Producer(country/manufacturer):Germany;India/Howaldtswerke-DeutscheWerft;Mazagon

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,655/1,810

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:211.2/64.4Beam:21.3/6.5Draft:20.3/6.2Armament:Eight533mmtorpedotubeswith14

weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;6,100SHP

Speed(knots):23(submerged)

Numberinclass:3+1

Users:IndiaComments:TheType1500isnormallylistedasaType209variant;however,the1500hasalargerpressurehullandinternalcompartmentation,whichmakesitadifferentdesign.TheinternalarrangementofequipmentisforallintentsandpurposesthesameasonaType209.TheType1500istheonlyWestern-designedsubmarinewithanemergencyescapesphereincasetheboatsinks.

Japan

Japanstartedbuildingitssubmarineforceearly;itsnavywasthefirsttousesubsincombat,duringtheRusso-Japanesewarintheearly1900s.ThoughJapanproducedsomeofthemostadvancedboatsofWorldWarII,theyneverreallyusedthemtobestadvantage.TodaytheyoperatealargeforceofSSKsbasedontheAmericanBarbelclassofdieselsubmarine.

Harushio(Japanese).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:Harushio

Producer(country/manufacturer):Japan/Mitsubishi

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,400/2,750

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:262.4/80Beam:32.8/10Draft:25.2/7.7

Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith20weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;7,220SHP

Speed(knots):20(submerged)

Numberinclass:2+8Users:Japan

Comments:BasicallyenlargedYushios,theseboatsarehighlyautomated,withanexcellentweaponsloadandsensorsuite.

Yushio(Japanese).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:YushioProducer(country/manufacturer):Japan/MitsubishiandKawasaki

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,200/2,450

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:249.9/76.2Beam:32.5/9.9Draft:24.3/7.4Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith20weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;7,220SHP

Speed(knots):20(submerged)Numberinclass:10

Users:Japan

Comments:VeryquietboatsarmedwithbothtorpedoesandAmericanUGM-84sub-Harpoonantishipmissiles.Capableofverydeepoperations,theYushiosareupdatesoftheearlierUzushioclass.

Italy

WhiletheuninformedmightnotthinkofItalyasapowerinthesubmarineworld,thiswouldbeasevereunderestimation.Italyhasalongandproudhistoryofsubmarinedesign,construction,andoperations.InWorldWarII,ItaliansubsdidalotofdamagetoAlliedshipping,particularlyinthetightwatersoftheMediterranean.Followingthewar,Italybegantobuildupasubstantialforceofdiesel-electricboatswithunitsconstructedintheirownyards.Todayitisanextremelycapableforce,whichcontinuestobeupgradedwiththefinestweaponsandsensorsproducedinItaly.

Classname:PrimoLongobardoProducer(country/manufacturer):Italy/Italcantieri

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,653/1,862

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:217.6/66.4Beam:22.4/6.8Draft:19.7/6Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;4.270SHP

Speed(knots):19(submerged)Numberinclass:0+2

Users:Italy

Comments:ThePrimoLongobardoclassisthesecondmodificationtotheNazarioSauroclass.Thebiggestdifferencesareintheimprovedhullformand

combatsystem.

SalvatorePelosi(Italian).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:SalvatorePelosiProducer(country/manufacturer):Italy/Fincantiere

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,476/1,662

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:211.1/64.36Beam:22.4/6.8Draft:18.6/5.7Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;4,270SHP

Speed(knots):19(submerged)Numberinclass:2

Users:Italy

Comments:SlighthullmodificationsovertheNazarioSauroclass.TheSalvatorePelosiclassalsohasanimprovedcombatsystemtoallowthelaunchofsub-Harpoonmissiles.

NazarioSauro(Italian).JACKRYANENTERPRISES,LTD.

Classname:NazarioSauroProducer(country/manufacturer):Italy/C.R.D.AandItalcantiere

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):1,450/1,637

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:209.4/63.9Beam:22.4/6.8Draft:18.7/5.7Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith12weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;4,270SHP

Speed(knots):19(submerged)Numberinclass:4

Users:Italy

Comments:BasicallyimprovedversionsoftheEnricoTotiboatsthatprecededthem.NicelittleboatsdesignedforoperationsinthenarrowsoftheseassurroundingItaly.

Classname:S90

Producer(country/manufacturer):Italy/Fincantiere

Displacement(surfaced/submerged):2,500/2,780

Dimensions(ft/m):Length:228.6/69.7Beam:26.7/8.2Draft:20.7/6.3Armament:Six533mmtorpedotubeswith24weapons

Machinery:Diesel-electricdrivewithone7-bladedscrew;?SHP

Speed(knots):19(submerged)Numberinclass:0+2

Users:Italy

Comments:Follow-ontothePrimoLongobardoclass.Designdifferencesincludegreaterenduranceanddepthcapability.Designnotfinalized,andchangescouldoccur.

Glossary

1MCMainshipwideannouncingcircuitonU.S.submarines.

ADCAPADvancedCAPability.NewestversionoftheMark48torpedoonboardU.S.submarines.

AFFFAqueousFireFightingFoam.

AkulaSSNAthird-generationRussiandesigncompetingwiththeSierraIandIIclasses,theAkulaappearstobetheoverallwinner.Thisboatisveryquiet,equivalenttoaU.S.FlightI688,andisequippedwithacousticandnonacousticsensors.LargestSSNclassinproduction.Howlargetheclasssizewillbeisunknown,butatpresenttherearesevenAkulasintheRussianinventory.

AN/BPS-15ANavigationradaronmanyU.S.SSNs.

AN/BQQ-5(A-E)IntegratedsonarsuiteonmostU.S.SSNs.Thedifferentvariantsincludeimprovementsinsignalprocessand/ordifferentsonararrays.

AN/BSY-1IntegratedsonarandfirecontrolsystemonImprovedLosAngeles-classSSNs.

AN/WLR-8(V)2Radarwarningreceiveron688I-classSSNs.

AN/WLR-9AcousticinterceptreceiverfoundonU.S.Navy

submarines.

AN/WLR-10Radarwarningreceiverwithrecordingcapabilityon688-classSSNs.

AnechoiccoatingRubbercoatingappliedtotheexteriorhullsurfacesofasubmarinetoabsorbactivesonarpulses.Reducesthedetectabilitybyactivesonars.Somecoatingsalsoreducetheamountofnoiseasubmarineputsintothewater;thesearecalleddecouplingcoatings.

AnglesanddanglesTestconductedbyasubmarinetoensurethateverythingisstowedproperlybeforebeginningitsmission.Theprocedurecallsformakinglargeup-and-downmovementswiththesubmarineaswellasusinglargerudderanglesatmoderatespeeds.

ASDICAlliedSubmarineDetectionInvestigationCommittee.FormedduringWorldWarI(1914-18)toconductresearchandexperimentsonsubmarinedetection.

ASWAntiSubmarineWarfare.

AUTECAtlanticUnderseaTestandEvaluationCenter.AnacoustictestrangelocatedoffAndrosIslandintheBahamas.

BastionsHighlydefendedSSBNpatrolareas.EstablishedbytheformerSovietUnion,nowusedbyRussiatoprotecttheirSSBNsfromattackbyWesternSSNs.

Blue/goldcrewThepolicyofhavingtwoalternatingcrewsaboardstrategicmissilesubmarines.

BOL(BearingOnlyLaunch)LaunchmodeforHarpoonandTomahawkantishipmissilesthatdoesn'trequirerangeinformation.Essentiallythemissileseekerisactivatedoncecruisingaltitudeisreached.

BombshopRoyalNavytermforthetorpedoroomonsubmarines.

BombersRoyalNavynicknameforstrategicmissilesubmarines.

BoomersU.S.Navynicknameforstrategicmissilesubmarines.

BottombounceTermusedtodescribetheroutetakenbysoundwavesastheybounceofftheoceanbottomtravelingfromthenoisesourcetothesonarreceiver.Forexample,thenoisesourcecouldbeanactivesonarpulsethatbouncesoffthebottomandhitsthetargetship;thentheechobouncesoffthebottomagainandisreceivedbythesonar.

BreechdoorInnerdoorofatorpedotube.

BridgeSmallobservationareaontopofthefairwater.TheOODstandshiswatchherewhenthesubmarineisonthesurface.

ButtercupU.S.Navytermforthe"wet"orfloodingtrainer.

CavitationTheformationoftinyvapor(air)bubblesonthesurfaceofapropellerwhenthepropellermovesthroughthewaterrapidly.Cavitationisasourceofveryloudnoise.

CENTCOMU.S.CENTralCOMmand.

CH084MultifunctionattackperiscopeonRoyalNavySSNs.

ChokepointGeographicalrestrictionthatlimitsthemaneuverabilityofashiporsubmarine.

CISCommonwealthofIndependentStates(formerlytheSovietUnion).

CK034MultifunctionsearchperiscopeonRoyalNavySSNs.

ClydeU.S.Navynicknamefortheauxiliarydieselengine.

COCommandingOfficer.Titlegiventoanofficerincommandofaship.Oftencalled"Captain"or"Skipper."

COBChiefoftheBoat.Seniorenlistedmaninthesubmarine'screw.Usuallyaseniorormasterchiefpettyofficer.InterfacesdirectlywiththeXOonissuesthataffecttheenlistedpersonnel.TheRoyalNavyequivalentisthecoxswain.

COMINTCOMmunicationsINTelligence.

COMSUBLANTCOMmander,SUBmarineForceAtLANTic.

COMSUBPACCOMmander,SUBmarineForcePACific.

ConformNameofaNavsea-designedSSNincompetitionwithAdmiralRickover's688design.

ControlroomAreaonaU.S.Navysubmarinewherethesubmarine's

shipcontrol,firecontrol,andperiscopesarelocated.Allmajorsubmarinefunctionsarecontrolledfromthislocation.TheOODstandshiswatchherewhenthesubmarineissubmerged.Incommunicationstheareaisreferredtoastheconn.

ConvergenceZone(CZ)Phenomenonwhereby,ifthewaterisdeepenough,waterpressureturnssoundwavesuptowardthesurface.Thisoccursatintervalsofroughly30nauticalmiles.MultipleCZcontactsarepossiblewhenthesoundbouncesoffthesurfaceandheadsbackdown,eventuallytobeturnedbackupwardagainbythepressure.

COWChiefoftheWatch.Leadingenlistedmanincontrolduringawatch.Operatestheballastcontrolpaneltodiveandsurfacethesubmarineandmakestrimcorrectionswhendirectedbythedivingofficer.

CVBGAircraftCarrierBattleGroup.

DeltaItoIVSSBNsTheRussianDeltaseriesofSSBNsisanongoingvariantofthebasicYankee-classSSBNdesign.AlmostallvariationsaredeterminedbythetypeofSLBMbeingcarried.Thelatestvariant,theDeltaIV,alsoincorporatesquietingandsensorenhancements.Atotalofforty-threeDeltashavebeenbuilt.

DirectpathTermusedtodescribetheroutethatsoundwavestakefromnoisesourcetosonarsystemwithoutinteractingwiththesurfaceortheoceanfloor.Roughlyspeaking,itisconsideredtobethestraight-linedistancebetweenthetwovessels.

DNRDirector,NavalReactors

DolphinsSymbolofthesubmarineforceinjustabouteverynation.Also,thebadgeorpinthatdesignatesasailorasqualifiedinsubmarines.

Dreadnought(S-98)FirstRoyalNavySSN.EssentiallyaU.S.Skipjack-classbackendmatedtoaRoyalNavyfrontend.

DSMACDigitalScene-MatchingAreaCorrelation.AsecondTomahawklandattackmissilenavigationsystemusedtoimprovetheaccuracyoftheconventionalvariants.Usesacameralikesystemtomakedetaileddigitalpicturesoftheterrainandcomparesthemwithstoredimagesintheguidancecomputer.

DSRVDeep-SubmergenceRescueVehicle.Asmallrescuesubmersibledesignedtodockwithasunkensubmarineandretrievethecrew.

EABEmergencyAirBreathingsystem.Alow-pressureairsystemthatcrewmencanplugintoandobtainbreathable--althoughdry--air.Thissystemistoprovideasourceofairwhileasubmarineventilatestogetridofthesmokefromafire.

EchoSSNAfirst-generationSovietnuclear-poweredsubmarine,itoriginallywasdesignedasanSSGN(EchoIclass),butthetubeswereremovedandtheunitsconvertedtoSSNs.Thesesubmarineswerenoisyandhadextremelyunsaferadiationproblems.Allhavebeenretiredbecauseoftheirpoorsafetyrecord.Atotalofsixunitswerebuilt.

ElectricBoatCompanyThecompanystartedbyJohnHollandtoproducesubmarinesfortheU.S.Navy.PresentlyownedbyGeneral

DynamicsCorporation.

ELFExtremelyLowFrequencyradioband.

EmergencyblowProcessbywhichhigh-pressureairisrapidlyintroduceddirectlyintothesubmarine'smainballasttanks.Anemergencyblowmakesthesubmarinepositivelybuoyant,anditwillrisetothesurfacequitequickly.ThissystemwasinstitutedaspartoftheSubsafeprogramfollowingthelossoftheUSSThresher.

EnigmaWorldWarIIGermancommunicationcipher(encryption)system.

EOOWEngineeringOfficeroftheWatch.Officerinchargeoftheteamthatismonitoringandmanipulatingthesubmarine'sreactorandpropulsionsystem.Keyresponsibilityistomaintainpropulsioninasafemanner.

ESMElectronicSupportMeasures.Apassivereceiversystemdesignedtodetectradaremissionsfromaircraftandsurfaceships.

EthanAllen(SSBN608)FirstU.S.NavySSBNclassdesignedtocarryPolarismissiles.LargerthantheGeorgeWashingtonclass,theEthanAllenclasshasmorequietingmeasurestoimprovestealth.Atotaloffiveunitswerebuilt.

ExocetAntishipcruisemissilemadebytheFrenchfirmAerospatiale.SlightlysmallerthanaHarpoonbutjustasdeadly.

FairwaterU.S.Navytermforthesailonasubmarine.TheRoyalNavyusesthetermFin.

FamilygramsShort(fortytofiftywords)messagesthatU.S.Navysubmarinersreceivefromfamilymembersaboutonceaweekwhileonpatrol.

FBMFleetBallisticMissilesubmarine.

FirstlieutenantTheRoyalNavyequivalentofaU.S.Navyexecutiveofficer.Oftenreferredtoas"NumberOne."

"Flamingdatum"Ashipthathasbeenhitbyatorpedofiredfromasubmarine.Itistheplacetobeginsearchingforasubmarine,becauseoneisknowntobeinthearea.

GeorgeWashington(SSBN-598)FirstU.S.NavySSBNclass.EssentiallySkipjack-classSSNswithahullinsertcontainingsixteenmissiletubesforPolarismissiles.Atotaloffiveunitswerebuilt.

GertrudeOldWWIIphraseusedtodescribeanyequipmentwhosefunctionisunderwatercommunications.

GlenardP.Lipscomb(SSN-685)One-of-a-kindexperimentalU.S.submarine,basicallyaSturgeon-classhullwithasecond-generationturboelectricdrive.Fullycombatcapable.

GoatlockerU.S.Navytermforthechief'squartersonasubmarine.

GPSGlobalPositioningSystem.AconstellationofNavstarsatellitesthatcanveryaccuratelydeterminethesubmarine'slocation.

Halibut(SSN-587)OriginallydesignedasanSSGNcarryingReguluslandattackmissiles,shewasreconfiguredasanSSNwhenthePolarisprogramprovedtobesuccessful.

Harpoon(UGM-84)U.S.Navyantishipmissile,firedfromanSSN'storpedotube.

HEHighExplosive.

HeadU.S.Navytermforawashroomandtoilet.

HFHighFrequency.

HMSDolphinRoyalNavySubmarineSchool.

Holland(SS-1)FirstU.S.Navysubmarine,designedandbuiltbyJohnHolland.

HotbunkingRotationsystemwherebytwomenshareasinglebunk.Whileonemanisonwatchtheotherissleeping.Whenitistimeforwatchrotationthemancomingoffwatchclimbsintoabunkthatwasjustrecentlyvacatedandisusuallystillwarm.

HotelII&IIISSBNFirst-generationSovietSSBN.Thesesubmarineswerenoisyandextremelyunsafefromaradiologicalstandpoint.AllhavebeenretiredbecauseoftheirpoorsafetyrecordandtomeetSALTSSBNtubelimitations.TheHotelIIISSBNwasatrialsubmarinefortheSS-N-8SawflySLBM.Approximatelynineunitswerebuilt.

HunleyAConfederateNavyvesselthatmadehistorybybeingthe

firstsubmarinetosinkasurfaceshipinbattle(USSHousatonic).Unfortunately,theHunleyherselfalsosankintheattack.

HY-80High-Yieldsteel,withayieldstrengthof80,000poundspersquareinch.

HY-100High-Yieldsteel,withayieldstrengthof100,000poundspersquareinch.

KiloSSLatestRussiandiesel-electricsubmarine.TheKiloisamedium-rangecoastaldefensesubmarinethatisbeingofferedontheexportmarket.Usingstate-of-the-artRussiansensorsandtorpedoes,theKiloclasscomparesfavorablyagainstolderWesterndesigns.RussiahastwentyKilosintheirnavalorderofbattle,andapproximatelyfourteenhavebeensoldtovariouscountries.

Lafayette(SSBN-616)ThirdgenerationofU.S.NavySSBNs.LargerandquieterthantheEthanAllenclass,theLafayetteclasscarriesthePoseidonC-3missile.However,twelveunitsoftheLafayetteclasswerebackfittedwiththeTridentIC-4systemduringthe1980s.Atotalofthirty-oneunitswerebuilt.

LFLowFrequency.

LOFARLOw-FrequencyAnalyzingandRecording.Termusedtodescribetheprocessbywhichnarrowband"tonals"aredisplayedonamodernsonarsystem.

LosAngeles(SSN-688)AdmiralRickover'shigh-speedsubmarinedesign.Mostnumeroussubmarineclassintheworldwithatotalofsixty-twounitstobebuilt.Therearethreeflightswithvarious

improvements:

*Flight1:SSNs688-718.BasicLosAngelesclass.*Flight2:SSNs719-750.VLS,morepowerfulreactorcore.*Flight3:SSNs751-773.AN/BSY-1,bowplanes,improvedquieting,under-icecapability.

ManeuveringThereactorandpropulsioncontrolarealocatedintheengineroom.TheEOOWstandshiswatchhere.

MEOMarineEngineeringOfficer.RoyalNavyequivalentofthechiefengineer;however,anMEOisnoteligibleforcommand.

MFMediumFrequency.

MGUMidcourseGuidanceUnit.TheinertialnavigationsystemusedtoguideHarpoonandTomahawkantishipmissilestotheirtargets.

MIDASMIneDetectionandAvoidanceSonar.Newmine-huntingsonaronImprovedLosAngeles-classSSNs.

Mk8(Mark8)WWII-erastraight-running(nonhoming)torpedousedbytheRoyalNavyupuntilaboutthemid-1980s.TwoMk8swereresponsibleforthesinkingoftheArgentineanlightcruiserGeneralBelgrano.

Mk48(Mods1-4)DesignationoftheactivehomingtorpedousedbyU.S.SSNs.Thevariousmodificationshaveimprovementsinwire-guidancecapabilityandallowfordeeperdepths.

Mk57U.S.Navymooredinfluencemine.

Mk60CaptorEnCAPsulatedTORpedomine.Adeep-watermooredacousticinfluenceminecontainingaMark46lightweighttorpedoasthepayload.

Mk67SLMMSubmarine-LaunchedMobileMine.AnobsoleteMk37electrictorpedothathasbeenconvertedintoamobilebottominfluencemine.

Narwhal(SSN-671)BasicSturgeon-classhullwithanaturalcirculationreactor.One-of-a-kindexperimentalsubmarine.Fullycombatcapable.

NATONorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization

Nautilus(SSN-571)Firstnuclear-poweredsubmarineintheworld.CommissionedSeptember30,1954.

NavseaNavalSeaSystemsCommand.

NIFTINavyInFraredThermalImager.

NovemberSSNFirst-generationSovietSSN.Fast,noisy,andextremelyunsafebecauseofradiation.TheseSSNshaveallbeenretiredbecauseoftheirpoorsafetyrecord.Atotaloffourteenwerebuilt.OnewaslostoffCapeFinisterreinApril1970.

OBAOxygenBreathingApparatus.Aportablesystemthatchemicallygeneratesoxygenforabout30minutes.Usedbydamagecontrolteamstofightfires.

Ohio(SSBN-726)FourthgenerationofU.S.NavySSBNs.Largestsubmarinesinthefleet;eachcarriestwenty-fourTridentIC-4orTridentIID-5missiles.Extremelyquietsubmarines.Essentially688swithtwenty-fourmissiletubes.Atotaloftwentyweretobebuilt,butbecauseofSTARTandthecollapseoftheUSSRonlyeighteenunitswillbecompleted.

OODOfficerOftheDeck.U.S.Navyofficerinchargeofdirectingthesubmarine'smovementandensuringthatessentialactionsareconducted.Primaryresponsibilityistokeepthesubmarineoutofdangeroussituationsandtokeepthecaptaininformed.

OPNAVOfficeoftheChiefofNAValOPerations.

ORSEOperationalReactorSafeguardsExamination.

OscarI&IISSGNThird-generationSovietSSGN,theOscaristhelargestattacksubmarineeverbuilt.Fast,quiet,andextremelywellarmed,theOscarI&IIclassesareathreattoanysurfaceship.Todatenineunitshavebeenbuilt,andproductionappearstobecontinuing.

OttoFuelThemonopropellant(oxidizerandfuelcombined)usedinMk48andSpearfishtorpedoes.

PerisherRoyalNavySubmarineCommandCourse.

Permit(SSN-594)FirstU.S.NavyproductionSSNwithaprimaryASWfunction.ClasswasrenamedfollowingthelossofUSSThresherinApril1963.Fourteenunitsofthisclasswereeventually

built.

PlankownersTheoriginalcrewofaboatatthetimeofitscommissioning.

Polaris(A1-A3)FirstgenerationofU.S.Navysubmarine-launchedballisticmissiles.Thedifferentvariantseachhaveimprovementsinrange.TheRoyalNavyusesPolarisA-3missilesintheirResolution-classSSBNs.

"Polishingthecannonball"Anattempttogenerateanear-perfectfirecontrolsolutionthatmaybetotallyunnecessary.Polishingthecannonballtakestoomuchtime,andthesubmarinemayloseitsinitiativetotheintendedtarget.

Poseidon(C-3)Second-generationU.S.Navysubmarine-launchedballisticmissile.

PSAPostShakedownAvailability.Maintenanceperiodafteranewsubmarine'sinitialseatrialsarecompleted.

PWR-1PressurizedWaterReactor-1.ThetypeofreactorfoundonallcurrentRoyalNavynuclear-poweredsubmarinesexcepttheVanguard-classSSBNs.PWR-1isessentiallytheU.S.S5Wreactordesign,whichwassoldtotheRoyalNavyin1958.

PWR-2PressurizedWaterReactor-2.AnindigenousreactordesignforfutureRoyalNavynuclear-poweredsubmarines.PresentlybeinginstalledinthenewVanguard-classSSBNs.

RadarRAdioDetectionAndRanging.

RaftAlargemetalframethatsupportsvariousrotatingpartsofmachinerysuchasmainenginesorturbinegenerators.Throughinertialdampingitreducesmachineryvibrationsthatcouldreachthehull.

Inotherwords,it'sheavy,andthevibrationsareabsorbedastheytrytomovetheraft.

RAMRadar-AbsorbingMaterial.Acoatingdesignedtoabsorbradarenergyandreduceatarget'sabilitytobedetected.

RBL-LRangeBearingLaunch--Large.AlaunchmodeofHarpoonandTomahawkantishipmissilesthatusesbothbearingandrangeinformation.The"Large"referstothesizeoftheareawherethemissileistoconductitssearch.

RBL-SRangeBearingLaunch--Small.AlaunchmodeofHarpoonandTomahawkantishipmissilesthatusesbothbearingandrangeinformation.The"Small"referstothesizeoftheareawherethemissileistoconductitssearch.

Resolution(S-22)FirstRoyalNavySSBN.VerysimilartotheU.S.Lafayette-classSSBN,theResolutionclasscarriessixteenU.S.PolarisA-3missilesarmedwithBritishreentryvehicles.Atotaloffourunitswerebuilt.

RNSHRoyalNavySubHarpoon.

RORSATRussianRadarOceanReconnaissanceSATellite.

S6GThedesignationofthepressurizedwaterreactorinstalledin688-classSSNs.

SAMSurface-to-AirMissile.

SBSSpecialBoatService.TheRoyalNavyequivalentoftheU.S.NavySEALs.

Scorpion(SSN-589)SecondU.S.NavySSN(Skipjackclass)tobelostatsea,sometimeinMay1968.Mostlikelycauseappearstobeanexplosion.

SCRAMSafetyControlReactorAxeMan.TermgiventothemanattheUniversityofChicago,wherethefirstnuclearcorewastested,whowasresponsibleforcuttingtheropeholdingthecontrolrodsshouldsomethinggowrong.Themethodofinsertingcontrolrodshaschangedconsiderably,butthetermhasbeenretained.Witharapidinsertionofcontrolrodsthereactorwillbemadesubcriticalandwillnolongersupportasustainednuclearfissionreaction.

SEALSEa-Air-Land.U.S.Navyspecialforces/commandounits.

SeawolfSecondU.S.NavySSN(SSN575).ItisalsotheclassnameforthenewSSN21submarinepresentlyunderconstructionatElectricBoatCompanyinGroton,Connecticut.

SHFSuperHighFrequency.

SHPShaftHorsePower.

ShutterdoorTheouterdoorofatorpedotube.

SierraI&IISSNThirdgenerationofSovietSSNs.TheSierrasarequiet,deep-divingsubmarines.Thepressurehullismadeoftitanium,whichmakesSierraexpensivetobuild.Thisisreflectedinthefactthatonlyfourhavebeenbuilttodate.TheshipyardthatproducesSierrasisreportedlygoingoutofthesubmarineconstructionbusiness,sofourunitsmaybethetotalclasssize.

SignalejectorAsmall(usually3-inch)torpedotube-likesystemforlaunchingflares,noisemakers,andtorpedodecoys.

SINSShip'sInertialNavigationSystem.Asetofgyroscopesthatmonitorthesubmarine'spositionfromanestablishedreferencepointinspace.

Skate(SSN-578)FirstU.S.NavyproductionSSNclass;fourunitstotal.

Skipjack(SSN-585)FirstU.S.NavySSNclasstousetheteardrophullshape.FastestSSNinthefleetuntiltheLosAngelesclass.Totalofsixunitsbuilt.

SLBMSubmarine-LaunchedBallisticMissile.

SLOTSubmarine-LaunchedOne-WayTransmitter.

SNAPSSmithNavigationAndPlottingSystem.ThenavigationandplottingtablesusedonRoyalNavyshipsandsubmarines.

SnapshotTermusedtodescribetheprocedureforlaunchingatorpedoinanemergencysituation.Inasnapshotthesubmarinecrew

doesn'thavetimetoconductTMAbutsimplyshootsatorpedodownthebearingofanincomingweaponoraclosecontact.Rapidreactionisthebasisofthesnapshotmode.

SOACU.S.NavySubmarineOfficersAdvancedCourse.

SOBCU.S.NavySubmarineOfficersBasicCourse.

SonarSOundNavigationAndRanging.

SOSUSSOundSUrveillanceSystem.AseriesoffixedpassivesonararraysusedbyNATOtoprovideearlywarningofdeploymentsintotheopenoceanofformerSovietsubmarines.

SoundisolationmountSpringlikemountthatabsorbsmachineryvibrationbybeingstretchedandrelaxed.Thevibrationenergyneededtomovethemountdoesn'treachthehullandthereforecan'tbetransmittedintotheocean.Thesemountsareusuallymadeofmetalandrubber,althoughtheRoyalNavyprefersapolymer-typespringmount.

SpearfishRoyalNavy'storpedoequivalenttotheMk48ADCAP.AlthoughnoisierthantheTigerfish,theSpearfishisfaster,withgreaterenduranceandimprovedhominglogic.

SRAShortRangeAttack.AmodeoffiringtheMk48torpedotoaccommodateatargetthatisveryclosetotheattackingship.

SSDiesel-electricattacksubmarine.

SSBNStrategicballisticmissilesubmarine,nuclearpowered.

SSGNNuclear-guided(cruise)missilesubmarine.

SSMSurface-to-SurfaceMissile.Alsousedinreferencetoantishipcruisemissiles.

SSNAttacksubmarine,nuclearpowered.

SSKDiesel-electricsubmarine,hunter-killer.

SS-N-9SirenAntishipcruisemissileonRussianCharlieII-classSSGNs.Rangeisabout60nauticalmiles.

SS-N-14SilexRussianASWmissilethatdeploysatorpedoornucleardepthbomb.Itsrangeisabout30nauticalmiles.

SS-N-18StingraySubmarine-launchedballisticmissileonRussianDeltaIIISSBNs.

SS-N-19ShipwreckAntishipcruisemissileonRussianOscar-classSSGNs.Rangeisabout300nauticalmiles.

SS-N-20SturgeonSubmarine-launchedballisticmissileonRussianTyphoonSSBNs.

SS-N-23SkiffSubmarine-launchedballisticmissileonRussianDeltaIVSSBNs.

STARTSTrategicArmsReductionTreaty.

SteinkehoodCombinationbreathingdeviceandlifepreserverusedduringfreeascentsfromasunkenU.S.submarine.

Sturgeon(SSN-637)Follow-ontotheU.S.Permitclass.TheSturgeonclassisalittlelargerandincorporatesadditionalquietingmeasures.Atotalofthirty-sevenunitsbuilt.

SUBGRUSUBmarineGRoUp.

SUBROCSUBmarineROCket.Asubmarine-launchedballisticrocketwithanucleardepthbombpayload.

SUBRONU.S.SUBmarineSquadRON.

SubsafeProceduralandsystemchangesinstitutedtoincreasethesafetyofU.S.submarinesfollowingthelossoftheUSSThresher(SSN-593)inApril1963.

SURTASSSURveillanceTowedArraySensorSystem(AN/UQQ-2).EssentiallyamobileSOSUSarraytowedbysmallOceanSurveillanceShips(T-AGOS).

Swiftsure(S-104)ThirdgenerationofRoyalNavySSNs.ImprovedquietingandsensorsovertheValiantclass.IntheredesignedlocationofthemainconformalarraytheSwiftsureslostatorpedotube(fiveinsteadofsix).Atotalofsixunitswerebuilt.

TASOTorpedoandAntiSubmarinewarfareOfficer.RoyalNavytermforthejuniorseamanofficerinchargeofthesubmarine'storpedolaunchingsystem.

TB-16(A-D)StandardU.S.NavySSN"fatline"towedarray.Thevariousmodifications(mods)allowthesubmarinetosearchathigherspeedswithoutdegradingperformance.Thearrayisstoredinasheaththatrunsalongthehull.

TB-23FirstU.S.Navy"thinline"arrayfoundonSSNsequippedwithAN/BSY-1andAN/BQQ-5E.ThisarrayisaboutfourtimeslongerthantheTB-16seriesandisstoredentirelyonareellocatedintheaftballasttankarea.

TDUTrashDisposalUnit.AtubethatejectsweightedtrashcylindersfromthebottomofaU.S.submarine.

TeakettleRoyalNavytermforthereactoronnuclear-poweredsubmarines.

TERCOMTERrain-COntourMatching.AnavigationsystemonTomahawklandattackmissiles.ThesystemusestheTomahawk'sradaraltimetertomaketerrainprofilesatpreselectedpointsalongthemissile'sroute.Theseprofilesarecomparedtoaradarreferencemaptodetermineifflightcorrectionsareneeded.

TEZTotalExclusionZone.

Thresher(SSN-593)LostApril4,1963,duringdeep-divingtrialsfollowinganoverhaulperiod.ThelosscausedtheU.S.NavytoinstitutetheSubsafeprogram.

Tigerfish(Mk24,Mods0-3)Aquiet,electric-powereddual-purposetorpedoinservicewiththeRoyalNavy.

TMATargetMotionAnalysis.Theprocessbywhichcomputersormendetermineatarget'scourse,speed,andrangesothatatorpedoormissilecanbefiredaccurately.

TMPSTheaterMissionPlanningSystem.U.S.TMPScentersplanTomahawklandattackmissionroutestovarioustargetsaroundtheglobeusingmapsandnavigationinformationprovidedbytheDefenseMappingAgency.

Tomahawk(UGM-109)FamilyofcruisemissilesthatarelaunchedfromstandardtorpedotubesorspecialverticallaunchtubesonSSNs.Thedifferentvariantsare:

*Tomahawkantishipmissile(TASM)*Tomahawklandattackmissile--nuclear(TLAM-N)*Tomahawklandattackmissile--conventional,HEwarhead(TLAM-C)*Tomahawklandattackmissile--conventional,bomblets(TLAM-D)

TorpedoTheself-propelledtorpedowasinventedbyRobertWhite-head,anEnglishman,in1866.Sincethen,thetorpedohasundergonesignificantimprovementsinspeed,range,anddepth.Present-daytorpedoesareallhomingweaponsusingeitheractive/passiveacousticsorwakesensors.

TowedarrayStringofpassivehydrophonestowedatsomedistancebehindtheship.Byseparatingthehydrophonesfromtheship,thearraywasnolongerlimitedbyplatformnoise,therebyincreasingdetectionrange.Thetowedarraycanalsobemadeaslongasnecessarytodetectsoundswithlongwavelengths(verylowfrequency).

Trafalgar(S-107)Fourth-generationRoyalNavySSN.BasicallyaslightlylargerSwiftsuretoaccommodateadditionalquietingmeasures.Productionhasjustended,withatotalofsevenunitsbeingbuilt.AmodifiedTrafalgardesign,calledTrafalgarBatchII,isbeingworkedonwiththecancellationoftheSSN20("W"class).

TridentI(C-4)ThirdgenerationofU.S.Navysubmarine-launchedballisticmissiles.

TridentII(D-5)FourthgenerationofU.S.Navysubmarine-launchedballisticmissiles.

Triton(SSN-586)OnlyU.S.NavySSNbuiltwithtwonuclearreactors.Originallydesignedasaradarpicketsubmarine,Tritonmadeasubmergedround-the-worldcruisein1960.

TSOTacticalSystemsOfficer.RoyalNavytermforthejuniorseamanofficerinchargeofthesubmarine'sfirecontrolsystem.

Tullibee(SSN-597)FirstU.S.NavySSNwithtorpedotubesplacedamidshipstomakeroomforthelarge15-footsphericalsonararray.ThisdesignisthebasisforalllaterU.S.SSNdesigns.Tullibeewasalsofittedwithatroublesometurboelectricdrive,whichearnedherthereputationofbeingahangarqueen,andshewasoftenreferredtoas"Building597."

TurtleAsemisubmersiblecraftdesignedandbuiltbyDavidBushnellduringtheAmericanRevolutionaryWar.Itwasthefirstsubmarinetoconductanattack,albeitunsuccessful,againstahostilesurfaceship(HMSEagle).

Type18AmultifunctionsearchperiscopefoundonU.S.SSNs.

Type2Anoptics-onlyattackscope,reminiscentofWWIIperiscopes,onU.S.submarines.

Type2019AcousticinterceptreceiveronRoyalNavysubmarines.

Type2020Active/passiveconformalarrayonRoyalNavySSNs.

Type2027AcomputerprocessorhookedtotheType2020todeterminerangebasedonmultiplearrivalpathsofatarget'snoise.Multipathranging.

Type2046RoyalNavytowedarrayforsubmarines.Thisclip-onarrayisattachedtooneofthesternplanes.

Type2072AnewflankarrayforRoyalNavySSNs,toreplacetheolderType2007.

TyphoonSSBNThesizeofasmallWWIIbattlecruiser,theTyphoonisthelargestsubmarineeverbuilt.Veryquiet,andequippedwithmodernsensors.Atotalofsixunitshavebeenbuilt.

U-boatUnterseeboot.TheGermannameforsubmarines.

UAPESMsystemonRoyalNavySSNs.

UHFUltraHighFrequency.

UltraAlliedspecialintelligenceduringWorldWarII,obtainedbythe

interceptionanddecryptionofGermanEnigmacommunications.

Upholder(S-40)Latestdiesel-electricsubmarineintheRoyalNavy.IntendedtoreplacetheagingOberonclassSS,theUpholdershavebeenexperiencinganumberofteethingpainsincludingproblemswiththeirtorpedotubes.WiththecollapseoftheSovietUnion,onlyfouroutofaprojectedclassrunoftwelveunitsaretobebuilt.

Valiant(S-102)Second-generationRoyalNavySSN.BasedontheDreadnought,theentiresubmarinewasproducedintheUnitedKingdom.Atotaloffiveunitsbuilt.

VanguardSecond-generationRoyalNavySSBN.TwiceaslargeastheResolutionclass,theVanguardclasswillcarrysixteenU.S.TridentII(D-5)missiles.Describedasbeingveryquietsubmarines.Atotaloffourunitsareexpectedtobebuilt.

VHFVeryHighFrequency.

VictorI&IISSNsSecond-generationSovietSSNs.Larger,quieter,andbetterequippedthanNovemberclass.VictorIIsdifferfromVictorIsinthattheVictorIIshavefour650mmtorpedotubesandareabout16feetlonger.Atotaloftwenty-twounitswerebuilt.

VictorIIISSNAfurthermodificationofasecond-generationdesign.TheVictorIIIclassisthefirstSovietSSNthatcameclosetoWesternstandardsintermsofquietingandsensors.Theteardrop-shapedpodontherudderisthehousingforatowedsonararray.TheVictorIIIisthemostnumerousclassofSSNintheRussianinventory,withtwenty-sixunitsbuilt.

VLFVeryLowFrequency.

VLSVerticalLaunchSystem.AsetoftwelveexternaltubeslocatedinthenumbertwomainballasttankonSSN719andontheLosAngeles-classSSN.

VSELVickersShipbuildingEnterprises,Limited.TheU.K.equivalentofElectricBoatCompany.

WaterfalldisplayPhraseusedtodescribetheappearancethatamodernpassivesonardisplaymakeswhileshowingbearingversustimeinformation.AcontactwilllooklikeabrightlineonaCRTagainstaspeckledbackgroundofothernoisesources.

WEOWeaponEngineeringOfficer.RoyalNavyequivalentoftheweaponsofficer;however,theWEOisnoteligibleforcommand.

XOExecutiveOfficer.U.S.Navytermforthesecondincommandofaship.

Bibliography

Magazines

InternationalDefenseReview

Jane'sDefenseWeekly

Jane'sIntelligenceReview

MaritimeDefense

MorskoySbornik

NavalForces--InternationalForumforMaritimePower

NavalInstituteProceedings

NavyInternational

TheSubmarineReview

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Polmar,Norman.TheNavalInstituteGuidetotheSovietNavy.5thed.NavalInstitutePress,1991.

Polmar,Norman,andThomasAllen.Rickover.SimonandSchuster,1982.

Polmar,Norman,andJurrienNoot.SubmarinesoftheRussianandSovietNavies1718-1990.NavalInstitutePress,1991.

Preston,Anthony.Submarines:TheHistoryandEvolutionofUnderwaterFightingVessels.OctopusBooks,1975.

Richelson,JeffreyT.America'sSecretEyesinSpace:TheU.S.KeyholeSpySatelliteProgram.HarperandRow,1990.

Ross,Donald.MechanicsofUnderwaterNoise.PeninsulaPublishing,1987.

Sakitt,Mark.SubmarineWarfareintheArctic:OptionorIllusion?StanfordUniversityPress,1988.

Schwab,ErnestLouis.UnderseaWarriors--SubmarinesoftheWorld.CrescentBooks,1991.

Stefanick,Tom.StrategicAntisubmarineWarfareandNavalStrategy.LexingtonBooks,1987.

Terraine,John.BusinessinGreatWaters.LeoCooper,Ltd.,1989.

Time-LifeBooksStaff.HuntersoftheDeep.Time-LifeBooks,1992.

Tyler,Patrick.RunningCritical.HarperandRow,1986.

Urick,RobertJ.PrinciplesofUnderwaterSound,3ded.McGrawHill,1983.

U.S.NewsandWorldReportStaff.TriumphWithoutVictory.RandomHouse,1992.

vanderVat,Dan.ThePacificCampaign:WorldWarII,TheU.S./JapaneseNavalWar1941-1945.SimonandSchuster,1991.

Brochures

"TheClosedCycleDieselSystem."ThyssenNordseewerkeGmbH.

"EncapsulatedHarpoon."McDonnellDouglasCorp.

"Harpoon."McDonnellDouglasCorp.

"L'Inflexible."DirectionDesConstructionsNavales.

"Seahake:TorpedooftheFuture."STNSystemtechnikNordGmbH.

"Steam--ItsGenerationandUse."Babcock&Wilcox,1978.

"SSN,RubisClass."DirectionDesConstructionsNavales.

"SSN,RubisClass,AmethysteBatch."DirectionDesConstructionsNavales.

"Tomahawk--ATotalWeaponSystem."McDonnellDouglasCorp.

"TYPE1400."Howaldtswerke-DeutscheWerft&IngenieurkontorLubeck.

"TYPETR1000ModOcean-goingSubmarine."ThyssenNordseewerkeGmbH.

"TYPETR1700Ocean-goingSubmarine."ThyssenNordseewerkeGmbH.

"VIMOS(VibrationMonitoringSystem)."Ferranti-ThomsonSonarSystems,UKLtd.

Pamphlets

Abels,F.(IKL)."GermanSubmarineDevelopmentandDesign."SNAME/ASE,1992.

"Diesel-ElectricSubmarinesandTheirEquipment."InternationalDefenseReview,1986.

"AReviewoftheUnitedStatesNavalNuclearPropulsionProgram."U.S.DepartmentofDefense&DepartmentofEnergy,1990.

"SubmarineRolesinthe1990sandBeyond."AssistantChiefofNavalOperationsforUnderseaWarfare,1992.

"U.S.NavyNuclearSubmarineLineup."GeneralDynamics--ElectricBoatDivision.

"VibrationandShockMountHandbook."StockDriveProducts.

"WelcomeAboardUSSMiami(SSN-755)."USSMiamiSSN755.

"Welcome,LaunchingofPCUSantaFe(SSN-763)."PCUSantaFe,1992.

Games

Bond,Larry."Harpoon."GameDesignersWorkshop,1992.

"ComputerHarpoon."ThreeSixtySoftware,1991.

"RedStormRising."MPSTechnologies,1988.

"Submarine."AvalonHillCompany,1977.

"WolfPack."BroderbundSoftware,1990.

1

Tothisday,theU.S.NavywillofficiallyonlyadmitthatU.S.nuclear"submarines...operateatspeedsover20knots,anddepthsover400feet..."

2

NormanFriedman,SubmarineDesignandDevelopment,U.S.NavalInstitute,1984.

3

PatrickTaylor,RunningCritical,HarperandRow,1986,p.58.

4

Ibid.,p.259.

5

Ibid.,p.58.

6

Ibid.

7

A.D.Baker,CombatFleetsoftheWorld,U.S.NavalInstitute,1993,pp.809-811.

8

Asthisbookgoestopress,massivecutsinthestructureofthesubmarineforcearebeingplanned.ThesedescriptionsofbasesandorganizationsarecurrentasofMarch1993.

9

ThedescriptionofthedevelopmentoftheLosAngeles-classboatsissuperblytoldinthebookRunningCriticalbyPatrickTaylor(HarperandRow,1986).

10

A.D.Baker,CombatFleetsoftheWorld,U.S.NavalInstitute,1993,pp.809-811.

11

Thefourboatsbeingconsideredforconversiontoguidedmissilesubmarines(SSGNs)includetheOhio(SSBN-726),Michigan(SSBN-727),Florida(SSBN-728),andGeorgia(SSBN-729),allofwhichwerescheduledfordecommissioningundertheSTART-2arms-controlagreement.Whileseveralconfigurationsarebeingconsidered,thebasicideaistofittheTridentmissiletubeswithseven-cellverticallaunchersandstorageforsuppliestosupportspecialoperationsforces(SOF).Between126and154Tomahawkswouldbecarried,alongwithupto66SOFpersonnel.

12

Whileanumberofboatswereconfiguredforelectroniceavesdropping,atleastfourAmericanSSNswereconvertedintocovertoperationsplatformsfordeepoceansearchandrecoveryaswellasinshoretappingofunderseacommunicationscables.Ofthefour,onlyParche(SSN-683)isstillincommissionandwillbereplacedinthenextfewyears.Theotherthree,Seawolf(SSN-575),Halibut(SSGN-587),andRichardB.Russell(SSN-687),werealldecommissionedpriorto,orattheendof,theColdWar.

13

FormoreonspecialwarfareandtheArmySpecialForces,seemybookSpecialForces:AGuidedTourofU.S.ArmySpecialOperations(BerkleyBooks,2001).

14

ThetwoLafayette-class(SSBN-616)ballisticmissileboats,Kamehameha(SSN-642)andJamesK.Polk(SSN-645),havehad

theirmissiletubesconvertedtostorageareasandbeenfittedwithdrydockhangarsforspecializedminiaturesubmarinescalledSEALDeliveryVehicles(SDVs).Eachcancarryandsupportupto67SEALsortroopswitheverythingfromexplosivestorubberboats.

15

Technically,SeawolfshouldhavebeengiventhehullnumberSSN-774.However,theNavy'sdesiretosettheclassapartasthefirstofanewcenturyledtotheSSN-21designation.TheSSN-774designationhasbeennowassignedtotheleadboatofthenewVirginia-classSSNs.

16

Formoreonthesetwoyardsandhowtheybuildships,seemybooksMarine:AGuidedTourofaMarineExpeditionaryUnit(BerkleyBooks,1997)andCarrier:AGuidedTourofaCarrierBattleGroup(BerkleyBooks,1999).

17

FirstdemonstratedaboardtheAegiscruiserYorktown(CG-48),"SmartShip"usesCOTS-basedsystemstoprovideimprovedsituationalawarenesstoareducedwatchofcrewpersonnel.Italsohelpswithmanagementoflogisticsandsystemscontrol,makingthereductionofcrewnumbersarealityforthefirsttimesincetheadventofsteam.