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ematicsENGINEERING

TV Production

Subject: TV PRODUCTION Credits: 4

SYLLABUS

Evolution to Contemporary Times

Introduction to Television; Introduction to Video; World TV Standards; Commercial and Professional Video Formats

Tools and Mechanics of Production

Sound for Television; Introduction to Camera; Parts and Operation; Lights and Lighting Principles; Basics of Editing

The Information Era

The World of TV News: Art of TV Anchoring; Basics of SNG/ENG; Basics of News Production

Preparing to Create and Production Flow

Introduction to Proposal Making; Elements of Production

Suggested Readings:

1. Effective TV production; Gerald Millerson; Focal Press 2. Teaching TV production in a digital world: integrating media literacy; Robert Kenny; Libraries Unlimited 3. The Production Assistant in TV and Video by Avril Rowlands, Focal Press 

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Lesson No. Topic Page No.

Evolution to Contemporary Times

Lesson 1 An Introduction to Television 1

Lesson 2 An Introduction to Video 6

Lesson 3 World TV Standards 8

Lesson 4 Commercial and Professional Video Formats 16

The Tools and Mechanics of Production

Lesson 5 Sound for Television 23

Lesson 6 Introduction to Camera, Parts and Operation 35

Lesson 7 Lights and Lighting Principles 47

Lesson 8 Basics of Editing 60

Lesson 9 The Art of TV Anchoring 70

Lesson 10 - 11 Basics of SNG/ENG 78

The Information Era

Lesson 12 Basics of News Production I 86

Lesson 13 Basics of News Production II 91

Preparing to Create & Production Flow

Lesson 14 Introduction to Proposal Making 97

Lesson 15 - 16 Elements of Production 106

Lesson 17 Introduction to Specialisation 115

Practicals

CONTENT

TV PRODUCTION

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UNIT IEVOLUTION TO

CONTEMPORARY TIMESLESSON 1:

AN INTRODUCTION TO TELEVISION

Television- the BeginningIn the beginning, a snowy picture with a horizontal bar rollingthrough it was the best many TV viewers could hope for. Forthousands of people living some distance from the large citieseven this kind of picture required the installation of a tallantenna next to their houses. Often, they could only get onlyone station-and only then if atmospheric conditions weregood.But, despite the difficulties, it was television, and it marked thebeginning of a phenomenon that was to have a major impacton news, advertising, film, radio, and the world-not to mentionhow millions of people would spend their leisure hours.Although television is blamed for everything from crime totooth decay, television has contributed many positive things tosociety, as we will see when we explore this medium in thecoming lectures.But, let’s start at the beginning.

Inventions Leading to TelevisionFor decades before its invention, something called “television”had been part of science fiction stories.

Discovering how to send audio through the airwaves openedthe door to the possibility of television, but video was far morecomplex. It was correctly reasoned that since pictures hadmillions of times more data than audio, pictures would have tobe broken down into bits of information (a data stream) beforebeing transmitted.The first application of this concept was wire photos (usingtelephone lines to send still photos to newspapers).This was done by wrapping a photo around a drum, as shownon the right, and rotating the drum as a light-sensitive photocellmoved over the image picking up brightness differences. Thephotocell created voltages that were amplified thousands oftimes and then sent by telephone lines to the subscribingnewspapers.At the receiving end, somewhat the reverse took place. A pieceof photographic paper spunaround on a cylinder within a light-tight enclosure. The intensity of apinpoint of light focused on thepaper varied with the signal beingpicked up by the originatingmachine. When the scan wasfinished, the paper was taken out in a darkroom and processedas a photographic print.

Wire photo machines established the basic concept of scanningpictures a line at a time. But still photos are not motionpictures.You may recall that experiments with film demonstrated that ifa series of pictures were presented at a rate of about 16 or more

per-second, an illusion of motion could be created. So theproblem became one of electronically transmitting a series ofstill pictures every second. To do this the wire photo approachof transmitting still photos-which originally took about 20minutes just to transmit one picture-would have to be speededup millions of times.

Who Invented TV?Many countries lay claim to inventing television, and without adoubt, engineers in several countries developed various earlyapproaches to transmitting pictures.Early approaches were based on mechanical devices using a kindof moving peephole that focused lightreflected from a scene on a photocell.Although these devices worked, theywere big, heavy, cumbersome, and oflow resolution (producing limiteddetail). One of the first TV images ofthis type is the famous Felix the catimage shown here.

Even with the obvious limitations, some TV transmitters wenton the air using mechanical approaches.The BBC from Alexandra Palace in London launched the firstall-electronic TV programming in 1936. Unlike the mechanicalsystems, this approach was the direct precursor to today’s all-electronic approach to transmitting TV pictures. Marconideveloped the BBC system, the father of radio. (Interestingly,Marconi’s work, specifically the effect that aircraft had on thetransmissions, led to the development of radar, which helpedthe RAF win the Battle of Britain.)In the United States, four people are given credit for majorinventions leading to television: Philo T. Farnsworth, Allen B.DuMont, Charles Jenkins, and Vladimir K. Zworykin.Philo T. Farnsworth, an American engineer, who is mostassociated with the invention of TV, rejected the mechanicalapproach and decided that the only thing fast enough to scan amoving image was a stream of electrons.

In 1926, he was trying to construct a TV receiver in the diningroom of his Hollywood, California apartment. According to hiswife, although constant “pops,” “sizzles” and “bangs” camefrom the experimental TV equipment; these were not as bad asthe terrible acidic smell that filled their apartment. Mrs.Farnsworth appears to be the first person to go on record ascomplaining, “television stinks!”Farnsworth not only had problems with his wife. Since he hadthe blinds pulled on his house during the day (to better see theexperimental TV sets), the neighbors and police reasoned thathe must have been doing something illegal-probably brewingalcohol. They raided his apartment, and, although mystified bywhat they saw, they at least they didn’t throw him in jail.

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Despite his problems, Farnsworth developed the basic elementof a TV camera: a dissector tube that used a moving stream ofelectrons to “read out” brightness information on a line-by-linebasis from the backside of an image focused on a light-sensitivearea of a tube.In the close-up of a black and white TV screen on the right you

can see the individual lines thatcomprise this type of TV picture.This scanning approach is still usedtoday, although with today’s colorsystems the scanning process resultsin millions of illuminated coloreddots.

A later and muchmore widely used version of the originalcamera pickup tube is shown on the left.From the coffee cup next to it you can seejust how big this camera tube was.Once the problem of how to dissect imagesand sequentially transmit them through theair by means of radio waves was solved, wehad the central elements of the television equation.

Television Officially Launched by RCAA few years later, the RCA Corporation, “officially” debuted TVin the United States by telecasting parts of 1939 New YorkWorld’s Fair, including a speech by President FranklinRoosevelt. But, since there still weren’t many TV sets inexistence, most of the audience was watching the show at theFair.

The first TV receivers had 13 cm (5 inch) screens and black andwhite pictures. They cost about half the price of an automobile.Before long, six TV stations were on the air in the U.S., andmany more were in development.Meanwhile, in 1936, Germany televised the Olympics, and GreatBritain began regular programming for a few hours each day. Inboth cases, however, there were few people with TV sets towatch.As things picked up, new, less expensive TV sets were intro-duced with larger screens,including the popular tabletopversion shown here.On July 1st, 1942, CBS launched15 hours of weekly programming,including two 15-minute, Mondaythrough Friday newscasts. Theywere simply read from a script, radio style, by an announcer in asmall announce booth. A single camera was aimed through thewindow of the booth. The people who had seen TV weremesmerized by what they saw, and television was poised toimmediately take off. But, it was not to be—not just yet.

Television’s Early History: World War II

Then World War II came along. Everything stopped until 1945,as U.S. industry moved into large-scale production of arma-ments and related materials. Once the war ended, some 70stations immediately went on the air. Things expanded rapidlyuntil 1948. At that point the FCC saw that the number ofavailable TV channels (2-13 on the VHF band) wasn’t going tomeet the demand for new stations.

UHF Television LaunchedThe solution the FCC came up with was to authorize the useof a whole new group of channels. In 1952, they launchedUHF television (ultra high frequency, channels 14-83) and liftedthe freeze.Their plan provided for 2,053 stations in 1,291 communities inthe U.S. and its territories. Channel assignments in 242 commu-nities were set aside for noncommercial and educationalpurposes.Since the UHF band represented much higher frequencies thanthe original VHS channels, it presentedsome unique problems-not the leastof which was the fact that existing TVsets could not receive any of thesechannels.

The FCC then mandated that all newTV sets manufactured must have theability to receive both VHS and UHFchannels. Owners of existing receivershad to buy a special tuner if theywanted to see UHF stations.Viewers quickly discovered that UHF stations were much harderto tune in than VHF stations, and for most people the newUHF channels required a special antenna.To make things even more complicated, some TV markets hadall VHF stations; some all UHF; and some had both types. Inmarkets that had both VHF and UHF channels, people tendedto just stick with VHF, since it was a lot easier.But, there were even more problems for UHF stations; theyrequire far more transmitter power to cover a given area, and,compared to VHF, their signals tend to encounter morereception problems.

All of this, of course, meant that UHF stations had a majordisadvantage. Many UHF stations in VHF/UHF markets “wentdark” (ceased operations) because they simply couldn’t generate

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enough revenue to stay on the air. A commercial UHF station inSan Francisco was sold to a public station for one dollar.Today, many of the UHF problems have been solved with newtypes of TV sets and the wide use of cable. (Cable televisionmakes all TV stations equal, regardless of frequency or power.)Incidentally, when digital/high-definition television was in theplanning stage in the 1990s, the FCC decided to take over a large(and mostly unused) chunk of the UHF spectrum for this newtechnology. Today, there are more than 800 digital/high-definition stations on the air in the United States.

Television in European Countries and CanadaAfter World War II, the BBC (British Broadcasting System)launched an ambitious plan for providing television service for80 percent of Great Britain. In 1949, they completed construc-tion on the most powerful TV transmitter in the world. Eightother BBC stations were completed in 1952. A little more than25 years later, 98 percent of the population had a TV set in theirhomes.In Canada, where experiments in television had started in the1930s, regular TV broadcasting was launched by CBC (CanadianBroadcasting Corporation) station CBFT in Montreal inSeptember, 1952. Only three years later, television was availableto 66 percent of the Canadian population. Three years after thatCanada telecast its first “live,” coast-to-coast program on anewly completed television network.One of the major problems Canada has is producing a fullrange of programs in both English and French. This meansthat when both the CBC and the many independent stationsare considered, Canada produces more hours of radio andtelevision programming than most other countries.

Although France and the Netherlands also initiated TVbroadcasting soon after the war, it was Russia (specificallyMoscow), in 1948 that first initiated regular continentalbroadcasts.By the late 1980s, more than 90 percent of households in Italy

and West Germany had televisionreceivers; and 98 percent of British,French and Russian householdshad TV sets.Except for Canada, all of thesecountries use a different broadcastsystem than the United States.Starting later than the UnitedStates, these European countries

were able to devise systems that, in clarity, were superior to theU.S. system-and totally incompatible with it.This also meant that TV receivers (and later, videotape ma-chines) sold in one country often could not be used in anothercountry. Incompatible television standards also created majorproblems for selling U.S. TV programs to European countries.(The export of film and TV entertainment programming is oneof the largest exports for the United States.)

East and West Coasts LinkedBy 1952, AT&T began to electronically link the east and westcoasts of the United States. Having coast-to-coast connections

had a major impact on the TV industry-even more, in fact, thatthe radio networks had on radio.Before this time the only way that a TV program could bedistributed to stations across the country was to use a moviecamera to photograph the program from a TV screen (akinescope recording) and then send copies of the film toindividual stations. In addition to representing a major delay,the somewhat blurry, black and white kinescope recordings wereless than appealing.

TV Becomes the Family’s Focal PointBy 1955, the cost of TV sets had come down considerably.Instead of being equal to half the price of a car, they were nowjust equal to the cost of a new set of tires.In that year, 67 percent of homes had a black and white TVreceiver (color had not hit the scene yet).Just five years after that the figure had reached 87 percent.Television had nowtaken the place ofradio as the family’sevening focal point.In a short time theviewing public wantedmore TV channels (nodoubt as they gottired of watchingreruns on the basic channels).

To meet this need, the first step was to build new TV stations.When the satellite relay of TV signals became possible, aprofusion of satellite services, including HBO, Showtime, andmany other specialty channels, became available.The graph on the left shows how the number of TV channelsrapidly increased after 1980.

Television in India

The BeginningAt about the time that at least 80% of US homes had at least aB&W TV set, in 1959 India gingerly stepped into the world ofTelevision with an experimental station in Delhi. This stationhad a low power transmitter and the initial duration of thetelecasts was an hour, twice a week. The content aired compriseda mix of social issues, education and entertainment.A few years later, ‘Doordarshan’, literally translated, far-sighted,India’s National channel was born. It began very modestlyintroducing educational and rural oriented programmes withthe aid of community sets managed by local panchayats (ruralgoverning body), in each village. Although the effort was nobleand could have been a critical catalyst in accelerated development,it was unable to sustain tempo and there followed a prolongedlull from 1959 till 1972 when the second Doordarshan stationwas set up in Mumbai. In the following year Amritsar, Pune,Srinagar and Chennai stations were up and running. Kolkotaand Lucknow came aboard in 1975 and the 70’s began to berightly heralded as a major milestone in the annals of IndianTV Broadcasting.This golden era of the mid-seventies also saw the launching ofone of the most ambitious projects in the History of Indian

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Television. The, ‘Satellite Instruction Television Experiment’(SITE) Project launched in 1975, began by identifying sixclusters comprising 400 villages each. Spanning across the ruralheartland of Central India, the areas were drawn from the statesof, Rajasthan, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra Pradeshand Karnataka. The primary consideration behind the selectionwas the availability of basic infrastructure and electricity in theareas. Special sets called, ‘Direct Receiving Sets (DRS) were setup.Each set comprised a module for picking up satellite signals anda chicken mesh antenna.The US satellite, ATS-6 was made available to India for one yearafter signing a Memorandum with the Americans. Uplinkingwas done from the earth station in Hyderabad and the 2400villages receiving the signal began to perceive their lives differ-ently. Telecast in Hindi, Oriya, Telugu and Kannada, theprogrammes were produced at 3 Production Centres in Delhi,Cuttack and Hyderabad. Designated as, ‘Base ProductionCentres’, each centre was adequately equipped with a studio, tele-cine chain, cameras, etc. As a precursor to this truly awesomeeffort a thorough and exhaustive pre-feedback exercise wasconducted by, ‘The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO),by showing sample groups, prototype programmes. Assess-ment of their views led to the production of simple contentaimed at educating, informing and educating viewers. Over 1500hours of programming were eventually produced and telecast.They covered varied areas including, agriculture, social education,health & hygiene, nutrition, adult literacy and newsreels.Although India amply demonstrated success in using satellitetelevision to provide useful information to portions of theirpopulations out of reach of terrestrial broadcasting, (SITE dideffect some changes in beliefs and behavior patterns), there islittle indication that satellite television was the best means tothat end. The project, however, did lead to Indian developmentof its own satellite network. Encouraged by the success ofSITE, ISRO launched INSAT 1A in 1982 with a lot ofexpectations and fanfare. Unfortunately it failed to performfrom the very outset and was finally abandoned causing a severesetback to networking the country using satellites. In fact for the1982 Asian Games in Delhi, INTELSAT an internationalsatellite was used. China also embarked on a ambitiousprogram of satellite use for development, claiming substantialsuccess in rural education. But studies show that when televi-sion has succeeded as an educational tool in developingcountries, it is only when very specific viewing conditions aremet. For example, programs are best viewed in small groupswith a teacher to introduce them and to lead a discussionafterwards.SITE was undoubtedly the biggest Community Televisionexperiment ever conducted at the time but what is far moresignificant is that it paved the way for the growth of Televisionin India, laid the foundations for Distance Education, an areawhere India has made a significant Global contribution andaccelerated indigenous satellite production and delivery tech-nologies.

The Terrestrial RouteNot to be deterred from the policy of rapid expansion, theIndian Government in 1982 decided to aggressively pursue the

terrestrial route by using low power transmitters (LPT), tosupplement their existing network. These LPT’s with a 100 Wcapacity were divided into 4 basic segments.1. Transmitter (100 W)2. Transmission tower3. Fiberglass Dish antenna4. Low noise amplifierThe prime advantage of the Low Power transmitter (15-20 km.Range), is that it can easily be installed at even high altitudes inas little as 4 days! Other benefits include, lighter transportationneeds, cheaper, can be locally produced and offers betteralignment with the satellite.

Today Doordarshan has evolved into a formidable Network,which despite being State controlled has succeeded in survivingthe onslaught of Cable TV. Although it is not included as partof the syllabus in this course, those interested should visit theDD site a page of which is given below. In all the subsequentlectures too I shall try and indicate additional links, which youmay or may not choose to pursue. But remember one thing, asa communicator it is very helpful to broaden the horizons ofyour knowledge by going beyond just studying what thesyllabus indicates. This is one definite way in which initialdrudgery can transform into an insatiable passion.

Doordarshan at a Glance

ProfileDoordarshan, the national television service of India, isdevoted to public service broadcasting. It is one of the largestterrestrial networks in the world. Its network of 1314 terrestrialtransmitters covers more than 89.6% of India’s population(Over 1 Billion at last count).The Website: At a Glance (http://www.ddindia.com or http://www.ddindia.net)A website has been developed, which includes live streamingsite of Doordarshan international channel (DD INDIA) andinformation on all the principal channels: DD NATIONAL,DD NEWS, DD SPORTS, DD BHARATI and DD INTER-NATIONAL.The News Department has its own website: http://www.ddinews.com ddindia.com is a site offering tactical,content, production and utility value. The site has been carefullyplanned to allow for smooth navigation and easy usability.Keeping the user profile in mind, information is made availablein a simple yet concise format. A number of interactive toolstoo have been built into the various sections.

Organization• The site’s contents are displayed clearly on the home page;

informing viewers about what they might find and what theycould do.

• It clearly indicates what each page is about, i.e. what one canexpect to find.

• It arranges and organizes the contents in a readilyunderstandable order.

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Navigation• The site is easy to navigate - the structure readily apparent,

and uses well-organized and labeled navigational aids.Navigational aids are available at the top and side of eachpage.

• Short descriptive titles and headings are used to orientviewers about the contents.

• The site allows viewers to explore the site without excessivebacktracking or feeling of disorientation. There are noexcessive scrolls to access contents.

• It provides viewers with a preview of what will happen andwhere they will go when they click on highlighted items.

Aesthetics• The site is aesthetically pleasing. It uses visual features that

get viewers interested and keeps them interested.• Text is easy to read (size, colour, font, etc.,) on the

background (colour, texture etc.,)• Signal different levels of visual importance, i.e. make

important information stand out in graphics, bullets,italicized text, characters, etc.,

• Attention-getting symbols, images etc., are used to drawviewer’s attention to news, special topics, or items of specialinterest or importance.

The Website• Supports a variety of different browsers, and browsing

options (high and low bandwidth).• Allow viewers using an all-text browser to access and find

useful information.• Allows viewers to access the site quickly to see or do

something without having to wait excessively as images andtext are downloaded.

Design• The website has been designed using the latest technology

and software. Descriptive text, breathtaking visuals and realvideos have been used to provide information on thevarious sections covered. Pictures and vides of people,products and services have been used throughout the site toconvey the integral relationship between them as well asDD’s people-centric image. To convey information in agripping manner and enhance the user’s overall experience ofthe site, several interactive elements have been created usingFlash 5.0 and other software.

CoverageThe site has very high interactive content. Its features includelive video streaming, video archives, news updates etc., It hasalso has polling area, interesting video archives and a discussionforum, besides sections on Indian music, food, travel etc., tocater to the varied backgrounds of its users.Information provided is up-to-date and relevant to the currentaffairs of India and the world. The tone of the content on thesite is friendly and has been conveyed in a simplistic manner,which is understandable to any user.

Corporate InformationInformation about Doordarshan’s history, policies, structureetc., is provided in the About Us section and is aimed ataccessibility and transparency.Business opportunities, Audience Feedback, Advertisementdetails and bookings are some of the other sections covered.

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LESSON 2:AN INTRODUCTION TO VIDEO

How the TV Process WorksWhy do you need to know how the TV process works?

Well, this is another of those “knowledge is power” things.The more you know about the TV process the easier it will beto use the tools in creative new ways, and to solve the inevitableproblems that crop up during TV productions.So, let’s start at the beginning with...

Fields and FramesWhen you get right down to it, both motion pictures and TV

are based solidly on an illusion.Strictly speaking, there is no“motion” in TV or motionpicture images.

Interestingly, the foundation formotion pictures was establishedin 1877 with a $25,000 bet. For

decades an argument had raged over whether a race- horse everhad all four hooves off the ground at the same time. (Somepeople must have a lot of time on their hands to sit and debatethings like this!)In an effort to settle the debate once and for all, an experimentwas set up in which a rapid sequence of photos was taken of arunning horse. And, yes it was found that for brief moments arace- horse has all four feet off the ground at the same time.But this experiment established something even more impor-tant. It was discovered that if this sequence of still pictures werepresented at a rate of about 16 or more per second, theseindividual pictures would blend together, giving the impressionof a continuous, uninterrupted image. In this case, of course,the individual pictures varied slightly to reflect changes overtime, and the illusion of motion was created when the pictureswere presented in an uninterrupted sequence.A more primitive version of this can be seen in the “moving”lights of a theater marquee or “moving” arrow of a neon signsuggesting that you come in and buy something.

Although early silent films used a basic frame (or picture) rateof 16 and 18 per second, when sound was introduced, this ratewas increased to 24 per second. This was primarily necessary tomeet the quality needs of the sound track. (Actually, to reduceflicker today’s motion picture projectors use a two-bladedshutter that projects each frame twice, giving an effective rate of48 frames per-second.)Unlike broadcast television that has frame rates of 25 and 30 persecond depending on the country, film has for decades main-tained a worldwide, 24-frame per-second sound standard.The NTSC (National Television System Committee) system oftelevision used in the United States, Canada, Japan, Mexico, anda few other countries, reproduces pictures (frames) at a rate ofapproximately 30 per second. Of course, this presents a bit of a

problem in converting film to TV (mathematically, 24 doesn’tgo into 30 very well), but we’ll worry about that later.

A motion picture camera records a sequence of completelyformed pictures on each frame of film, just like the still pictureson a roll of film in your 35mm camera. The motion picturecamera just takes the individual pictures at a rate of 24 persecond.Things are different in TV. In a video camera each frame iscomprised of hundreds of horizontal lines. Along each ofthese lines there are thousands of points of brightness andcolor information. This information is electronically discernedby in the TV camera (and then later reproduced on a TVdisplay) in a left-to-right, top-to-bottom, scanning sequence.This sequence is similar to the movement of your eyes as youread a section of this page.To reduce flicker and brightness variations during the scanningprocess, as well as to solve some technical limitations, it wasoriginally decided to divide the scanning process into twohalves. The odd-numbered lines are scanned first and then theeven-numbered lines are interleaved in between to create acomplete picture. Not surprisingly, this process is referred to asinterleaved or interlaced scanning. Once a complete picture(frame) is scanned, the whole process starts over again. Theslight changes between successive pictures are fused together byhuman perception, giving the illusion of continuous, uninter-rupted motion.Today, rather than using an interlaced approach to scanning,some video systems (including computer monitors and someof the new digital television standards) use a progressive ornon-interlaced scanning approach, where the fields (odd andeven lines) are combined and reproduced at the same time.Progressive scanning has a number of advantages, includinggreater clarity and the ability to more easily interface withcomputer-based video equipment. At the same time, it alsoadds greater technical demands on the TV system. The inter-leaved approach, although necessary before recent advances intechnology, results in some minor “picture artifacts,” ordistortions in the picture, including variations in color. Most oftoday’s TV receivers still rely on the interleaved approach.

The Camera’s Imaging DeviceThe lens of the television camera forms an image on a lightsensitive target inside the camera inthe same way a motion picturecamera forms an image on film.But, instead of film, televisioncameras commonly use solid-state,light-sensitive receptors calledCCDs (charged-coupled devices, or“chips”) that are able to detectbrightness differences at differentpoints throughout the image.

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The target area of the CCD (the small rectangular area near thecenter of this photo) contains from hundreds of thousands tomillions of pixel (picture element) points, each of which canelectrically respond to the amount of light focused on itssurface.A very small section of a CCD is represented below—enlargedseveral thousand times. The individual pixels are shown. Thedifferences in image brightness detected at each of these pointson the surface of the CCD) are changed into electric voltages.Electronics within the camera scanning system regularly checkeach pixel to determine the amount of light falling on itssurface.

This sequential informationis directed to an outputamplifier along the pathshown by the arrows. Thesequential readout ofinformation is continuallyrepeated, creating a constantsequence of changing fieldand frame information.

In a sense, this whole process is reversed in the TV receiver. Thepixel-point voltages generated in a camera are then changed backinto light, which we see as an image on our TV

Analog and Digital SignalsElectronic signals as they originate in microphones and cameras

are analog (also spelledanalogue) in form. Thismeans that the equipmentdetects signals in terms ofcontinuing variations inrelative strength or ampli-tude. In audio this wouldbe loudness; in video itwould be the brightness

component of the picture.

As illustrated on the left, in professional facilities these signalsare then changed into digital data (computer 0s and 1s) beforeprogressing through subsequent electronic equipment.The top part of the illustration on the right shows how ananalog signal can smoothly rise and fall over time to reflectchanges in the original audio or video source.In order to change an analog signal to digital, the wave patternis sampled at a high rate of speedand the amplitude at each ofthose sampled moments isconverted into a number equiva-lent.It’s as if each of the columns onthe left (which represents acorresponding point on the analogsignal above) is instantly assigneda numerical value before it is sent out to represent the originalsignal. Since we are dealing with numerical quantities, thisconversion process is appropriately called quantizing.

The faster all this is done, the better the audio and video qualitywill be, of course-but also the more “space” (bandwidth) that’srequired to record or transmit the signal. Thus, we are frequentlydealing with the difference between high-quality equipment thatcan handle ultra high-speed data rates, and lower-level (lessexpensive) consumer equipment that relies on a lower samplingrate. This answers the question as to why some video recorderscost $500 and others cost nearly $100,000.Actually, our ears and eyes don’t need every bit of the informa-tion in a continuous analog wave to get a true impression ofthe original signal. If the sampling rate is fast enough, we won’tnotice the “holes” (the spaces between the blue lines above) inthe data stream.Thus, original analog audio and video signals are always“compressed” to some degree in the analog-to-digital conver-sion process. The issue of “quality” rests on how much. We’llrevisit this issue a bit later when we focus on the issue ofcompression.

Once the information is converted into numbers, we can dosome very interesting things (generally, special effects) by adding,subtracting, multiplying and dividing the numbers.Compared to the digital signal, an analog signal would seem tobe the most accurate and ideal representation of the originalsignal. While this may initially be true, the problem arises in theneed for constant amplification and re-amplification of thesignal throughout every stage of the audio and video process.Whenever a signal is reproduced and amplified, noise isinevitably introduced,which degrades the signal.In audio this can take theform of a hissing sound;in video it appears as asubtle background“snow” effect.

By converting the originalanalog signal into digital form, this noise buildup can bevirtually eliminated, even though it’s amplified or “copied”dozens of times. Because digital signals are limited to the formof zeros and ones (0s and 1s, or binary computer code), no “inbetween” information can creep in to degrade the signal.Today’s digital audio and video equipment has borrowedheavily from developments in computer technology—soheavily, in fact, that the two areas seem to be merging.Today, satellite services such as DISH and Direct-TV make useof digital receivers that are, in effect, specialized computers.Progressive radio and TV stations have already switched over todigital signal processing. And, very possibly, you regularly listento music recorded on a shirt pocket-sized device that is capableof storing several hours of digitized music.

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LESSON 3:WORLD TV STANDARDS

World Television StandardsFifty years ago it didn’t matter too much that there were a fewhundred languages in the world and a dozen or so incompat-

ible systems of television.Distance was a greatinsulator. But, times havechanged.

Today, satellites link everycountry with television, andthe Internet provides video,audio, and the written wordto virtually anyone, any-where with a computer and

a telephone line. Now, incompatible standards and incompre-hensible languages represent a barrier to communication andunderstanding.Dictators like it that way, and so do people who fear their viewsand control will be undermined by a free flow of information.This is why many countries are spending millions each year tokeep out “undesirable” information. Most of the rest of us feelthat a free flow of information is essential, not only toprogress, but to breaking down barriers of misunderstandingbetween peoples. Films, TV, and the Internet-and especially e-mail between individuals in different countries-all show thatpeople have pretty much the same hopes, fears, and goals theworld over. Touching on these similarities is one of the goalsof a good TV production-especially when internationaldistribution is essential to financial success. (Many films and TVprograms don’t begin to show a profit until they go intointernational distribution.)In addition to political, philosophical and religious fears relatedto a free flow of information, we must also confront theincompatibilities between broadcast standards.

Although the total number has diminished somewhat, thereare still several incompatible broadcast television standards(technical approaches to broadcasting the picture and sound) inthe world.This means that a program produced in one country can’t beautomatically viewed in another country without converting itto the appropriate technical standard.There have been about 14 different broadcast standards in useat different times throughout the world. Today, excluding DTV(digital TV) three basic systems serve the vast majority ofcountries (although there are some significant incompatibilitieswithin these).• NTSC (National Television System Committee)• SECAM (Sequential Color And Memory)• PAL (Phase Alternating Line)

The difference between these basic broadcast standards centersprimarily on four things:

• the total number of horizontal lines in the picture (525 or625 for standard TV; 1,125 and 1,250 for HDTV)

• whether 25 or 30 frames (complete pictures) are transmittedper second

• the broadcast channel width (electronic bandwidth of thesignal)

• whether an AM- or FM-type signal is used for transmittingaudio and video

Historically, the number of lines used in standard broadcast TVhas ranged from the United Kingdom’s 405-line monochromesystem to the 819-line system used in France. Both of thesesystems have now been phased out, leaving us with the 525 and625 standards for standard definition TV (SDTV).

Aspect RatiosAlthough the number of scanning lines may have varied, untilrecently all television systems had a 4:3 aspect ratio. The aspectratio is the width-height proportion ofthe picture.

The 4:3 ratio wasconsistent withmotion pictures thatpredated the widescreen aspect ratiosused in CinemaScope, Vista-Vision, and Panavision films. Aswe will see, HDTV uses a 16:9 aspect ratio. In the picture on theright the inner box represents standard definition TV (SDTV)and the wider area represents high-definition TV (HDTV). Themost commonly used wide-screen movie format is slightlylarger than 16:9.

NTSC Broadcast StandardThe National Television Systems Committee’s (NTSC) 525 line,30 frames per second system is shared primarily by the UnitedStates, Canada, Greenland, Mexico, Cuba, Panama, Japan, thePhilippines, Puerto Rico and most of South America.

The NTSC standard was firstdeveloped for black and white(monochrome) television in 1941. In1953, the color standard was estab-lished. (Note the January, 1954 issueof Popular Mechanics on the left thatheralded the arrival of color TV). TheNTSC system of television is referredto as a 525 line, 60-field systembecause, as we’ve seen, the 30 framesconsist of 60-fields.

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The NTSC’s 60-field system originally based its timing cycle onthe 60 Hz (cycle) electrical system used in these countries. Sinceother countries in the world use a 50 Hz electrical system, it waslogical for them to develop systems of television based on 50fields per sec.The basic NTSC standard is more than 50 years old, and manytechnical improvements have come along during this half-century.

The PAL and SECAM Television SystemsMore than half of the countries in the world use one of two625 line, 25 frame systems: the SECAM (Sequential Color andMemory) or the PAL (Phase Alternating Line) system.SECAM was originally developed in France as a non-compatiblesystem designed to protect the country’s manufacturingindustry from foreign electronic imports. Because SECAM isincompatible with other TV systems, the Communist countriesto prevent their people from viewing TV programming fromnoncommunist countries, also adopted it. Technically, SECAMis the simplest TV system in the world.PAL, is a modified and somewhat improved version of NTSC.It was developed in Germany and is used in Britain and mostof Western Europe. Except for Brazil, all of the PAL systemshave 625 lines.The extra 100 lines in the SECAM and most of the PALsystems add significant detail and clarity to the video picture,but the 50 fields per second (compared to 60-fields in theNTSC system) means that a slight flicker can sometimes benoticed.

Even so, the 25 frames per second (fps) standard is very close tothe international film standard of 24 fps. Therefore, the 24 fpsfilm standard is easily converted to the PAL and SECAM videosystems. (Slightly speeding up film to 25 fps is hard to notice.)

Digital and High-Definition TelevisionHDTV contains over two million individual picture elementsthat result in pictures that are six to ten times sharper thanregular television images (SDTV). The greater sharpness ofHDTV is coupled with the wide-screen (16:9) images andDolby Digital 5.1 Surround-Sound.The table below compares the basic attributes of the SDTV andHDTV television systems. Note that although HDTV isconsidered to have 1,125 lines, only 1,080 of these are consid-ered “active” or visible on the screen.

Although more than two million high-definition sets had beensold in the U.S. by the end of 2003, this number representsonly a fraction of the total sets in use. This whole thing is a bit

Standards SDTV (Analog) HDTV (Digital)

Total Lines 525 1125

Active Lines 486 (maximum visible on the screen)

1080 (maximum visible on the screen)

Sound Two Channels (stereo) 5.1 Channels (surround)

Max Resolution 720 X 486 1920 X 1080

of a chicken-and-egg issue, since it is difficult to sell digital TVsets until digital signals are available, and stations find it hard tojustify the expense involved in moving to digital productionuntil there is a big enough audience.The average price of today’s HDTV receiver is about $1,000with some going at $700. (When color TV sets first appearedthey sold for $1,295-and that was back at a time when you couldbuy a new Ford automobile for $1,695.)

The Anatomy of Digital TV SignalsUnlike SDTV, which has only one of three broadcast standardsin each country, there are 18 digital options within the newDTV/HDTV standards. Although it might seem that havingall of these different approaches would represent chaos, it’sexpected that TV tuners will be able to sort them out anddeliver a picture to whatever TV set you are using. The stan-dards vary in the following three ways.• Active lines of resolution: 1080 and 720 for HDTV, and 480

for SDTV (As we’ve noted, active lines are slightly differentthan total line figures, since some of the latter can’t be seenand aren’t considered to be an “active” part of the picture.)

• Types of scanning: Interlaced (two fields, each consisting ofhalf the lines, are broadcast and thereafter merge to makeone complete frame or picture), and progressive (all lines aretransmitted together without interlacing).

• Scan rate: 60 or 50 fields per-second for interlaced, 30 or 25frames per-second for progressive, and 24 frames per-secondfor film-style progressive scan. (The latter is now beingwidely used in high-definition video production. Forexample, the Attack of the Clones Star Wars film released in2002 was all done on 24-progressive video and thenconverted to film.)

International Digital TV StandardsAs noted, the new digital schemes allow for a variety ofadditional services-all within the same digital broadcast channelassignment. Options include pay-per-view movies, high-speedInternet services, and additional TV programming.Other countries have their own schedule for the move to DTVand HDTV. But, because their governing bodies have typicallyallowed fewer options compared to the United States, there willprobably be less confusion over standards.

Since digital electronics is involved, conversions from onecountry’s digital standard to another will be simpler than it hasbeen with analog technology. Digital signals are much easier toalter and manipulate.Compare the screen enlargements shown here that representHDTV and the standard NTSC systems. (Note: When youmove back from the screen to a distance approximating normalTV viewing distances, the differences between these photos arenot nearly as obvious.)When projected on a 16- by 9-footscreen and observed from anormal viewing distance, thepicture detail in HDTV/DTVappears to equal what is normally

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attained by projected 35mm motion picture film.The relative pixel detail of SDTV and HDTV is illustrated on

the left. (Theseillustrations assume a40-inch TV screen.)SDTV produces animage with about200,000 pixel (picture)points. HDTVincreases that by a factorof 10 to about two

million pixels.

In the graph on the right note that the interlaced (i) andprogressive (p) approaches to scanning result in a significantdifference in apparentpicture sharpness(measured in terms ofdiscerned pixel pointsof detail).If we go on to comparethe number of scanninglines, which here rangesfrom SDTVs 480 linesto HDTVs 1080 lines,the difference insharpness becomes evenmore dramatic. The“pure” 1080p system (as opposed to the compromised hybridsystem) delivers the maximum picture detail approved forbroadcast. Although this approach is technically demanding,video recorded in this process is so sharp it can be converted tofilm and projected in a theater without patrons realizing they areseeing video.Comparisons between video and film quality are often made.But video and film are inherently different media and thequestion of their relative “quality” (a word which can meanmany things to many people) has been the subject of livelydebate.

Suffice it to say, when the film and video media are compared ina broadcast application, the difference between video and film isbased more on the respective production approaches than onany inherent quality differences between the media.Ultimately, digital image acquisition will definitely replace filmfor TV production. You don’t need a crystal ball to know that.-Ed Nassour, senior VP of postproduction, 20th Century FoxTelevision,

Film vs. VideotapeWhich is better: film or videotape?”

The fact is, each is superior in anumber of ways; it depends on yourneeds. At the same time we need toacknowledge the fact that much of theinformation about the “inferiority of

video” is no longer valid. Even so, old beliefs persist. Let’s lookfirst at the advantages of film.

Advantages of FilmSince the TV Production modules concentrate on television, wetend to emphasize the advantages of video. But someone isbound to ask: “Why is most dramatic television still shot onfilm.’’ There are several reasons-starting with the historical.After more than 100 years of 35mm film production, a rich andhighly sophisticated tradition has grown up around film. Unlikevideo production, where newcomers may quickly find them-selves functioning as camerapersons and even in some cases asdirectors, the feature film tradition typically involves long, highlycompetitive apprenticeships. Less motivated people tend todrop out in favor of those who are more talented, persistentand dedicated.Comparing the closing credits of a major film feature withthose of a typical video production provides some measure ofthe differences that still exist between the two media. (Trysitting through the closing credits of Pearl Harbor or TheTitanic!). For decades film has enjoyed consistent worldwidestandards. A 16mm film can be broadcast on any of world’sbroadcast systems, regardless of the broadcast standard, and a35mm film can be shown in almost any theater in the world.

Video, on the other hand, has not only progressed throughnumerous tape formats, but there are now a half-dozenincompatible broadcast standards being used in various partsof the world. For producers with an eye on internationaldistribution, film has been the obvious choice for decades.With the move to HDTV, producers have seen in film a way ofcovering all of the bases: having a medium that can be usedwith in any of the SDTV, HDTV world standards. More andmore production is now being shot on 1080/24p video, whichcan be converted to film or any world’s TV standards.

Technical Quality ComparedIt is commonly believed that the quality of 35mm motionpicture film as viewed on television is better than video. If weare talking about the artistic differences, then film has a definiteadvantage for the historical reasons we’ve noted.

But as more and more film-style, video production is beingdone; especially in single-camera HDTV/DTV this gap isdisappearing.Although artistic differences between film and videotape aredifficult to measure, purely technical differences are not. Thisbrings us to the following statement.If production conditions are controlled and if comparisons aremade solely on the basis of technical quality, the best 35mmfilm will be slightly inferior to the best video-assuming thelatest professional-quality video equipment is used and the finalresult is broadcast.As controversial as this statement might be with film people,the reason becomes obvious when the production process foreach medium is traced.

First, it is important to realize that if a signal from a videocamera is recorded on the highest-quality process, no discernibledifference will be noted between the picture coming from thecamera and the picture that is later electronically reproduced.

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With film intended for broadcast the process is far morecomplex. First the image is recorded on negative film. Theoriginal negative film is used to make a master positive, orintermediate print. From the master positive a “dupe’’ (dupli-cate) negative is created; and from that a positive release print ismade. This adds up to a minimum of three generations.At each step things happen: color and quality variations areintroduced by film emulsions and processing, there is a generaloptical degradation of the image, and the inevitable accumula-tion of dirt and scratches on the film surface starts.After all of these steps, the film release print is projected into avideo camera to convert it to an electronic signal-which is wherethe video signal started out in the first place.

To understand the film-video difference we must also bearseveral other factors in mind. Film is capable of resolvingseveral times more detail than standard video. But, since itlooses much of its sharpness in its route from film camera totelevision camera, electronic image enhancement is routinelyused to restore lost sharpness when the film is converted tovideo. Although image enhancement sharpens the overall lookof the film image, subtle details, once lost, cannot be enhancedback into existence.At the same time video is becoming capable of resolving ever-greater levels of fine detail. Eastman Kodak has announced aCCD chip capable of holding 16,777,216 bytes per square inch,which is double the resolution of standard 35mm film.Another company, Foveon, has announced a relatively inexpen-sive CMOS-type chip that is not only capable of the sameresolution as film, but has a tonal scale and brightness rangethat is reportedly equal to film.But the sharpness of video isn’t necessarily a plus. Many peoplethink the slightly softer look associated with film on televisionis actually one of its advantages. The soft ambiance surround-ing the film image is subconsciously if not consciouslyassociated with “Hollywood film making.’’ There are also subtletonal and color changes with film, which while not representingthe true values of the original subject matter, are subconsciouslyassociated with film and it’s historical heritage. .

At the same time the slightly sharper image of video isassociated with news and the live coverage of events, subjectmatter very much in contrast to the normal fare of feature films.So, strangely, we have a bit of a paradox here. People note thatfilm is inherently sharper than video, but, at the same time theylaud the softer image of film. At the same time, we now seesome sophisticated electronic circuitry that can mimic the lookof film - right down to random scratches and specks of dirt!

Coping With Brightness RangesUntil recently, video cameras simply could not handle thebrightness range of film. (Remember the 30:1 brightness rangelimitation of video?)If film exposure is carefully controlled, a bright window in thebackground of a scene, for example, will not adversely affect thereproduction of surrounding tones. With the limited bright-ness range associated with tube-type video cameras the samebright window would significantly darken surrounding tones.

This same problem crops up with consumer and prosumerequipment that rely on automatic exposure circuitry.As a result of early experience with professional tube-basedvideo cameras, many producers concluded that film had a majoradvantage over video. However, when the latest generation ofprofessional CCD cameras are manually setup (as opposed torelying on automatic settings) brightness range capabilities endbeing almost identical to film.

There is also a less obvious difference between film and video.With NTSC television the film-to-video conversion process

requires some technical “fancyfootwork” that results in theintroduction of almostsubliminal effects associatedwith the film image on TV.(Recall that the NTSC standardis used in the U.S., Canada,Japan, and several othercountries.)NTSC video is transmitted at30 frames per-second and filmis recorded at 24 frames per-second. (The machine shownon the left converts film

images to video.) Since there is no nice, neat math associatedwith dividing 30 by 24, the only way to make the conversion isto regularly scan some film frames twice.This results in a subtle high-speed jitter, a type of artifact thathas become associated (if only subconsciously) with the filmimage on TV.

With the SECAM and PAL broadcast standards used in non-NTSC countries the conversion process is easier. Both of thesesystems operate at 25 frames per second-very close to the 24 fpsused in film. Even when projected, the 1 fps difference isalmost impossible to detect. If the film is intended forbroadcast, adjusting the film camera speed to 25 fps is acommon solution. Thus, non-NTSC systems-the systems usedin the majority of countries-have an easier time making thefilm-to-video conversion.Networks such as PBS are now specifying 1080-line HDTV forall of their production work. Even though some of the othernetworks may not broadcast in this format, productionsmastered in 1080-line HDTV can be then be converted to anynumber of formats for broadcast and distribution.

The difference in quality between film and video imagery in still photos was rather decisively decided in a lengthy report in the April, 2003 edition of Photo Electronic Imaging (PEI). In this study numerous enlarged images were compared between a widely used high-quality film emulsion and the images from a professional digital camera. (The film used was the high-resolution Kodak Ektachrome 100 Plus Professional 35mm transparency film; the digital camera was the Canon EOS 1Ds.) In every case, the images from the digital camera were clearly superior. In the minds of many still photographers, the film vs. digital issue has now been settled. However, when it comes to quality differences between motion pictures and video, the issue is still being debated.

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The 1080-line format comes in two versions: interlaced theprogressive. The 1080/24p (1080-line, 24 frame per-second,progressive scanning) is the highest quality, but more technicallydemanding. For this reason, 1080-line broadcasts currently usethe interlaced standard.

Studio Production StandardsSo-called digital cinema or e-cinema (electronic cinematography)is rapidly gaining ground, especially since it is becoming almostimpossible to distinguish between the two when they areprojected in a theater.

Digital cinema seems to be moving toward two HDTVstandards: 24p (24-frameprogressive) and 60i (60-fieldinterlaced). The Sony cameraon the left is capable ofeither of these standards.Those who are after the“film look” prefer 24p,especially since the progres-sive approach results in fewerartifacts (aberrations) andhigher resolution. The 24 fpsspeed is also the same as

film.However, compared to 24p, 60i (30 fps) seems to do a slightlybetter job of tracking motion, which means that zooms andcamera movements-especially when done quickly-appearsmoother. Either of these standards can be converted to film.Digital imaging obviously saves us money, no question,especially in areas where we would normally shoot a lot offilm.... Our crew can shoot more material in the same amountof time, and they can see what they are shooting instantly, inbroadcast quality. Michael Goldman, Millimeter senior editor

Film is Suited to the High-Definition SystemsA major advantage of the film image is associated with the needto convert programming to digital video and HDTV. TheNTSC process limits the old NTSC video images, and trying toconvert them to HDTV or DTV only magnifies the limitationsof the NTSC system.However, productions shot on film can be readily converted tothe higher resolution formats and take full advantage of theincreased resolution. And film originally shot in a wide-screenaspect ratio has an added advantage when converted to the 16:9HDTV aspect ratio.In 1999, theaters experimented with using video projectors forshowing feature films. Not only is there a great cost savingsassociated with this approach, but since material is delivered viaa satellite link, live sporting events, rock concerts, etc. can also befeatured. By 2004, many theaters were equipped to show digital“films.” As video projectors improve even more and costscome down (and the major theater chains get out of the red),we will undoubtedly see even theaters convert to video projec-tion.

However, there is also the view of, “If it’s not broke, don’t fixit.” Since it costs theaters $60,000 to $70,000 to convert theaters

to digital projection, many theater owners feel that since thepresent system “isn’t broke,” there is little reason to spend themoney to change things-especially since profit has been on thedecline for the past five years.

Making Video Look Like FilmIn addition to brightness range issues with film and video,there is also the issue of tonal rendition, or how different tonesand colors will be reproduced. With video this can also be madeto match film. Specifically, the tonal range of video at the top ofthe white range and in the shadow areas is expanded throughthe use of a dynamic contrast circuit. When properly set up,these circuits can handle video in excess of 600% over peakwhite without loss of picture detail, while still retaining detail indark shadow areas.

Directors of Photography in film often resist moving to videoequipment because“everything isdifferent,” and oldhabits and patternsof thinking aredifficult to break.For this reason,video cameramanufactures havemade some of theircameras resemblethe operation offilm cameras. Thevideo camera shown here uses standard 35mm motion picturelenses. This means that directors of (film) photography do nothave to abandon all that they have learned about the lenses.Previously, we mentioned the almost subliminal effect that theNTSC film-to-video process creates. To make video look evenmore like film, even this “double-step” effect (resulting fromthe extra film fields being regularly added) can be electronicallycreated. The first step used in creating a “film look” is throughthe use of filters. We will study filters during lectures on thecamera.Film also has a more color saturated appearance - at least as shotin the United States. With sophisticated video equipment thiscan be simulated by adjusting the color curves in a sophisticatededitor. This can also be addressed in post-production throughby channeling video through programs such as Photoshop,After Effects or Chroma Match. By softening the image tosmudge the digital grid of video, and reducing the contrast, youcan make video look like film-if that’s you goal.

Of course, the question is why would you want to degrade thequality of one medium to match another?Strangely, when people first heard high-fidelity audio, theydidn’t like it. After listening to music and voice for decades onlow quality radio and phonograph speakers, they had becomeused to this as “the standard” in audio quality.The film and video media are inherently different, and possiblythe time has arrived when audiences should adjust to the“different look” of digital video.

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The feature film, 28 Days Later, released in mid-2003, did verywell at the box office and was shot with video equipment.

Single-Camera, Multiple-CameraProduction DifferencesPurely technical considerations aside, the primary underlyingdifference between film and video lies in the way it’s shot.

Film is normally shot in a single-camera style, and video isnormally shot using a multiple-camera production approach. Infilm each scene can be carefully set up, staged, lit, rehearsed, andshot. Generally, a number of takes are made of each scene andthe best one is edited into the final production. As they strivefor perfection in today’s high-budget feature film productions,some directors re-shoot scenes many times before they aresatisfied. (Possibly the record is held by one well-known filmdirector who reportedly shot the same scene 87 times.)Quite in contrast, video is generally shot with several camerascovering several angles simultaneously. Instead of lightingbeing optimized for one camera angle, it must hold up for threeor more camera angles at the same time. This means that it’sgenerally lit in a rather flat manner, which sacrifices dimensionand form. And, with the exception of single-camera produc-tion, multiple takes in video are the exception rather than therule.

Film and Videotape CostsThe minute-for-minute cost of 16mm and 35mm film andprocessing is hundreds of times more than the cost ofbroadcast-quality video recording.

For example, Director of Photography Michael Caporale says,“We’re realizingterrific economiesby shooting withthe 27V [high-definition video

camera]. For Tattered Angel, film stock was a mere $1,500 verses$104,000 for film and processing. Plus...the image quality anddynamic range [of the video] are truly impressive.”And, unlike film, tape is reusable, which results in even greatersavings. But, this can also be a mixed blessing. The tendency atlocal TV stations to reuse videotape means that the record ofmany events is lost when the tape is reused. This sometimespresents a problem when attempts are made to do historicaldocumentaries.By replacing film with videotape and speeding the productionprocess George Lucas saved at least $3-million on the 2002“Attack of the Clones.”-Larry Thorpe, Senior VP, Sony Elec-tronicsOffsetting the savings with video is the initial cost of videoequipment. Depending on levels of sophistication, the initialinvestment in video production and postproduction equip-ment can easily be ten times the cost of film equipment. Thecost of maintaining professional videotape equipment is alsogreater - although this is will be changing somewhat with theadoption of computer disk and solid-state recording.

On the other hand, there is a substantial cost savings in usingvideo for postproduction (special effects, editing, etc.). For these

and other reasons film productions intended for television areroutinely transferred to videotape. This transfer can take place assoon as the film comes out of the film processor.Reversal of the negative film to a positive image, complete withneeded color correction, can be done electronically as the film isbeing transferred to videotape. From this point on all editingand special effects are done by the video process. The negativefilm is then locked away in a film vault and kept in perfectcondition.Even for film productions intended for theatrical release, majortime and cost savings can be realized by stransferring the film tovideotape for editing. Once edited, the videotape is then used asa “blueprint’’ for editing the film.

Will Video Replace Film?So will video soon replace film for primetime TV production?Yes, eventually, just as it will eventually replace film in motionpicture work. The move is well underway.But right now “Hollywood” has a tremendous investment infilm technology. Plus, top creative personnel typically come froma film background. And there is also this:Film often looks better because film people have more experi-ence and understand their medium better. Film shootersunderstand their tools and how to bring out the subtleties.

Videographers must be prepared to learn the language that filmshooters have built over the last 100 years. It’s a language madeup of camera movements, filtering techniques, subtleties offocus, and depth of field. And it’s a language coming into thevideo world through the gateway of high-definition television.-HD pioneer Pierre de Lespinois

Converting Wide-Screen FormatsThe conversion of 16:9 HDTV/DTV images to the standard4:3 aspect ratio is done by production facilities in basically thesame way as the conversion of wide-screen films to NTSCtelevision. (In-set conversion approaches will be covered later.)

Production Facilities use Three ApproachesFirst, the sides of the picture can be cut off. If the originalHDTV/DTV (or wide-screen film) is shot with the narrower4:3 cutoff area in mind, losing the information at the sides ofthe picture may not be a problem. (This would be the area toeither side of the box in the photo below.)The procedure of keeping essential subject matter out of theareas that will be cut off isreferred to as shoot-and-protect. In this photo thiswould mean anything to theleft or right of the red box.Second, the entire produc-tion can go through aprocess called pan-and-scan. This involves a technician reviewingevery scene and programming a computer-controlled imagingdevice to electronically pan the 4:3 window back and forth overthe larger, wide-screen format. This is illustrated above.In the parrot picture cutting off the sides would not be anissue; but, if you had two parrots talking to each other (??)from the far sides of the screen, it might be.

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Finally, if the full HDTV/DTV frame contains importantvisual information (as in thecase of written materialextending to the edges ofthe screen) panning-and-scanning will not work. Inthis case a letterboxapproach is used as shownhere.But, as you can see, there isa problem. It results inblank areas at the top and bottom of the frame. Often,letterbox is reserved for the opening titles and closing credits ofa production, with the remainder of the production beingpanned-and-scanned.Since some directors feel that pan-and-scan introduces pans thatare artificial and not motivated by the action, they may try toinsist that their work be displayed using letterbox conversion.

Originally, producers feared that audiences would object to theblack areas at the top and bottom of the letterbox frame. (Morethan one person who rented a film in the letterbox formatbrought it back to the video store, complaining that somethingwas wrong with the tape.) However, today the letterbox formatis commonly seen and accepted.For short segments of a production there is another way ofhandling the 16:9 to 4:3 aspect ratio difference. You haveprobably seen the opening or closing of a film on televisionhorizontally “squeezed” to accommodate the titles

and credits. The effect is especially noticeable when people are apart of the scene-people who, as a result, suddenly becomerather thin. (Not that all actors would complain!) Compare thetwo images above. Note how the bird in the squeezed 4:3 ratioon the right seems to be thinner than the bird in the image onthe left.

HDTV In-Set Conversion ApproachesHDTV receivers can also (roughly speaking) convert SDTV (4:3)and HDTV (16:9) aspect ratios. There are three options that arebuilt into many HDTV receivers.Zoom - Proportionally expands SDTV (the 4:3 image)horizontally and vertically to fill the 16:9 screen. This eliminatesthe unused blank areas that would normally be seen at theedges of the picture; but, in the process, it also crops off someof the SDTV picture.Stretch - Expands SDTV horizontally to fill the 16:9 screen.This makes objects a bit wider than they would normally be.Combined zoom/stretch - A hybrid of the Zoom and Stretchmodes that minimizes cropping effect of the zoom mode andimage distortion of the stretch mode.Clearly, all of these approaches leaves something to be desired,so today savvy producers originate productions in the 16X9wide-screen format.

Digital CinemaIn November 2000, the film Bounce was released to theaters in

both film and high-defini-tion video versions. Thevideo version was distrib-uted to digitally-equippedtheaters via satellite. Thesetheaters used new high-definition video projectors.The difference between thefilm and video versions wasdifficult for audiences todiscern. Major improve-ments have been made sincethen.

Star Wars: Attack of the Clones, which was projected in itsdigital form in more than 90 theaters around the world, wasshot entirely on 24P video (which we covered earlier). Whereasfilm and processing would cost several million dollars, the costof videotape for this production was only about $15,000.With digital cinema there are also other cost savings. Each yearthe motion picture industry spends almost a billion dollarsduplicating films and distributing them to theaters around theU.S. and the world. Films have limited life; they collect dirt andscratches, and soon have to be replaced. With video this billion-dollar figure can be cut to a fraction of this amount by using acentral satellite location to uplink theatrical releases to theaters asthey are needed.

With so many copies of films being created, pirating (creatingand selling illegal copies) is a constant problem-one that hascost the motion picture industry billions of dollars in lostrevenue. Pirating feature films is far more difficult when they areencrypted and sent directly to theaters via satellite.In addition to cost savings, there are production advantages indigital cinema. After a scene is shot in video, it can be immedi-ately played back and evaluated-even while the actors andproduction personnel are still in position. The hours of delayinvolved in processing and preparing film “rushes” (roughprints for quick screening) does not make this possible. Today,most film directors use video assist, which means scenes aresimultaneously viewed and recorded on video, so they can beimmediately evaluated.Finally, not only are postproduction costs far less with video,but also special effects can be much more easily and inexpen-sively produced.

T here are also advantages for theaters in switching over todigital projection equipment. In addition to showing featurefilms, these theaters can provide patrons with digital feeds oflive concerts, Broadway shows, sporting events, productionsaimed at special audiences, etc.Digital theaters can be operated and maintained with feweremployees, which represents a considerable cost savings overtime. However, offsetting this is the initial investment fordigital projectors and the associated computer-an estimated$60,000 to $120,000 per screen. In 2003, the move to digital

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cinema was primarily being hampered in the U.S. by theprecarious financial position of the major theater chains.Even though both the number of screens and box office ticketrevenues have increased steadily over the past five years, becauseof the high level of debt incurred from building additionalmegaplexes, plus the downturn in the economy, overall revenuefor all four of the biggest theater chains has been dropping.

Notes

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LESSON 4:COMMERCIAL AND PROFESSIONAL VIDEO FORMATS

Consumer Video Formats and PictureCompressionFilm has retained its basic formats for more than 100 years. But,in the last few decades, videotape has progressed through noless than 20 different (and incompatible) formats. Althoughthis may be one of the prices we have to pay for progress, it hasalso added confusion to the video recording process.

In this lecture we’ll talk about consumer videotape equipment.In the next lecture we’ll cover professional equipment although,in recent years the dividing line between these categories hasgotten a bit blurred. Serious hobbyists often select professionalequipment, and consumer equipment often finds its way intoprofessional applications. Most people are familiar with thepopular 8mm and VHS formats. But before these, there wasthe once-popular Betamax format that was introduced by SonyCorporation in 1976. Although it eventually lost out inpopularity to VHS, it was the first consumer format to bewidely accepted for home use. Betamax was finally discontinuedin 2002

VHSThe most successful of all the home videotape formats hasbeen VHS (video homeservice). Although the VHSformat has lasted more than20 years and has spawnedhundreds of thousands ofvideo rental stores aroundthe world, things quicklystarted to change with thedevelopment of DVD.Note from the graph on theright that in 2001 the sale ofDVD hardware and software (movies) surpassed VHS. Therewas a bit of a lag in the rental market, however. As we’ve noted,it wasn’t until 2003 that DVD rentals surpassed those of VHS.

Even so, we’ll probably have VHS tapes around as a videorental format-especially for G- and PG-rated films-until at least2007. The exploded view of a VHS cassette on the left belowshows the two internal reels and the tape path. This basicdesign is used for all cassettes.

Although the technical quality of VHS has been improvedsignificantly since its introduction, when it comes to profes-sional applications, the quality still leaves a lot to be

desired-especially if significant editing and videoeffects are needed. VHS took a step forward inquality when S-VHS (super VHS) was intro-duced. Some news operations started using it asan acquisition format that could be brought backto the production facility and immediatelydubbed (copied) to a higher quality format for

editing. This minimized any subsequent loss in quality due toediting. To reduce the size of camcorders, a smaller version ofthe VHS and S-VHS cassette is also available. VHS-C and S-VHS-C (“C” for compact) are a fraction of the size of thestandard VHS cassette. They were designed to compete withthe small 8mm format used by a large number of consumers.

The symbols for 8mm, Beta, VHS, Super VHS, and VHSCompact are shown at the left.Using S-VHS equipment in news has some major advantages;specifically, the equipment is easier to operate than professionalequipment, it’s lighter in weight, and it’s far less expensive.Since a quality S-VHS camcorder is no “only” about $1,000, andprofessional equipment is at least ten times that amount, it’s tosome degree “expendable.” This is significant in covering newsin third-world countries where some regimes have a habit ofconfiscating reporters’ tapes and equipment in an attempt tocensor things they don’t want the rest of the world didn’tknow about.

Like all of the videotape formats, VHS tapes have a recordlockout provision. Once you break off the small plastic tabshown here, machines will no longer record on the tape. Thismakes it possible to keep important material from beingaccidentally erased.You can restore the record option on a VHS tape by wrapping astrong piece of tape over the tab area, or otherwise filling in thehole created when the original tab was removed. (This is aprocedure that works, although manufacturers do not recom-mend it.)

8mmWhen Betamax (not to be confused with Betacam) didn’t survive, 8mm video was intro-duced. The format in part tried to cash in on the“8mm” designation that had long been ahousehold name in home (film) movies. Infact, Eastman Kodak was one of the originatorsof 8mm video.The reduced size of the 8mm cassette meantthat camcorders could be made even smallerthan VHS camcorders, a feature that attractedpeople who had grown weary of draggingaround their bulky, full-sized VHS camcorders.At about the time that S-VHS was introduced,Sony introduced Hi8, a higher quality version of

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8mm. This is also used as an acquisition format, and underoptimum conditions can produce high quality video.In mid-1999, Sony introduced Digital-8 for the consumermarket. This format not only represented a major improvementin quality, but the digital approach made new camcorder featurespossible.

Digital FormatsDigital video recording has a number of advantages overanalog.• A digital videotape can be copied almost indefinitely without

a loss of quality. This is an important consideration inpostproduction sessions that require numerous generationsof video effects.

• Digital material can be directly uploaded to digital editingsystems without the need of analog-to-digital conversion.

• Error-correction circuitry associated with digital electronicsreduces oreliminates problemssuch as dropouts (tobe discussed inModule 49).• Digitalvideotapes are bettersuited for archival(long-term) storage.

• The technical quality of digital recordings is significantlybetter than typical analog recordings.

At the same time, compared to analog recording, digitalrecording requires far greater amounts of data.This drawing illustrates the ten sequential tape areas (and 10head rotations) that are necessary to record just one video frame.The red and blue areas show the video and audio data regions.

Digital formats are also becoming widely used as acquisitionformats-with impressive results.

Digital Compression

Lossy and Lossless CompressionAll commonly used digital video formats use some level ofvideo compression. They are often divided into lossless andlossy, although there is no clear line between the two categories.With lossless compression there is no difference - or somepeople would say “no discernible difference” - between theoriginal and the compressed data. Thus, no loss in quality.

The problem, however, is that lossless techniques (withminimal compression) are technically quite demanding. Thus,they require expensive equipment.Most video and audiocompression techniques eliminate data to some degree to makerecording and transmission technically easier to achieve. It thenbecomes a matter of how much the data is compressed. Whento the trained eye quality starts to be sacrificed, the term lossycompression is used.To lower the costs as equipment moves from professional toconsumer, more and more compression is used. As data isdiscarded in the compression process, the resulting signal looses

quality, especially during the copying process, which is essentialfor sophisticated editing.

Compression RatiosIf you start out with 100 bits of data and compress it to 50bits, you have a 2:1 compression ratio. If you can reduce theoriginal data to 25 bits, you now have a 4:1 compression ratio.Often, compression ratios aren’t in nice even numbers, but indecimals, as for example, 2.5:1.

You can easily use a 2:1 compression with video withoutnoticing any loss in quality. It’s compressed in such a way thateven the trained eye won’t notice the loss of data.In fact, you can even compress video to 10:1 without noticing asignificant difference-and, in the process, of course, you canrecord the data in 1/10 the space. When you move to 20:1, youstill have an excellent picture; however, the trained eye will noticea slight loss in quality.

Note in the windows and in the face in the photo on the rightbelow the pattern added by compression. Compare that withthe photo on the left that has minimal compression. We’ll lookat another type of compression a little later.As you move to 50:1 and beyond, you can begin to see anoticeable (and objectionable) difference between the originalpicture and the compressed version. This difference is muchmore noticeable in the 300% enlargements in the two photoson the left below.In full motion compressed video, you often see little blocks orsquares appearing in the video, especially during rapid actioninvolving large areas of the picture. Note photo on the rightabove.

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MPEG2 CompressionTop-of-the-line digital camcorders use a “no compromise”digital 4:2:2 format. Although somewhat technical, we often seevideo compression described in these terms, and so it’sprobably important to know that they mean.The first number refers to the luminance or black and white partof the video, and is an expression of the component samplingratio (not the compression ratio). The second two numbersrefer to the sampling ratio of the color components of thevideo signal.This means that 4:4:4 is a pure, uncompromised signal; 4:2:2represents minimal and unnoticed compression; and 4:1:1,which is associated with DV camcorders, involves significantsignal compression-and no, you will not be asked to explain thedetails of these things on a test!

MPEG2 compression is a sophisticated technique that elimi-nates redundant information. This is data between successiveframes that does not change, as well as data “that we won’tmiss” within each picture.Rapidly-changing subject matter such a hockey game is particu-larly taxing for a compression scheme such as MPEG2. In thiscase the discarded data may be necessary to reproduce all of thedetail in the action. It is in this type of subject matter that youare most apt to see artifacts, visible problems caused by thecompression scheme not keeping up with the speed of action.Most consumer camcorders use a 4:1:1 format (such as DV,

DVCAM, DVCPRO, etc.), which depend ona greater level of quality-sacrificing compres-sion. But even at this level of compression,most people will not notice the loss inquality.

MPEG2 discards video information that’s repeated betweensuccessive video frames. That makes sense; why repeat the sameinformation over and over if it does not change? But, thatcreates a problem for video editing.Since MPEG2 compressed video relies on data in adjacentframes, if the video is stopped on a particular frame-as wouldbe the case in editing-critical data will be missing. And, there’sanother problem. Because MPEG2 data must be stored forbrief moments in order for the system to evaluate a sequenceof frames, there’s a slight delay in processing the video. This canbefuddle video editing equipment.It’s possible to process MPEG2 video so it will work in alimited way in editing systems; however, such things as fades,crawls, and wipe effects are not possible. As 2003 came to aclose, MPEG4, an even more sophisticated MPEG type ofcompression was catching on in some applications.

JPEG CompressionEven though higher compression ratios are possible withMJPEG, because of its editing limitations, editors much preferJPEG compression where each video frame is complete andable to stand on its own. Among other things, this makesframe accurate editing possible.

Whereas MPEG2 can create compression ratios of 30:1 withoutappreciably degrading video quality, JPEG compression is

normally about 15:1-although it can vary considerably, depend-ing on the content of the picture.JPEG compression uses a highly sophisticated mathematicalapproach to eliminating (to varying degrees) nonessentialpicture elements. It’s also “scalable,” meaning that you can easilychose to a range of compression ratios.

DV CamcordersMany consumer digital camcorders use DV videocassettes,which are even smaller than a standard audiocassette.One camcorder model is so small it can fit into a shirt pocket.

(Note photo here.)Another model, which issmaller than a paperbackbook, has a 10:1 zoomlens, macro focusing asclose as 1 cm (about ½inch), image stabilization,built in special effects, andwill shoot in both the 4:3and 16:9 aspect ratios.Many of these units nowhave a Fire Wire connec-tion, a high-speed data

connection that allows the output of the camera to be feddirectly into a computer or digital editor.

RAM Recording and Star Trek PredictionsThere have been dozens of approaches to recording dozens ofdifferent audio and video signal configurations. However, inthe amateur, prosumer, and professional areas, all recordingformats seem to be moving to recording and playing back thesame type of MPEG and JPEG compressed data. It’s only theway of storing and playing it back that differs.Ultimately, many feel that this approach to solid-state memoryrecording offers the advantage of speed, small size, and nomoving parts to wear out. Interestingly, it was more than 50years ago that the original Star Trek TV series used the conceptof video and audio recorded on the type of solid-state modulethat we now see being used. Its too bad that GeneRoddenberry the creator of that series, isn’t still around to tellus what the next 50 years will be like!

Smoothing Out the Film-Video DifferenceCompared to film, digital video has its own unique characteris-tics. It can look sharper and colder than film, and exhibitcompression artifacts that many people feel detract from thevideo medium. At the same time, for those who feel thesethings are not desirable, there are a variety of filters available thatcan counteract these effects.

Disk-Based Consumer CamcordersA tape less camcorder was introduced by Hitachi in late 1997.The MPEG Cam, as it’s called, is also about the size of apaperback book and can record up to 20 minutes of video andaudio on a detachable 260 MB hard disk.The output of the disk can be converted and fed to a standardVCR for recording, or the hard disk can be slipped into a

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computer for digital editing. The picture resolution is compa-rable to that of standard VHS.PVR (Personal Video RecordersIn 1999, a new technology was introduced for recording TVprogramming in the home that has a number of importantadvantages over VHS videotapes. PVR, or personal videorecorders, use a high capacity computer hard disk to record up toabout 100 hours of programming.The units make it possible to do instant replays of material andspeed through commercials at 60-times normal speeds makinga 30-second commercial last just 1/2 second. (As commercials inone form or another approach 50% of prime-time program-ming content, many people feel that this feature alone makesthe investment worthwhile.)

Some PVP units can be programmed to automatically recordprogramming that parallels your specific interests. Entering keywords describing your interests does this. When these wordsappear in detailed program descriptions, the units will auto-matically record the program and shut off afterwards.Another model “learns” you preferences in movies over aperiod of weeks and months, and will automatically turn it selfon and record movies that it “thinks” will interest you.As the cost of hard disk storage continues to drop, we willundoubtedly see the audio and videotape media relegated to thehistory section of the museum of broadcasting-and you will beable to tell your children or grandchildren, “I remember backwhen they used to record audio and video on a piece of movingtape!”It was not too long ago that a broadcast quality camcorder was$60,000. Today, digital camcorders that can be used in broadcastapplications cost a fraction of that. This has led to what somehave called the “democratization of the medium.”With the proliferation of public access opportunities on cablechannels and Internet video, the ideas and concerns of manymore people can be expressed and heard.Seeing something is quite different from reading about it.Although an event may take place that can and should elicit apublic outcry of opposition, until it is recorded on video for“all the world to see,” little may be done. Such is the power ofthe video medium.

Professional Video FormatsAlthough there’s arather blurry lineseparating professionaland consumer formats,professionalcamcorders typicallyhave the followingfeatures:• Three CCDs (Consumer formats typically have only one.)

• An audio level meter and the ability to control audio levels(i.e., you are not stuck with an AGC audio circuit).

• Low-impedance, balanced (i.e., professional quality) micinputs

• A jack for headphones so you can monitor audio with high-quality earphones

• Detachable lenses so you can use special purpose lenses, andyou aren’t stuck with whatever zoom lens the manufactureroriginally put on the camera

• A video output for an external video monitor (You andothers can see the video on a large, high-quality monitor.)

• High-quality 4:2:2 digital signal processing (if it’s a digitalformat)

• A dockable camera designs, meaning that the camera can befitted with (attached to) different recording devices.

• Maximized signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, light sensitivity, andresolution, characteristics, and minimized smear (streaksextending around bright areas).

The following formats and camcorders do not feature all ofthese professional niceties-but the more the better.

As you will see, there is a bewildering number of professionalvideotape formats; in fact, some 15 are in common use today.Although this creates many problems with equipment and tapeincompatibility, it also sparks the intense competition betweenmanufacturers that leads to rapid technological improvements.First, it may be helpful to look at this comparison chart on themajor quality differences between some of the more popularconsumer and professional formats. Keep in mind that thegreater the bandwidth (frequency in MHz) of the luminancepart of the signal, and the greater number of horizontal linesof resolution the clearer the video picture will initially appear tobe.

Copying the video will change things. Because of technicaldifferences in the basic signals, Beta SP, for example, will suffermore loss in the copying process than S-VHS.Also keep in mind that on consumer VCRs the faster therecording tape speed, the higher the video quality. Thus, theslower EP or LP recording modes will result in a loss of videoquality.Now, let’s take a look at some of the major professionalrecording formats.

One-Inch, Reel-to-ReelIn an earlier module we mentioned the two-inch tape that

started the whole videorecording process. Afteralmost three decades ofuse, the two-inch quadformat gave way to one-inch tape. Initially therewere “Type A” and “TypeB” versions of the one-

VHS Beta SP S-VHS DVCAM D-1

Luminance in MHz 3.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 5.75

Horizontal Resolution in

TV Lines 240 360 400 440 460

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inch format. But, it was the Type C version that became the nextmajor standard, especially in countries using the NTSC videostandard.With the one-inch Type C format, still-frame, slow- andaccelerated-motion playbacks were possible for the first time.During the 1980s, Type C (shown here) was the dominantformat in broadcasting and production facilities.

Reel-to-Reel Gives Way to CassettesThe first widely used cassette format was 3/4-inch U-Maticintroduced in 1972. Although originally intended as a homeand institutional format, because of its small size, it was soonadapted for broadcast field production in general and electronicnewsgathering (ENG) in particular.However, since its quality was limited to 260 lines of resolution(sharpness), it was never considered a quality productionformat-even after the resolution was later increased to 330 lines.Even so, the 3/4-inch cassetteformat quickly replaced 16mmfilm in TV news.Like all of the cassette tapeformats, 3/4-inch U-Maticcassettes have a record lockoutfunction to keep importantmaterial from being accidentallyerased. When the red button (shown in the photo on theright) is removed, machines will not record on the tape.The missing red button also explains why many people“couldn’t get the recorder to work,” until they found theproblem and snapped in a new button.There were a string of analog formats that followed these twopopular formats, but since we are now in the digital age, we’llskip those and move directly to the professional digital formats

Professional Digital Formats

The “D” FormatsThere have been several successful formats in the “D” line.Sony developed D-1 in 1986. This was the first digital format,and it made possible multi-generation editing without the lossin quality inherent in the analog formats.Although it has been largely replaced by more modern formats,D1 is considered a “no compromise” format where the colorinformation is recorded separately from the luminance. D1 isstill used in specialized postproduction applications wherethere’s a need for extensive postproduction special effects.D-2, introduced by Ampex Corp., quickly followed D-1. Thisformat uses compression. Although there is a slight loss inquality, the format greatly reduces technical demands.Matsushita (Panasonic) introduced D-3 in 1991. Since it uses asmall 1/2-inch tape cassette, this format was used for the firstdigital camcorders.There is no D-4, since the term is similar for “death” in theJapanese language-and by this time almost all of the equipmentwas being manufactured in Japan.Since D-3 wasn’t as successful as Panasonic would have liked,they introduced D-5 in 1993, in part to compete with Sony’spopular digital Betacam.

Because D-5 hasmany technicaladvantages, thisformat made adefinite impact inthe high-endequipment arena.D-5 is compatiblewith D-3. It uses1/2-inch metalparticle tape thatwill record up to 124 minutes on a single cassette.Since D-5 was the first format to rival the “no compromise” D-1 quality, many high-end film transfer, graphics, andcompositing special effects houses have adopted it. D-5 also hasthe advantage of being able to handle demanding HDTVsignals. More on that later.

Philips, BTS, and Toshiba developed D-6 a few years ago, but ithasn’t caught on in abig way. Even thoughthe format handles twomajor HDTV stan-dards and is ano-compromiseformat, it’s veryexpensive to buy andoperate. (For starters,the machine has 32 record-playback heads).D-7, or DVCPRO was Panasonic’s way of moving the advan-tages of the small DV and DVC formats up to a professionallevel.DVCPRO (D-7) uses the same sized tape as DV, but make useof the quality advantages of metal particle tape. (Most of theformats use metal evaporated tape.) Many D-7 camcordersincorporate time-code capabilities.

Even though DVCPRO offers many advantages, professionalsstill wanted more, and soDVCPRO 50 was subse-quently introduced. Whereasthe original DVCPRO used4:1:1 sampling, DVCPRO50 samples at the higher4:2:2 level.Other quality relatedcharacteristics, such asincreased tape speed, were also instituted. DVCPRO 50 alsohandles the 16:9 aspect ratio.One of the advantages of DVCPRO is that the tape cartridgescan be loaded into a special drive on a PC for editing. (Notephoto on the right.) The content of the tape can be transferredto the computer’s hard drive at four times normal speed.

DVCAM, Digital BetacamSony’s DVCAM is a professional adaptation of the DV formatand incorporates many of the same type of improvementsused to bump DV to DVCPRO. DVCAM incorporates the“iLink” (IEEE-1394) connection, which enables recorders to

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plug directly into computer-based editing systems. DVCAMmachines can play back the DV and DVCPRO formats.Sony introduced digital Betacam in 1993 as a digital replacementfor the very popular analogBetacam line, which startedmore than 20 years earlier.The format was based on a1/2-inch tape formatpioneered by companiessuch as Grundig andPhillips. (A Betacamcassette is shown on theleft.)

Although Digital Betacam can’t record Betacam SP tapes, it canplay them back. Digital Betacam can handle the 16:9 format andit can simulate the appearance of popular motion picture filmstocks.In a similar way that users pushed Panasonic to improveDVCPRO by introducing DVCPRO 50, Digital Betacam usershad concerns that prompted Sony to introduce Betacam SX in1996. However, the MPEG-2 compression used with SXrequires special considerations in editing.

Digital-S (D-9)Digital-S, which was later officially accepted by the SMPTEstandards committee to become the D-9 format, was JVCs firstoffering in the professional digital area. Although originallydesigned as an upgrade to S-VHS, because of its advantages, D-9 has now found its way into professional applications.

D-9 has a pre-read function that incorporates the simultaneoususe of separate record and playback heads. This makes itpossible to see (and check) the recorded signal a split-secondafter it’s recorded. In addition, pre-read enables users toplayback a signal, and add titles or effects, and immediatelyrecord the combined effect. Some users can assemble an A/Broll interview “on the fly” with only two D-9 machines, thuseliminating normal editing procedures.

Disk-Based RecordingWe introduced the concept of camcorders that record oninternal computer hard drives earlier. However, at the profes-sional level a number of additional features are incorporatedinto machines.One model, introduced in mid-2003, allows you to record twochannels of video and audio, while simultaneously playing backtwo channels. This makes it possible to do basic editing “in thecamera,” with an almost instant access to needed scenes.

DVD and Solid-State RecordingTwo recording techniques have been introduced that willundoubtedly speed the demise of videotape: blue laser DVDrecording and solid-state memory-based PCMCIA. (PCMCIAare the type of solid-state memory cards that slide into slots incamcorders and computers.)In late 2002, Hitachi introduced a tape less acquisition formatthat records both in solid-state computer RAM and on a DVD.This combination makes it possible to easily record and editprojects in the field.

Sony’s DVD system uses a bluelaser light to record up to 23.3Gbof data on a single 5-inch (12.7cm)DVD camcorder disc. Thistranslates into over an hour ofbroadcast quality audio and video.Like any DVD recording, it’spossible to almost instantly moveto any point in a recording. Therecordable DVDs can be used overand over again.Panasonic introduced P2 professional grade solid-state record-ing in 2004 with their AJ-SPX800 camcorder. It has no movingparts and has slots for up to five, 4 GB flash memory cards torecord 80 minutes of video. (Note photo below on the left.)Once video is recorded, the card can be removed and placed in a

computer for editing. Cards that hold 8and 16 GB of data are planned. This “nomoving parts” approach is highly resistantto environmental problems, such ashumidity and vibration. Plus, it uses farless power than videotape or DVDcamcorders.

There are two more advantages to using solid-state memory:some models allow for playbacks and digital uploading toediting systems at 20X normal speed, and the camcorders can bemade extremely small-so small, in fact,that you can close your hand aroundone consumer model.However, for practical, day-to-dayprofessional use, the professionalversions of solid-state SD cameras aremuch larger about the size of today’svideotape camcorders.Solid-state memory cards have proventhemselves in digital still cameras for a number of years. Theycan be re-recorded up to 100,000 times, which means that theyhave a much longer useful life than videotape or even recordableDVDs.

High-Definition FormatsThe first high-definition digital recorder was Sony’s HDD-1000.It is an uncompressed recorder that uses 1-inch, open reel tape(which, incidentally, cost $1,500 for a one-hour reel). Notunexpectedly, perhaps, these machines weren’t big sellers, andthey were soon replaced by HDCAM.We previously mentioned the D-6 format, so we’ll move ontoD-5HD, which as you might guess, is an HDTV version ofPanasonic’s D-5line. These D-5machines can berecord HDTVsignals in eitherthe 720p or 1080iline resolutions.Likewise, theDVCPROHD is

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an upgraded version of DVCPRO. However, the tape speed hasbeen increased to four-times that of DVCPRO, which give yousome idea of the extra demands on all of these machines tohandle HDTV signals.Two HDTV cameras were recently introduced that are onopposite ends of the consumer-professional spectrum.In late 2003, JVC introduced the first consumer HDTV camera,the GR-HD1. It uses mini-DV tapes. The camcorder costsabout $3,500, or a fraction of what today’s professional HDTVcameras cost. The camcorder comes with editing software andbrings superior quality HDTV images within the reach of manyconsumers and small production facilities.

At the other end of the HDTV price-quality continuum is acamera made by DALSA that produces pictures with four timesthe resolution associated with the best 2003 HDTV camerastandards. Instead of using the 2/3-inch chip that’s commonto most professional video cameras, this camera uses a chipwith image area many times greater - roughly the size of a35mm motion picture image. This has many advantages,including the ability to use standard motion picture cameralenses. This camera may eventually find a home in the motionpicture industry.

Error-Correction CircuitryAll of the formats we’ve discussed have to cope with thepossibly of momentarily interruptions in the flow of data asthe tapes are recorded and played back. It’s easy to see why suchinterruptions can occur.A signal is recorded on the videotape in a data area the width of

a human hair. The read-write heads spin acrossthese areas at a speed ofabout 9,000 rpm (revolu-tions per minute). In ananalog recording a smalldust particle on the tape oran imperfection in the tapecan cause dropouts (the

momentary glitches shown here).

A momentary head-to-tape separation of only four microns(which is 1/20th the size of a human hair) can cause a tapedropout. A speck of dirt or even a smoke particle from acigarette is at least this size.To try to compensate for these problems, professional digitalmachines incorporate error correction circuitry. Simply put, thesecircuits keep track of the mathematical sums of the 0s and 1s ineach block of digital data. If “things don’t add up,” thesecircuits substitute appropriate digital numbers (data).If a large block of data is corrupted, the circuitry will substitutedata from previous data blocks. Taken to the extreme, if youlose a complete video frame, you will see the last good videoframe frozen on the screen as the digital circuits keep using thepreviously uncorrupted data while awaiting uncorrupted data.T he graph below summarizes the most popular video formatsused for storage. Note that video servers are now the secondmost popular format. In the next few years we will undoubt-edly see even more reliance on servers, plus, we’ll probably see

computer disks, and DVD and RAM take hold as recordingmedia.

Unit Learning ObjectivesOn completion of this unit a student must be able to:• Understand the evolution of TV from the origins to

contemporary times• Comprehend the rapid growth of the medium in recent

times• Look ahead into the future direction TV will take• Relate and integrate the Internet and TV Production

Notes

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UNIT 2THE TOOLS AND MECHANICS OF

PRODUCTIONLESSON 5:

SOUND FOR TELEVISION

Background: The Nature of Sound

AM, FM Waves and SoundTo understand some of the concepts, as well as some of the

strange things that happen in televisionsound, we first need to take a look at howradio works.First, let’s look at the AM radio band (groupof frequencies). AM stands for amplitudemodulation. AM radio ranges from 535 to1705kHz (kilohertz, or thousands of cyclesper-second of electromagnetic energy). Theseare the numbers you see on your AM radiodial, and that stations constantly repeatwhen they promote themselves.Note in the illustration below that AM radiowaves are of a lower frequency than eitherFM radio or TV waves. Thus, as we will see,

after being transmitted, they will behave differently.

Stations can theoretically be placed every 10kHz, along the AMband. This means that there are a total of 117 differentchannels available for AM radio stations.If it all stopped there, things would be rather simple; but,unfortunately, a lot of other factors come into play. First, youcan’t put stations on the same frequency that are too closetogether in a geographic area. They will interfere with each other.And within an area you can’t have two stations close together infrequency (too close to each other on the radio dial). So theseare the first things that limit the number of radio stations in anarea. The good news is that since the signals of stations tend tobe limited in their range, you can use some of the frequenciesmany times-as long as the stations are far enough apartgeographically. This is why you can have thousands of AMradio stations, although only 117 different frequencies aretechnically available.How far an AM station’s signal travels depends on such thingsas the station’s frequency (channel), the power of the transmit-ter in watts, the nature of the transmitting antenna, howconductive the soil is around the antenna (damp soil is good;sand and rocks aren’t), and, a thing called ionospheric refraction.(The ionosphere is a layer of heavily charged ion moleculesabove the earth’s atmosphere.)

Are you still there?Ionospheric refraction is a very big issue, since AM radio wavescan end up hundreds and even thousands of miles away, and inthe process interfere with all other stations on the samefrequency.Here’s how that works.

Note that for AM radio stations the ground wave doesn’t govery far. This means numerous stations can be put on the samefrequency without interfering with each other-assuming they arefar enough apart. (Keep in mind that this drawing can’t beanywhere near close to scale and show these things). Theproblem arises-if you want to see it as a problem-with the skywave, which can end up in other states and provinces, or even inother countries. The ionosphere is much more effective inreflecting these radio waves at night. That’s why at sunset mostAM radio stations in the world have to:• reduce power• directionalize their signal (send it more in some directions

than others), or• go off the air (sign off until sunrise of the next day)This may explain why your favorite AM radio station goes offthe air at sunset, or becomes much harder to hear (because ofreduced power).

FM and TV WavesFM (frequency modulated) radio and TV waves don’t’ act in thesame way as AM radio waves. For starters, they are on a higherfrequency in the RF spectrum. (The name RF, for radiofrequency, was obviously named for radio, but when TV camealong they just stuck with the name).The FM radio band goes from 88 to 108 MHz (megahertz, ormillions of cycles per second). Again, you can see these num-bers on your FM radio dial. FM stations must be 200kHz apartat these frequencies, which mean that there’s room for 200 FMstations on the FM band. But, unlike AM radio stations, FMstations don’t end up being assigned frequencies with niceround numbers like 820 or 1240. Thus, an FM station may beat 98.6 on the dial. You may have noticed that FM stationsdon’t reduce power or sign off the air at sunset. That’s because

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ionospheric refraction doesn’t appreciably affect FM or TVsignals.

For the most part, FM and TV signals are line-of-sight.Although this means that FM stations don’t interfere with eachother, this characteristic creates a couple of other problems.First, these waves go in a straight line and don’t bend aroundthe earth as AM ground waves do. They quickly disappear intospace-which may be fine if you are sitting on Mars trying tolisten to your FM radio.If not, then the farther away from the FM or TV station youare, the higher you have to have an antenna to receive the FM orTV signal. Note that the earth is round-we hope this doesn’tcome as a shock to anyone-and, therefore, these signals willliterally leave the earth after 50 miles or so.

And, there’s another problem. Since FM and TV signals areline-of-sight, they can be stopped or reflected by things likemountains and buildings. In the case of solid objects likebuildings, reflections create ghost images in TV pictures andthat “swishing sound” when you listen to FM radio whiledriving around tall structures.Of course, the higher the FM or TV transmitter antennas arethe greater area they will cover-which explains why theseantennas are commonly very tall, or placed on the top ofmountains. AM radio doesn’t need that kind of advantage,since, as we’ve seen, AM radio waves don’t behave in the sameway.Note also from the drawing above that FM and TV signals gothrough the ionosphere rather than being refracted form it.Again, this means that no matter what the station’s power, it’ssignal will at some point leave the earth.

Basic Differences Between AM and FMWe need to mention a couple of other things before we leave

the discussion of how radio works.We’ve talked about AM and FM radio,but we really haven’t explained the realdifference.In fact, there is a lot of difference-andnot just a difference in the stationnumbers on your radio dial.The term modulation refers to howsound is transported through the air ona radio wave called a carrier wave; or,more accurately, how the sound affectsthe carrier wave so that the originalsound can later be detected by a radioreceiver.

In the drawing on the left the RF energy (carrier wave) is notmodulated by any sound. There would be silence on your radioreceiver.Sound transmitted by an AM radio station affects the carrierwave by changing the amplitude (height) of the carrier wave.Unfortunately, this type of modulation is subject to staticinterference from such things as household appliances-andespecially from lightening storms.AM also limits the loud-to-soft range of sounds that can bereproduced (called dynamic range) and the high-to-low soundfrequency range (called frequency response).

FM radio, which came along in the 1930s, uses a differentapproach than AM. It’s virtually immune to any type of externalinterference, it has a greater dynamic range, and it can handlesounds of higher and lower frequencies. This is why music,with its much greater frequency range than the human voice,sounds better on FM radio.Note above that when the carrier wave of FM radio is modu-lated with sound, that the distance between the waves, or thefrequency of the carrier wave, changes.Thus, AM radio works by changing the amplitude of the carrierwave and FM radio works by changing the frequency of thecarrier wave.Frequency ResponseFrequency relates to the basic pitch of asound-how high or low it is. A frequency of 20 Hz wouldsound like an extremely low-pitched note on a pipe organalmost a rumble.At the other end of the scale, 20,000 Hzwould be the highest pitched sound that can be imagined, evenhigher than the highest note on a violin or piccolo.As we’venoted, frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second(CPS). A person with exceptionally good hearing will be able tohear sounds from 20-20,000 Hz.Since both ends of the 20-20,000Hz range represent rather extreme limits, the morecommon range used for FM radio and TV is from 50 to 15,000Hz. (AM radio falls significantly short of this range.)Althoughthe 50-15,000 Hz doesn’t quite cover the full range that can beheard by people with good hearing, it covers almost all naturallyoccurring sounds. Note in the drawing above that the ear doesnot hear all frequencies of sound at the same loudness, but agood microphone does.The sound level or amplitude of soundin radio and TV stations is monitored and adjusted with thehelp of a volume units meter (VU meter) meter. One model isshown on the left. Audio levels must be carefully controlled inbroadcasting to keep noise and distortion from reducing thequality of sound. More information on this can be foundhere.In the next module we’ll get back to the development ofradio during the period called “The Golden Age of Radio.”

Television Sound: The BasicsUntil rather recently, far more attention was paid to video intelevision than to audio. “Good sound” was when you couldmake out what was being said; “bad sound” was when youcouldn’t.This has changed. With the advent of stereo, surround-sound,and now digital audio with its multiple sound tracks, audienceshave much greater expectations. But before we can discuss some

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of the basic audio production concepts, let’s understand theway sound behaves.Sound has two basic characteristics that must be controlled:loudness and frequency.

LoudnessAlthough sound loudness is measured in decibels (dBs ), thatterm actually refers to two different things. First is dBSPL (forsound pressure loudness), which is a measure of acousticpower. These are sounds we can directly hear with our ears.These decibels go to, and beyond, 135, which is considered thethreshold of pain; and, by the way, the point at which perma-nent ear damage can occur. (The damage, which is irreversible,often goes unnoticed, which probably explains why the average50-year-old in some countries has better hearing than manyteenagers in the United States.)If your ears “ring” after being around a loud sound, thisshould be a warning sign that you have crossed the thresholdof potential hearing damage. Musicians who must be aroundhigh-level sound use Musician’s Plugs-special earplugs thatattenuate sound level without distorting the frequency range.Various sound pressure decibel levels (in dBSPL’s) are shownbelow.

The second use of the term decibel, dBm (for the milliwattreference level) is a unit of electrical power. These decibels aredisplayed on loudness meters. In audio production we areprimarily interested in dBm, which represents levels of electricalpower going through various pieces of audio equipment.Two types of VU meters for measuring the loudness of sound

are in wide use: the digital type and the analogtype.Below are three examples of digital meters. Thescale on the left side of the large drawing showsmodulation percent (percentage of a maximumsignal), and the scale on the right is in dB’s.Contrary to what logic might dictate, 0dBm(generally just designated dB on a VU meter) isnot “zero sound” but, in a sense, the opposite,the maximum desirable sound level. (Okay,granted, that’s a bit confusing, but, then again,we didn’t make up this system!)

The 0dB point on the meter is just a referencepoint. Therefore, it’s possible to have a soundlevel on the meter that registers in negative dBs,

Sound dBs Jet Aircraft Taking Off 140-150 Rock Concert / Gunshots 135-140 Jackhammer at 15 meters / Subway 85-90 Average City Street / Restaurant 70- 75 Quiet Conversation / Phone Dial Tone 60-80 Office Environment 45 Whisper at 3 meters (10 feet) 30 "Silent" TV Studio 20

just as it’s possible to have a temperature of -10 degreesCentigrade or Fahrenheit.

The VU meter on the right is the traditional analog meter thathas been around in one form or another since the dawn ofradio. Although easy to read,most versions do not accuratelyrespond to short bursts of loudsound.

The dB level going throughaudio equipment must becarefully controlled. If the signalis allowed to pass throughequipment at too low a level,noise can be introduced when the level is later increased to anormal amplitude (audio level).

If the level is too high (significantly above 0 dB orinto the red areas on the VU meter), distortion willresult-especially with digital audio. To ensure audioquality, you must pay constant attention to maintain-

ing proper audio levels. The meter shown here indicates asound level that is a bit too high. Ideally, the needle should notgo deeply into the red area too often.

FrequencyFrequency relates to the basic pitch of a sound-how high or lowit is. A frequency of 20 Hz would sound like an extremely low-pitched note on a pipe organ-almost a rumble. At the other endof the scale, 20,000 Hz would be the highest pitched soundthat most people can perceive, even higher than the highest noteon a violin or piccolo.

Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second (CPS).A person with exceptionally good hearing will be able to hearsounds from 20-20,000 Hz. (Generally, women can hear higherfrequencies than men). Since both ends of the 20-20,000Hzrange represent rather extreme limits, the more common rangeused for television production is from 50 to 15,000 Hz.Although it doesn’t quite cover the full range that can beperceived by people with good hearing, this range does coveralmost all naturally occurring sounds.

The Frequency-Loudness RelationshipEven though sounds of different frequencies may technically beequal in loudness (registerthe same on a VU meter),human hearing does notperceive them as being ofequal strength. The lowerline on the graph(roughly) shows thefrequency response of thehuman ear to differentfrequencies. Because of the reduced sensitivity of the ear to

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both high and low frequencies, these sounds must be louder tobe perceived as being equal to other frequencies. You’ll note thata good-quality microphone (the upper line) is relatively “flat” inthe all-important 50-15,000 Hz. range.

Listening ConditionsEquipment and listening conditions also greatly affect howdifferent frequencies will be perceived. To compensate for someof these problems, we can adjust bass and treble controls of

playback equipment.

More sophisticatedequipment will includea graphic equalizer,which goes a stepfurther and allowsspecific bands offrequencies to beindividually adjusted

for loudness. A graphic equalizer may be necessary to matchaudio segments recorded under different conditions, or simplyto customize audio playback to the acoustics of a specificlistening area. Note that the graphic equalizer shown here cancontrol nine specific frequency areas.Any piece of audio equipment-microphone, amplifier, recorder,or audio speaker-can adversely affect the fidelity of sound.However, it’s the microphone (the initial device that transducessound waves into electrical energy) and the audio speaker (thedevice that changes electrical energy back into sound waves) thatrepresent the weakest links in audio quality.To some degree it’s possible to use graphic equalizers and otheraudio equipment to “clean up” the frequency response of apoor microphone. However, even the most sophisticated audiotechniques can’t work miracles. Thus, the better the originalaudio signal, the better the final product will be.

Room AcousticsSound, both as it’s recorded and played back, is more affected bythe acoustics of a room or studio than most people realize.

In an effort to create totally sound-proof studios, early radio stationsused to use thick carpets on thefloors and heavy soundproofing onthe walls. Although possiblysuccessful as soundproofing, theresult was a lifeless and dead effectthat we’re not used to hearing in a

normal environment, such as in our living rooms. Two typesof soundproofing material are shown on the left.At the other extreme is a room with a tile floor and hard,parallel walls that reflect sound. The result is reverberation (aslight echo) that interferes with the intelligibility of speech. Theideal room for recording or listening to sound has just enoughreverberation to sound realistic - similar to your living roompossibly - but not enough to reduce the intelligibility of speech.

Microphones: Part I

Major Microphone DesignsThere are six common microphone designs:• hand held - the type held by on-camera talent or used for on-

location interviews• personal mic (lavaliere / clip-on mic) - Whether hung from a

cord around the neck or clipped to clothing, these are allreferred to as personal mics.

• shotgun- used for on-location production to pick up soundsa moderate distance from the camera

• boundary effect microphone - also called PZ or PZM micsThese rely primarily on reflected sounds from a hard surface,such as a table top

• contact mics - which pick up sound by being in direct physicalcontact with the sound source. These mics are generallymounted on musical instruments.

• studio microphones- the largest category of microphone.These include a number of application designs that we’lldiscuss.

These six categories include different transducer types, orapproaches to converting sound waves into electrical energy.We’ll now discuss the most popular types of mics and theircharacteristics, starting with...

Dynamic MicrophonesThe dynamic mic (also called a moving-coil microphone) is

considered the most ruggedprofessional microphone. Thistype of mic is a good choice forelectronic newsgathering(ENG) work, where a widevariety of difficult conditionsare regularly encountered (suchas this ENG report on a fire).In a dynamic microphonesound waves hit a diaphragm

attached to a coil of fine wire. The coil is suspended in themagnetic field of a permanent magnet. When sound waves hitthe diaphragm they move the coil of wire within the magneticfield. As a result, a small electrical current is generated that

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corresponds to the original sound waves. This signal must beamplified thousands of times.When small size, optimum sensitivity, and the best quality areall prime considerations, another type of mic, the condensermic, is often preferred.

Condenser/Capacitor MicrophonesCondenser microphones (also called capacitor or electretcondenser mics) are capable of topnotch audio quality. Asshown on the left, they can be made so small that they arealmost invisible. (But, the smaller they are, the more expensivethey tend to be!) Condenser mics aren’t as rugged as dynamic

mics, and problems can resultwhen they are used in adverseweather conditions.Condenser mics work on theprinciple that governs an electriccondenser or capacitor. An ultra-thin metal diaphragm is stretchedtightly above a piece of flat metalor ceramic. In most condensermics a power source maintains an

electrical charge between the elements.Sound waves hitting the diaphragm cause fluctuations in anelectrical charge, which then must be greatly amplified by apreamplifier (pre-amp). The pre-amp can be located within themicrophone housing or in an outboard electronic pack.Although most pre-amps output an analog signal, some of thenewer models convert the output to digital. Because they requirea pre-amp, this means that, unlike the dynamic mics discussedearlier, most condenser mics require a source of power, eitherfrom an AC power supply or from batteries.An AC power supply for a condenser mic is sometimes builtinto an audio mixer or audio board. This is referred to as aphantom power supply. When this type of power supply isused, the mic cord ends up serving two functions: it delivers thesignal from the mic to the mixer and it carries power from themixer to the pre-amp of the condenser mic. Of course, usingbatteries to power the pre-amp of the condenser mic is moreconvenient-you don’t have to use a special mixer or audio boardconnected to an AC power source. But, battery-poweredcondenser mics introduce a problem of their own: at the end oftheir life cycle the batteries can go out without warning. To getaround any unexpected problems, especially on importantproductions, two miniature condenser mics are often usedtogether. If one mic goes out, the other can immediately beswitched on.

Summary of Dynamic and Condenser Mic Pros andCons

Dynamic Mic Advantages Condenser Mic Advantages Rugged More Sensitive

Lower Cost Better Audio Quality No Power Required Can Be Extremely Small

Dynamic Mic Disadvantages Condenser Mic Disadvantages

Lower Sensitivity and Power Output Higher self-noise Larger and Heavier More Fragile

Slower Response Time More Expensive Not the Best Choice for Maximum

Audio Quality Prone to Weather Problems and RF

Interference

Ribbon MicsExcept possibly for an announce booth (shown here), ribbon

mics are seldom used inTV production.Although they canimpart a deep, resonant“coloring” to sound,they are fragile andhighly sensitive tomoving air. Thisprecludes their use

outside the studio and on most booms-which covers most TVproduction applications. Ribbon mics were primary used inradio studios.

Boundary Effect MicsPZ (sometimes abbreviated PZM) stands for sound pressuremicrophone, which comes under the heading of a boundaryeffect microphone. This mic relies entirely on reflected sound.In specific situations, such as when placed on a tabletop, a PZmic will provide a pickup that’s superior to that of other typesof mics.

Contact MicsAs the name suggests, contact mics pick up sound by being indirect physical contact with the sound source. These mics aregenerally mounted on musicalinstruments, such as thesurface of an acoustic bass, thesounding board of a piano, ornear the bridge of a violin.

Contact mics have theadvantage of being able toeliminate interfering externalsounds and not being influenced by sound reflections fromnearby objects. Their flat sides distinguish them in appearancefrom small personal mics.

Directional CharacteristicsMicrophones have a particular attribute: their directionalcharacteristics, or, you might say, the angle of view that they“hear.”In microphones there arethree basic directionalcategories:• omnidirectional• bi-directional• unidirectional

Omnidirectional MicsOmnidirectional mics (also called nondirectional mics) are (moreor less) equally sensitive to sounds coming from all directions.Although this attribute would have advantages in radio whereseveral people could stand or be seated around a single micro-phone, in video production it’s almost always more desirable touse some form of directional mic. For one thing, this willreduce or eliminate unwanted sounds (behind-the-cameranoise, ambient on-location noise, etc.) while maximizing soundcoming from talent.

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Bi-directional MicsIn a bi-directional sensitivity pattern (bipolar pattern) the mic isprimarily responsive to sounds from two directions. Notedrawing above. Although commonly used in radio interviewsfor people sitting across from each other at a table, for example,until the advent of stereo, bi-directional (also called figure eight)sensitivity patterns had limited use in television. We’ll get intostereo and the need for this type of directional pattern in a latermodule.

Unidirectional MicsThe term unidirectional simply refers to a general classificationof mics that are sensitive to sounds coming primarily from onedirection. There are four subdivisions in this category—eachbeing a bit more directional:• cardioid• supercardioid

• hypercardioid• parabolicAlthough these terms may sound as if they belong in a medicaltextbook, they simply refer to how narrow the mic’s pickuppattern (“angle of view”) is.

CardioidThe cardioid (pronounced car-dee-oid) pattern is named after asensitivity pattern that vaguely resembles a heart shape. Thedrawing here is ahighly simplifieddepiction of threedirectional patterns.

Mics using acardioid pattern aresensitive to soundsover a wide range infront of the mic,but relativelyinsensitive to sounds coming from behind the mic.Although this pattern might be useful for picking up a choir ina studio, the width of a cardioid pattern is too great for mostTV applications. When placed two or more meters (7 or morefeet) from a speaker, it tends to pick up unwanted, surroundingsound, including reverberation from walls.

SupercardioidThe supercardioid is even more directional than the cardioidsensitivity pattern. Whereas the cardioid has about an 180-degree angle of acceptance, the supercardioid has about160-degrees of coverage. When this type of mic is pointedtoward a sound source, interfering (off-axis) sounds tend to berejected.This polar pattern is similar to that of our ears as we turn ourhead toward a sound we want to hear and try to ignoreinterfering sounds.

Hypercardioid and LobarEven more directional are the hypercardioid and lobar patternswith 140-degrees of coverage. Off-axis sounds will be largelyrejected, and they have to be accurately pointed toward sound

sources. Some highly directional shotgun mics (below) areincluded in the hypercardioid category.

Shotgun MicsSo called shotgun mics with their hypercardioid or or narrowerangles of acceptance are one of the most widely used types ofmics for on-location video work. Since they are quite directional,they provide good pickup when used at a distance of 2 to 4meters (7-13 feet) from the talent. Like other types of direc-tional microphones, they tend to reject sound that wouldinterfere with the on-camera talent.

The drawing below shows another way basic microphonesensitivity patterns (polar patterns) can be visualized. The lightblue arrows represent the direction the mics are pointed. A topview is shown for the bi-directional mic. The blue areasrepresent the areas of maximum sensitivity.

Parabolic MicsParabolic mics represent the most highly directional type of micapplication. This category refers more to how a microphone isused than to a type of micor its basic directionalpattern.

It’s the parabolic reflectorthat creates the polar patternfor this mic, not the micitself. In fact, the mic usedin the focus (center) of theparabola can be any generalcardioid or supercardioidmic.The parabolic reflector can be from 30 cm to 1 meter (1 to 3 feet)in diameter. Because of the parabolic shape of the reflector, allthe sounds along a very narrow angle of acceptance will bedirected into the microphone.Parabolic microphones can pick up sound at distances of morethan 60 meters (200 or more feet). These mics are not a practicalchoice for general field production work, but they are often usedin sports.

Microphones: Part II

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Handheld MicrophonesHandheld mics are often dynamic mics because they are good athandling momentary sound overloads. Although they are calledhandheld, the term is a bit of a misnomer, because this type ofmic is often mounted on a microphone stand.Because these mics are often used at close distances, somespecial considerations should be mentioned. First, it’s best ifthe mic is tilted at about a 30-degree angle (as shown here) andnot held perpendicular to the mouth.Speaking or singing directly into amic often creates unwanted sibilance(an exaggeration and distortion ofhigh-frequency “S” sounds), popsfrom explosive sounds (words withinitial “p’s,” and “b’s”), and anundesirable proximity effect (anexaggeration of low frequencies, tobe discussed in more detailed later.)

Most handheld mics are designedfor use at a distance of about 20-40cm (8 to 16 inches), but thisdistance may have to be reduced in high-noise situations. Popfilters, which are designed to reduce the pops from plosivesounds, are built into many handheld mics.When a mic is used at close range, it’s also wise to slip awindscreen over the end of the mic to further reduce the effectof plosive speech sounds. In addition to reducing the effect ofplosives, windscreens can eliminate a major on-location soundproblem: the effect of wind moving across the grille of typicalmicrophones. Even a soft breeze can create a turbulence that candrown out a voice.

The windscreens shown above are typically used over the end ofhand-held dynamic mics when they are used outside. Theelaborate windscreen housing shown above on the right is usedwith highly directional mics in the field. Often, this type of micis attached to a “fish pole” and pointed toward the talent, justout of camera range.

Positioning Handheld MicsWhen a handheld mic is shared between two people, audio leveldifferences can be avoided by holding the mic closer to theperson with the weaker voice. Inexperienced interviewers have atendency to hold the mic closer to themselves. The resultingproblem is compounded when the announcer has a strong,confident voice, and the person being interviewed is somewhattimidly replying to questions.

Personal MicrophonesPersonal mics are either hung from a cord around the neck (alavaliere or lav mic) or clipped to clothing (a clip-on mic).

This type of mic can be either acondenser or dynamic mic. As wesaw in the last module condenser-type personal mics can be madequite small and unobtrusive-animportant consideration when-ever there is a need to conceal amicrophone.When attaching a personal mic, itshould not be placed near jewelryor decorative pins. When thetalent moves, the mic can brushagainst the jewelry creatingdistracting noise. Beads, which have tendency to move around

quite a bit, have ruined many audiopickups.Personal mics are designed to pick upsounds from about 35cm (14 inches)away. If a personal clip-on mic is attachedto a coat lapel or to one side of a dress,you will need to anticipate which directionthe talent’s head will turn when speaking.

If a person turns away from the mic, the distance from mouthto mic be increased to 50cm (almost 2 feet), plus, the person’svoice is being projected away from the mic.

Hiding Personal Mics Under ClothingOften, these mics are hidden under clothes. However, great caremust be taken in securing the mic, because annoying contactnoise can be generated when the talent moves and the clothingrubs against the mic. Noise can even result from rubbingagainst the first 10 cm (inches) or so of the mic cord.To keep this from happening, all three elements need to beimmobilized in some way. Sandwiching the mic between twosticky layers of cloth camera tape or gaffer’s tape, and securingthe tape to both the clothing and the mic can often do this. Ifsheer or easily damaged clothing is involved, it may be necessaryto attach the lavaliere to the talent’s skin. A medical surgical tapeshould be used against skin.A strain relief should also be considered in case the talent stepson their mic cord, or it becomes caught in some object as theymove. A strain relief is any provision that stops the mic frombeing pulled away when the cable encounters tension. Other-wise, the secured mic can be abruptly pulled out of place, which,if the mic happens to be taped tightly to the skin, might resultin the utterance of some non-broadcast terms! There arevarious approaches to devising a strain relief. You can have thetalent loosely loop the mic cord to a leather belt or a belt loop.You can coil the cord into a couple of loops and then attachthat to clothing below the mic, or if one of the talent’s handsare free, you can just have them hold on to the mic cord as theywalk.

Mic cords are generally not long enough to reach a camera or thestudio audio connection box-and that’s just as well. Generally,after you attach a lav or personal mic to talent, they need to befree to walk around until they are ready to go on camera.

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This is possible if their mic cable is only plugged into thenecessary extension cable shortly before they are to go oncamera. In fact, with the help of a floor director, more than oneperson can plug into the same extension cable at different times.Assuming you’ve already checked and made a record of theaudio levels for each person, this can simplify the audio process.

Forced PerceptionFinally, when some hidden personal mics are used, the proxim-ity of the mic to the person’s head can result in a unnaturalsound-and kind of sterile sound that’s not what you wouldexpect in a typical room. If you like technical terms, this is calledforced perception.

Sometimes it helps to attach the mic at a lower point on thetalent to allow it to pick up a bit of reverberation from theroom. If several people are using a RF mic in the same room, abetter solution is to use all mics as close as possible, but use aboom mic to record a bit of live “room tone,” which can thenbe mixed into all of the audio pickups at a very low level.

Headset MicsThe headset mic was developed to serve the needs of sportscommentators. Normally, a mic with a built in pop-filter isused. (Note photo on the left below.) The padded doubleearphones carry two separate signals: the program audio and thedirector’s cues. Having the mic built into the headset assures aconstant mic-to-mouth distance-even when the announcermoves from place to place. Performers at rock concerts often usea much smaller and less conspicuous version of this (photo onthe right, below).

Proximity Effects QuestionWhy is it that even with your eyes closed you can tell if a personspeaking to you is 20 centimeters or 5 meters (6 inches or 16feet) away? The first thought might be that the voice of aperson 20cm away would be louder than if the person were 5meters away. That’s part of the answer; but if you think aboutit, there’s more to it than that. You might want to say that thevoice of a person that’s close to you “just sounds different”than a person who is farther away. This “just sounds different”element becomes highly significant when you try to start editingscenes together. Getting the audio in scenes to flow togetherwithout noticeable (and annoying) changes, takes an under-standing of how sound is altered with distance. Soundtraveling over a distance loses low frequencies (bass) and, to alesser extent, the higher frequencies (treble). Conversely,microphones used at a close distance normally create what is

called a proximity effect-exaggerated low-frequency response.Some mics even have “low cut” filters to reduce unnatural lowfrequencies when the mics are used at close distances. Whendirectional microphones are used at different distances, thesound perspective or audio presence (the balance of audiofrequencies and other acoustical characteristics) will change witheach change in microphone distance. In addition, different typesof microphones and different locations (room conditions, orwhatever) have different audio characteristics that can complicatethe audio editing process. It’s possible to correct for thesethings to some degree during the audio postproductionsweetening phase, where various audio embellishments areadded. During this phase such things as graphic equalizers areused to try to match the audio between successive scenes.However, an exact match may be impossible. It’s far easier justto keep in mind (and avoid) the proximity effect problems thatwill be introduced whenever you use microphones at differentdistances. These differences will vary, depending on the acousticsof the location.Mic Connectors.To insure reliability, mic and general audio connectors mustalways be kept clean, dry, and well aligned, without bent pins orloose pin connectors. The two connectors on the left of thisphoto are female and male Canon or XLR connectors. Thesethree-pin connectors are used in professional audio applications.To the right of the Canon connectors are the mono and stereo(with the floating center connector) miniature connectors.Finally, on the right of these is the RCA-type connector, whichis common to most home entertainment equipment.Mostconsumer and prosumer camcorders have miniature stereoconnectors. Since professional microphones have male XLRconnectors, an adapter is needed. The simplest solution is an in-line adapter at either end of the microphone cable.A moreversatile approach is the connector box shown on the left, whichhas XLR plugs and volume controls for multiple mics. Thisadapter box can be attached permanently to the bottom of acamcorder.When used on location, audio connectors must bekept dry. However, mic cables can be strung across wet grass, oreven through water, without ill effects-assuming the rubbercovering has not been damaged. If you must work in rain orsnow in the field, moisture can be sealed out of audio connec-tors by wrapping them with plastic electrical tape. It should beemphasized that this applies to mic cables only. If power cordsare used in the field for the camera, lights, or recorder, thesecables and connectors must always be kept dry to avoid adangerous electrical shock hazard. Positioning Mic CablesRunning mic cables parallel to power cords often creates humand interference problems. The solution is often as simple asmoving a mic cable a meter away from any power cord. Fluo-rescent lights can also induce an annoying buzz in audio.Computers and certain types of medical equipment, especially ifthey are near audio cables or equipment, can also create undesir-able noise. By carefully listening to your audio pickup with a setof high-quality, padded earphones, you can generally catch theseproblems before it’s too late. Audio Control Devices

MixersVarious sources of audio must be carefully controlled andblended during a production. You will recall that if audio levels

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are allowed to run at toohigh a level, distortion canresult; and if levels are toolow, noise can be intro-duced when levels are, bynecessity, later broughtinto the normal range.The control of audiosignals is normally done in

a TV studio or production facility with an audio board or audioconsole, such as the one shown here. The purpose of these isto switch on and off and to blend various sources of audio.For video field production smaller units, called audio mixers,do the same thing on a smaller scale.Both audio consoles and mixers do five things.

• amplify incoming signals• allow for switching and volume level adjustments for a

variety of audio sources• allow for creatively mixing together and balancing multiple

audio sources to achieve an optimum blend• route the combined effect to a transmission or recording

deviceIn addition, sophisticated audio boards allow you to manipu-late specific characteristics of audio. These include theleft-to-right “placement” of stereo sources, altering frequencycharacteristics of sounds, and adding reverberation.Below we see a simplified block diagram of an audio mixer.

The input selectorswitches at the topof each fader canswitch betweensuch things asCDs, videocassettemachines, satellitefeeds, and, ofcourse, micro-phones.

The selector switch at the bottom of each fader switches theoutput of the fader between cue, audition and program.

Cue is used for cueing up audio sources (finding the appropri-ate point in a musical selection on a CD, etc.). A low-qualityspeaker is intentionally used in many cases so cue audio is notconfused with program audio.Audition allows an audio source to pass through an auxiliaryVU meter to high quality speakers so levels can be set and audioquality evaluated.And, of course, program sends the audio out to the mastergain control to be recorded or broadcast.Even though audio mixers can control numerous audiosources, these sources break down into two categories:• mic-level inputs

• line-level inputsMic-level inputs handle the extremely low voltages associatedwith microphones, while line-level inputs are associated with

the outputs of amplified sources of audio, such as CD and tapeplayers. Once they are inside an audio board, all audio sourcesbecome line-level and are handled the same way.

Using Multiple Microphones in the StudioMost studio productions require several mics. Since the mics,

themselves, may have only a 5 to 10meter (15-30 foot) cord, mic exten-sion cables may be needed to plug themicrophone into the nearest micconnector (generally in a wall). Studiomics use cables with three-prong XLRor Canon connectors, as shown on

the left. Since things can get confusing with a half-dozen ormore mics in use, the audio operator needs to make a note onwhich control on the audio board is associated with which mic.A black marker and easily removed masking tape can be used onthe audio board channels to identify what mic is plugged intowhat channel. Mic numbers (“lav 1”) or talent names (“John”)can be used for identification.

Because mics represent one of the most problem-plaguedaspects in the production process, they should be carefullychecked before each production. Unless you do this, you canexpect unpleasant surprises when you switch on someone’s mic,and there is either no audio at all, or you faintly hear the personoff in the distance through another mic. Either way, it’simmediately clear that someone goofed.There is another important reason that mics should be checkedbefore a production: the strength of different people’s voicesvaries greatly. During the mic check procedure, you can establishthe levels (audio volume) of each person by having them talknaturally, or count to 10, while you use a VU meter to you set ormake a note of the appropriate audio level.Of course, even after you establish an initial mic level for eachperson, you will need to constantly watch (and adjust) the levelsof each mic once the production starts. During spiriteddiscussions, for example, people have a tendency to get louder.Monitoring audio gain will be discussed below.It is also good practice to have a spare mic on the set ready forquick use in case one of the regular mics suddenly goes out.Given the fragility of mics, cables, connectors, etc., this is not anunusual occurrence.

A traditional audio board is shown on the left. Note thestandard VU meters at the top of this stereo model.As production facilities move to digital audio, boards are takingon a different appearance. Like the new digital switchers andlighting boards, the latest generation of audio boards makesuse of an LCD video display. A recent model is shown below .

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Using Multiple Mics in the FieldIf only one mic is needed in the field, it can simply be pluggedinto one of the audio inputs of the camera. (Remember, theuse of the internal camera mic is not recommended, except forcapturing background sound.)When several microphones are needed and their levels must beindividually controlled andmixed, a small portableaudio mixer will be needed.The use of an audio mixerrequires a separate audioperson to watch the VUmeter and maintain theproper level on each input. Portable AC- or battery-poweredaudio mixers are available that will accept several mic or line-levelinputs. The output of the portable mixer is then plugged intoa high-level VCR audio input (as opposed to a low-level micinput).

Most portable mixers have from three to six input channels.Since each pot (fader or volume control) can be switchedbetween at least two inputs, the total number of possible audiosources ends up being more than the number of faders. Ofcourse, the number of sources that can be controlled at thesame time is limited to the number of pots on the mixer.There is also a master gain control-generally on the right of themixer-that controls the levels of all inputs simultaneously.Most mixers also include a fader for headphone volumeAlthough handheld mics are often used for on-location news,for extended interviews it’s often easier and more natural to

equip both the interviewer andthe person being interviewedwith personal mics.Whereas the mixer shown abovewill probably require a specialaudio person to operate, thecameraperson can operate thesimple two-mic mixer shown on

the left. The output from the unit is simply plugged into thecamcorder.

Audio Mixer ControlsAudio mixers and consoles use two types of controls: selectorswitches and faders. As the name suggests, selector switchessimply allow you to select and switch a variety of audio sourcesinto a specific audio channel

Faders (volume controls) can be either linear or rotary in design.As we’ve noted, faders are also referred to asattenuators, gain controls, or pots (for potenti-ometers).A rotary fader is shown here. Linear faders arealso referred to as vertical faders and slide faders.

“Riding Gain”It’s important to maintain optimum levels throughout aproduction. This is commonly referred to as riding gain.You will recall that digital audio equipment typically requiresdifferent optimum levels than analog equipment—and eventhat standard varies with different countries. However, to reduceconfusion in the following discussion we’ll use 0dB to repre-sent a maximum level. Normal audio sources should reach 0dBon the VU or loudness meter, when the vertical fader or pot isone-third to two-thirds of the way up (open).Having to turn a fader up fully in order to bring the sound upto 0dB indicates thatthe original source ofaudio is coming intothe console at too lowa level. In this case theprobability of systembackground noiseincreases.Conversely, if thesource of audio is too high coming into the board, opening thefader very slightly will cause the audio to immediately hit 0dB.The amount of fader control over the source will then belimited, making smooth fades impossible.

To reflect the various states of attenuation (resistance), thenumbers on some faders are the reverse of what you mightthink. The numbers get higher (reflecting more resistance) as thefader is turned down. Maximum resistance is designated withan infinity symbol, which looks like an “8” turned on its side.When the fader is turned up all the way, the number on the potor linear fader may indicate 0, for zero resistance. Even so, justas you would assume, when the pot is turned clockwise or thefader control is pushed up, volume is increased.

Level Control and MixingAudio mixing goes beyond just watching a VU meter. The totalsubjective effect as heard through the speakers or earphonesshould be used to evaluate the final effect.For example, if an announcer’s voice and the background musicare both set at 0dB, the music will drown out the announcer’swords. Using your ear as a guide, you will probably want to letthe music peak at around -15dB, and the voice peak at 0dB toprovide the desired effect: dominant narration with supportingbut non-interfering background music. But, since both musicand voices have different frequency characteristics (and you’llrecall that, unlike VU meters, are ears are not equally sensitive toall frequencies), you will need to use your ear as a guide. Duringlong pauses in narration you will probably want to increase thelevel of the music somewhat, and then bring it down justbefore narration starts again.

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In selecting music to go behind (under) narration, instrumentalmusic is always preferred. If the music has lyrics sung by avocalist (definitely not recommended as background tonarration) they would have to be much lower so as not tocompete with the narrator’s words.

Using Audio From PA SystemsIn covering musical concerts or stage productions a direct linefrom a professionally mixed PA (public address) system willresult in decidedly better audio than using a mic to pick upsound from a PA speaker.

An appropriate line-level output of a public address (PA)amplifier fed directly into a high-level input of a mixer can beused. (NOTE: The regular speaker outputs from the PAamplifier cannot be used; they can severely damage the mixer.)

Audio Level Control DevicesAlthough manually maintaining audio levels is generally thebest approach, there are some automatic devices that can helpand even do some things that you can’t do manually.

AGC CircuitsWe’ll start with a simple audio control circuit, one that is builtinto most consumer audio equipment. If the average audiolevel is low, an AGC (automatic gain control) circuit will raise it;if the average level is too high, the circuit will bring it down.

Even though AGC circuits can free you from having to worryabout manually controlling audio levels, they can’t intelligentlyrespond to different audio needs.For example, in an attempt to bring an audio level up to astandard setting when no other sound is present, AGC circuitswill make annoying background sounds louder. During pausesin dialogue you may notice that the loudness of backgroundnoise increases. If subsequent audio processing circuits (inediting equipment, for example) have AGC circuits, theproblem gets progressively worse as each piece of equipmentfurther increases background noise.AGC circuits can also introduce a reverse problem. Since theyrespond to loud noises by quickly pulling down audio levels,this means that words can be lost when an AGC circuit reacts toa loud sound, such as someone bumping the microphone.

In professional camcorders audio levels can be manuallycontrolled, but in many nonprofessional camcorders the AGCcircuit can’t be switched off.Because of the effect of the AGC circuit in bringing up soundlevels during a period of silence, the first few seconds of audiomay be distorted until the AGC sets the proper level.To get around this problem, many videographers (stuck with anAGC circuit they can’t switch to manual control) have the on-camera talent say a few words just before the actual start of thesegment. This can be simply counting, “5, 4, 3, 2, 1,” to allowthe AGC to adjust proper audio level. This countdown issimply deleted during editing.

CompressorsAudio compressors also bring up low amplitude sounds andpull down the amplitude of loud sounds-but they are muchmore sophisticated than AGC circuits.

Unlike AGC circuits,compressors can beadjusted so that many ofthe negative effects ofautomatic control gounnoticed. Program audio

that has been compressed seems louder to the ear than non-compressed audio-a feature that hasn’t escaped the attention ofthe producers of TV commercials.Compressors typically have three controls:• threshold, which establishes the audio level were

compression begins• compressionratio, whichdetermines theamount ofcompression (whichwould be likeexpanding or

narrowing the area on the right side of the illustrationabove)

• gain, which is simply the maximum output level

Some compressors have only two controls: input and outputlevels. By raising the input level while keeping the output thesame, a greater compression is achieved—at least until majordistortion becomes evident. The compressor shown here hasVU meters for monitoring the input and output levels.Compressors and AGC circuits can create problems with music.Although AM rock radio stations of the 1960s and 1970s mayhave preferred a maximum-loud sound, the artists oftencomplained that their carefully balanced audio levels weredestroyed. Everything in the recording, whether intended to beloud or soft, came out sounding about the same.

Limiters, Peak LimitersA basic audio limiter isn’t as sophisticated as a compressor oreven an AGC circuit. As the name suggests, limiters simplykeep the audio fromexceeding a set level-generally 0dB. By setting alimiter at 0dB, forexample, you can beassured that a suddenloud noise, such as a doorslamming, will not “pin” the VU meter and cause major audiodistortion (and jar listeners out of their seats!).

Audio ExpandersAlthough they have more limited use, audio expanders increasethe dynamic range of audio that has been overly processed.

(Audio that has gonethrough satellite relays, forexample, often ends upbeing overly compressed.)Expanders can restore theaudio to its normal range,

and in the process, reduce noticeable background noise.

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Audio FiltersAn audio filter can be used to cut or attenuate audio frequenciesabove or below certain points. For example, you may need toreduce or eliminate the low rumble of air conditioning or thehum of alternating current. In both cases a filter that eliminatesfrequencies below about 120Hz may solve the problem. On theother end of the frequency range, you may want to try toeliminate upper range frequencies associated with the rustle ofclothes or paper. For this you can try cutting off everythingabove about 8,000Hz. By cutting all frequencies below about2,000Hz, you can simulate the sound of a telephone conversa-tion-or possibly a radio or TV in the background of a dramaticscene. You can use a graphic equalizer to do this, or on someaudio boards, switch a filter into an audio channel.

Production Communication Systems

PL SystemsSince a live, multi-camera TV production typically involves theclosely coordinated efforts of numerous people, reliablebehind-the-scenes communication links are critical.Using a PL (private line or production line) headset such as theones shown here, production personnel can talk to each otherand receive instructions from a director. Most PL or intercomsystems are wired together on a kind of party line. In this way,each member can hear and talk to everyone else. Normally, theheadset microphones are always on so that both hands can bekept free to operate equipment. But, for high-noise situationssome PL headsets have a push-to-talk feature, which means thateveryone’s headset mic isn’t on at the same time, contributingto the overall noise level. Another feature that’s useful in highnoise situations is a large padded earphone, which will helpscreen out competing sound.

IFB SystemsIn ENG (electronic newsgathering) and EFP (electronic fieldproduction) it may be necessaryfor a director to relay messagesdirectly to on-air talent-evenwhile they are on the air. Thiscan be done if the talent uses asmall earphone, or earpiece. Thissystem is referred to as IFB forinterrupted or interruptiblefeedback. When switched toprogram audio (or the basicaudio being recorded ortransmitted during the produc-tion) IFB systems allow on-airtalent to hear questions orcomments from studio anchors.

Notes

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LESSON 6:INTRODUCTION TO CAMERA, PARTS AND OPERATION

Cameras: The BasicsWith all that has gone before as a background, we can now turnto the first in a series of modules on the camera and itsassociated equipment.

Camera Imaging DevicesThe very heart of a video camera is its imaging device. The first

TV cameras used tubes (shown onthe left). Some early color camerashad four tubes (for red, blue, green,and luminance). This explains whyearly color TV cameras weighed morethan 200 kilograms (500 pounds)and had to be hauled around intrucks.

An example of one of these cameras, which was used inbroadcasting in the 1950s, is shown next to the woman on theright. Note how it compares toone the latest pocket sizedcameras (complete with a videorecorder) shown in the insert atthe bottom of the photo.The latter camera, and in fact mostof today’s video cameras, useCCDs (a computer chip called a

charged-coupleddevice.) Atypical CCD isshown on theleft. (Some cameras now use a CMOS chip,

but at this point the distinction is not that important). Themost common CCD sizes are 1/4 inch, 1/3 inch, 1/2 inch and2/3 inch (the size of the little box shown near the center of theCCD chip above).

Video ResolutionVideo resolution is a measure of the ability of a video camerato reproduce fine detail. The higher the resolution the sharperthe picture will look. The standard NTSC broadcast TV systemcan potentially produce a picture resolution equal to about 300

lines of horizontal resolution. (This is after it goes through thebroadcast process. What you see in a TV control room it isgenerally much higher.) CATV, DVD and satellite transmissionsas viewed on a home receiver can reach 400 lines of resolution.Note that lines of resolution is different than the total numberof horizontal scanning lines - normally 525 or 625 in SDTV.

Three- to four-hundred lines of resolution equal what viewerswith 20-20 vision can see when they watch a TV screen at anormal viewing distance.“Normal” in this case translates into a viewing distance ofabout eight times the height of the TV picture. So, if the TVscreen were 40 cm (16 inches) high, a so-called 25-inch (64-centimeter) picture, the normal viewing distance would beabout 2 meters (10 feet).HDTV/DTV, with its significantly higher resolution, makespossible both larger screens and closer viewing distances.Lines of resolution as measured by a test pattern, such as theone shown here,are not to beconfused with thehorizontalscanning lines inthe broadcast TVprocess- typically525 and 625-whichwe discussedearlier.Although mosthome TV sets are capable of only 300 or so lines of resolution(and that’s on a good day!), TV cameras are capable of muchhigher resolutions-up to 1,000 lines or more.And so this question arises: Why bother with high resolutionin cameras (with their added costs) when the home TV set can’treproduce this level of sharpness?Answer: As in most aspects of TV production, the betterquality you can start out with the better the quality will be forthe TV viewer-even with all the broadcast-related losses.

Determining ResolutionCharts that contain squares or wedges of lines on a lightbackground can indicate the limits of sharpness. Within aparticular area of one of these resolution charts there are lines

that converge, as shown at thebottom of the picture on the left.Numbers such as 200, 300, etc.,appear on the chart next to thecorresponding line densities. Notethat the illustration here representsthe small segment outlined in red inthe full test pattern shown above. By

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exactly filling the camera viewfinder with the resolution chartand observing the point on the chart where the lines appear toblur together and lose definition, we can establish the limits ofresolution. High-quality standard definition, NTSC cameras canresolve about 900 lines; HDTV/DTV cameras well over 1,000-well off the chart shown here.

Color ResolutionThe resolution we’ve been discussing is based on the sharpnessof the black and white (luminance) component of the TVimage. It was discovered early in experiments with color TV thatthe human eye perceives detail primarily in terms of differencesin brightness (luminance differences) and not in terms of color(chroma) information. When NTSC color television wasdeveloped, an ingenious and highly complex system of addinga lower-resolution color signal to the existing black-and-whitesignal was devised. Using this system, color information can beadded to the existing monochrome signal without having togreatly expand the information carrying capacity of the originalblack-and-white signal.

Minimum Light Levels for CamerasTelevision cameras require a certain level of light (targetexposure) to produce good-quality video. This light level ismeasured in foot-candles or lux.A foot-candle, which is a measure of light intensity from acandle at a distance of one foot (under very specific conditions),is the unit of light intensity often used in the United States(although the term is now being replaced by lux.) The origina-tion of the term “lux” is not known, although it’s assumed torefer to lumens (a measure of light power) times ten.Since we’ll refer to both lux and foot-candles throughout thesemodules, you’ll need to know that a foot-candle is equal toabout 10 lux. (Actually it’s 10.76, but 10 is generally closeenough, and it’s much easier to use in conversions.)

Although they will produce acceptable pictures under muchlower light levels, most professional video cameras require alight level of at least 75 foot-candles (750 lux) to produce thebest quality video.With consumer-type camcorders you will find advertising

literature boasting that aparticular camera iscapable of shootingpictures under one luxof light. But, thequestion arises, “Whatkind of picture?”The light falling on asubject from a 60-wattlight bulb 3 meters (10feet) away is about 10lux. If you have evertaped anyone under thislight level with aconsumer-type camera,

you know that you can’t expect impressive video quality.Although the EIA standard is in place in the United States tospecify minimum quality standards for light levels, adherence to

this standard is not mandatory. Since manufacturers know thatconsumers want cameras that shoot under low light levels, theyare reluctant to use the EIA standard and look inferior to acompetitor who is not adhering to the standard.Suffice it to say, if you are in the market for a camera and youdon’t see the EIA standard specified then you need to check outany low-light level claims. By just zooming in on the darkestcorner of the room and observing details in the darkest areas,you can make a rough comparison of the light sensitivity ofdifferent cameras.At low light levels the iris of a camera must be wide open (atthe lowest f-stop number) to allow in the maximum amountof light. As the light level increases in a scene, the iris of thelens must be stopped down (changed to a higher f-stopnumber) to maintain the same level of exposure on the cameratarget.

Under low light conditions video can quickly start to look dark,with a complete loss of detail in the shadow areas. To helpcompensate, professional cameras have built-in, multi-position,video gain switches that can amplify the video signal in stepsfrom 3 up to about 28 units (generally the units are in decibelsor dB’s). But, the greater the video gain boost, the greater theloss in picture quality. Specifically, video noise increases and colorclarity diminishes.

Night Vision ModulesFor situations that require video under very low, night visionmodules are available that use electronic light multipliers toamplify the light going through a lens. (Note photo on right.)The most refined ofthese can produce clearvideo at night usingonly the light fromstars (a light level ofabout 1/100,000 lux).Under conditions of“no light” most ofthese modules emittheir own invisible infrared illumination, which is then trans-lated into a visible image.

In recent years camera operators covering news have foundnight vision devices useful in covering nighttime stories whereany type of artificial lighting would call attention to the camera,and adversely affect the story being covered.

Camera MountsUsing a camera tripod can make thedifference between professionallooking video and a video that screams“amateur at work.” Although a tripodmay be a hassle to carry and set up, theresults can be well worth the effort-especially on large digital and HDTVscreens where camera movement onstatic scenes can make an audience a bit“sea sick.”Exceptions to using a tripod are innews and sports where you must be

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mobile enough to follow moving subjects, documentary styleproduction where shots are brief and rapid, and subjectivecamera shots that simulate what a moving subject is seeing.In recent years some commercials and dramatic productionshave used handheld cameras in scenes as a way of imparting a“fluid,” “on-the-go” feeling. (Hand-holding a camera also savesvaluable production time-which means money!)The award-winning film, Traffic, released in 2001, had manyhandheld shots designed to impart a “documentary frenzy” tosome of the scenes. TV series such as Law & Order also use thisapproach.

In the hands of a professional director of photography thiseffect can work; however, when less experienced videographersattempt to handhold a camera (especially while zooming,

panning and tilting) the effectcan look amateurish and evenmake viewers a bit nauseous. Ifyou examine most exemplarymainstream films and videoproductions you will find solid,steady shots-the kind that areonly possible with a solidcamera support.On most tripods the pan andtilt head (which attaches thecamera to the tripod) is not

meant to be used for smooth panning and tilting whileshooting-only to reposition and lock the camera between takes.And, this may be just as well, given the fact that a cut from onescene to another is faster and generally better than panning,tilting or zooming to new subject matter.Even so, pans and tilts are commonly seen-especially forfollowing action, for revealing the relationship between objectsin a scene, etc. Therefore, many tripods have heads designed tosmooth out pan and tilt movements.

The most-used type is the fluid head that adds a uniformresistance to pans and tilts-just enough to smooth out theprocess.

Bean BagsA simple camera “mount” that works in many situations is thebean bag. The photo on the left shows one on the door frame

of a car. The “beans” inside aresmall round soft plastic ballsthat can assume the shape of thesurface the bag sits on. The topof the bag can adjust to thebottom of a camcorder,providing a degree of camerastability. When used on

accommodating surfaces, bean bags can represent a quickapproach to getting shots.

Wireless Camera ModulesAlthough camera operators doing live broadcasts from the fieldused to have to be “hard wired” to a production truck, today’scameras can be equipped with an RF (radio frequency) transmit-ter, such as the one shown on the back of this camera. The

camera signal is transmit-ted to the productiontruck where it appears ona monitor just like anyother source of video.These units are com-monly used in awardsprograms, allowingcameras operators tofreely roam throughoutthe isles to get shots ofaudience members without the problem of trailing vexatious,hazardous camera cables.

Studio Camera MountsIn the studio the entire camera assembly is generally mountedon a pedestal ordolly (shown here)so it can besmoothly rolledaround the studiofloor. There arethree wheels in thebase of the pedestalthat can be turnedusing the steeringring. The camera isdirectly attached to apan head so that thepan and tilt(horizontal andvertical) cameramovements can be adjusted. There are several types of panheads; one type, the cam head, is illustrated here. Controls onthe pan head allow the camera to freely move, be locked intoposition, or to offer a bit of resistance to facilitate smooth pansand tilts. The camera can be raised and lowered by unlocking thetelescoping column. Although the camera may weight morethan 100 pounds, there are internal counterweights that allowan operator to do this without significant effort. Other keyelements along with their functions, are also illustrated in thephoto.A simpler camera support than the large studio pedestal is the

collapsible dolly shown on the left.This type of mount is used forremote productions and in somesmall studios.Unlike the elaborate studio pedestalthat can be smoothly rolled across astudio floor-even while the camera ison the air-the wheels on small dolliesare intended primarily to move thecamera from place to place between

shots.

Robotic Camera MountsCamera operators are disappearing at many stations-and evenon many network programs. They are being replaced by

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remotely controlled camera systemssuch as the one shown on the left.From the TV control room, pan, tilt,zoom, and focus adjustments can bemade. Many of these robotic camerascan also be remotely dollied andtrucked around the studio. Althoughrobotic cameras are not desirable forunpredictable or fast-moving subjectmatter, for programs such as newscasts

and interviews (where operating cameras can get pretty boringanyway) they can significantly reduce production expenses.

The “Follow Me” Camera MountAs news departments continue to try to cut expenses, stationmanagers with an eye focused firmly on the bottom line arealways on the lookout for ways to cut down on one of themost expensive items in their budgets: personnel.

In recent years this has meant trying to cover news stories with areporter/cameraperson/sound person all rolled in one; the so-called “one-man band”approach. The littleinvention shown on theright helps. The reporterwears a belt-pack transmitterand the receivers on theextended arms shown oneither side of the camerapick up the signal. As thereporter moves, the cameraautomatically pans left orright to keep the reporter centered in the frame. The unit willtrack the reporter to a 35-foot (10.7 meter) radius in a 4,000 sq.foot (372 square meter) coverage area.

Camera JibsA device that has come into wide use in the last decade is thecamera jib, which is essentially a long, highly maneuverableboom or crane-like device with a mounted camera at the end.You will frequently seem them in action swinging over largecrowds at concerts and events with large audiences.For more mobile camera work outside of the studio there arehandheld camera supports thatallow significant mobility while stilloffering fairly steady camera shots.

The most famous of these is theSteadicam® (on the right) used forfilm cameras and large videocameras. The camera is mountedon a flexible arm that uses a series

o fspring balances to hold its positionwhen the operator is walking,running, or even dashing up aflight of stairs. In addition tobeing costly, these units are heavyand require an experiencedoperator.

For smaller cameras, such as the one shown below, SteadicamJR® units can provide smooth camera moves at a fraction ofthe cost and weight. The separate viewfinder (at the bottom ofthe picture) allows the unit to be held away from the bodywhere it won’t be inadvertently bumped. With a bit of practicean operator can walk in front of or behind a moving subjectwithout undue camera movement. Although Steadicam® is notthe only manufacturer of these types of units, it is the mostwell known. Walking around with a full cup of coffee in yourhand is good practice for using one of these. If you get to thepoint that can even go up and down stairs, without spilling thecoffee, you will probably be able to do a good job with one ofthe smaller Steadicam-type units.

Color Balancing CamerasExcept for possibly Martians (which at this point are of

unknown color), having green skin tones signals atechnical problem. Consumer-type camerastypically have automatic white balance circuitry thatcontinuously monitors the video and attempts toadjust color balance. A sensor on or within the

camera averages the light within the scene and automaticallyadjusts the camera’s internal color balance to zero-out anygeneralized color bias.

As with all automatic circuitry, however, automatic color balanceis based on certain assumptions—which may or may not bevalid. In this case of automatic white balance circuitry theassumption is made that when all colors and light sources inthe scene are averaged the result will be a neutral (colorless) grayor white (i.e., all colors will “zero out.”) Variations from thisstate are “corrected” by the color balance circuitry. A problemarises if there are strong, dominant colors in the scene, or (withsome cameras) if the camera and the subject matter are illumi-nated by different light sources. Automatic color balance circuitrywill work reasonably well under the proper conditions; and forthe typical videographer with simple equipment this is certainlybetter than nothing.But, in the professional realm where consistent color balance isexpected, automatic circuitry cannot be relied upon to consis-tently produce accurate color. In this case this there is nosubstitute for a knowledgeable camera operator equipped with awhite card or white piece of paper. (This has to be the cheapesttechnical aid in the whole video field!)

White Balancing On a White CardSince we know from our earlier discussion that red, green, andblue must be present in certain proportions to create white, it’srelatively easy to white balance (color balance) a professionalcamera to produce accurate color. With the camera zoomed infull frame on a pure white card, the operator can push a whitebalance button and the camera’s chroma channels will beautomatically adjusted to produce pure white. The camera ineffect says, “Okay, if you say that’s white I’ll balance myelectronics so that it will be white.” Focus is not critical, but thecard must be placed full frame within the dominant light sourceof the scene.

After white balancing your camera, pay particular attention toskin tones and ensure the monitor is correctly adjusted to show

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these differences. Whenever the dominant light source in a scenechanges in any way, professional cameras must again be whitebalanced. Going from sunlight to shadow will necessitate whitebalancing the camera again, as will moving from outside light toinside light. Even the passing of a few hours will result in aslight color shift for the sun. Not to color balance your camerarisks having colors in general (and skin tones in particular)change from scene to scene. This will be particularly bothersomeduring editing when you attempt to intercut scenes that won’tmatch, and flesh tones annoyingly change with every edit.

Lying to Your CameraYou can also “lie to the camera” during the white balancingprocess to create interesting effects. A warm-red color bias in ascene can be created by white balancing the camera on a bluecard; a blue effect results from color balancing on a yellow card.In an effort to compensate for the colors presented as “white,”the camera’s white balance circuitry will push the camera’s colorbalance toward the complement (opposite) of whatever color isin the card.

Although white balance can be electronically altered inpostproduction, starting out with proper color balance at thecamera is always best. Otherwise, it may not be possible tomake scenes match in the postproduction process. The processof skewing camera color balance is sometimes used in produc-tions to create certain effects. For example, in the award-winningfilm, Traffic, director Steven Soderbergh gave different locationsspecific color tones. Scenes in Washington, D.C. were given coldblue tones, and the scenes in the San Diego area were warmwith gold overtones. Often, you will see commercials skewedstrongly toward blue or yellow-gold.

Black Level and Black BalanceProfessional video cameras also have black level and blackbalance adjustments. These are typically set by capping the lens(so that no light enters) and allowing automatic circuitry toappropriately balance the three colors for optimum black. Thisautomatically establishes the video level for black.

Color Balancing Multiple CamerasColor balancing (sometimes called white balancing) a singlecamera is relatively easy, especially since minor problems canoften be fixed in postproduction. The problem comes in whenyou have to match multiple cameras—either in the studio or inthe field. If you don’t get everything just right, there may be anoticeable (and annoying) shift in color, brightness, contrast, orsharpness as you switch from one camera to another. Studiocamera setup adjustments are controlled by the camera’s internaldigital signal processor (DSP). Some of the newer studio (andsome field) cameras are equipped to use a “smart card.” Thiscard, which is about the size of a credit card, records all of theparameters on the first camera that you (carefully) set up. Byinserting this card into successive cameras, they are automaticallyadjusted to conform to that camera’s parameters. Sometimes it’snecessary to store these settings for use at a later time, or even tosend them to another location where another crew is doingsegments for the same production. In this case the camerasettings can be stored on a floppy disk, or even sent electroni-cally via the Internet to another location. Checking camera

matches can be checked by focusing all cameras on the samescene and quickly switching from one camera to another whileviewing the results on a single, high-quality monitor. Tosimulate skin tones, a mannequin, a large color photo, or a “real,live person” should be a part of the scene. You should strivefor identical skin tones between cameras. By manipulating acamera’s digital signal processor it’s possible to achieve the lookthat motion picture cameramen can achieve through theselection of different film stocks (types of film). You can alsocreate sophisticated film effects, such as fogging, push or pullprocessing (over or under developing the film), and variousfiltering effects. However, unlike film, you can immediately seethe effect.Studio engineers also make use of a central CCU, (cameracontrol unit), where all of the studio cameras can be controlled

and adjusted at acentral location.Camera control unitsfor a series of camerasare shown on the left.CCU or DSP adjust-ments include iris,which controls thevideo gain or bright-ness, pedestal, which

controls the black level, and the subcarrier phase, which issimilar to the hue control on your TV.

Digital Camera Setup AdjustmentsAlthough camera manufacturers use different terminology forcamera adjustment functions, the most common DSP (digitalsignal processing) camera controls adjusted through the camerasetup menu are:The automatic iris As the name suggests, this manages camerairis or aperture to provide proper CCD exposure. Often, thisautomatically managesboth the camera’s electronicgain control and thecamera’s shutter speed toachieve maximum controlover exposure.The white balance controladjusts for color tempera-ture variations. There areusually presets at 3,200K, 5,600K, and 6,700K.The contour or detail enhancement function adjusts edgecontrast between areas of different levels of contrast in apicture. You can only go so far in enhancing detail in an imagewithout creating disturbing artifacts.

For example, the images below show a normal picture on theleft, and overly enhanced version of the same picture on theright.

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This adjustment may be further broken down into skin detail,which reduces the sharpness in skin areas (giving subjects amore youthful appearance — see examples below), and softdetail, which reduces excessively sharp detail that may beobjectionable in areas of high contrast. The knee manages thehighlight compression of the video signal. Generally this isfurther broken down into subdivisions that further control thehighlight renditionThe gamma function controls the general brightness (lumi-nance) and the contrast curve. This control allows an operatorto set the “characteristic curve” of the camera, or the way inwhich it reproduces various tones along the black-to-white scale.The term gamma has slightly different meanings in film and invideo.

The black gamma controls the contrast and detail in theshadow and black areas of the picture. This may be furthersubdivided into a black stretch control for enhancing shadowdetail, and a black press function that increases contrast.The matrix function manages the hue and saturation of thevideo to reproduce the most accurate color.There may be a diagonal detail control that increases thecontrast in the diagonal parts of the image. This serves toincrease sharpness in these areas while reducing objectionablecolor moiré patterns.Two common DSP featuresinclude a zebra pattern (or zebrastripes), which is a black andwhite camera setup pattern thatcan be set to appear in areas ofthe picture that exceed acceptablebrightness levels, and a SMPTEcolor bar generator, (noteexample on the right) used to adjust video equipment

Modern digital cameras have skin enhancing setup optionsavailable that can reduce, but generally not eliminate, Inparticular, they can appreciably smooth out wrinkles and concealminor blemishes. Some video engineers may not be anxious touse these techniques, since they degrade optimum videosharpness, color, and quality. Note the difference between thetwo photos below.

A more complete list of the possible camera adjustments caninclude:1. frame rate2. shutter percent3. gain4. gamma, pedestal5. black stretch6. knee point7. knee slope8. dynamic level9. saturation10. color correction11. white balance12. matrix table

13. filters14. camera setups15. memory card setups16. number of users

Filters and Lens Attachments

Lens ShadesIn the same way that our eyes must be shaded from a stronglighting orderto see clearly,the camera lensalso has to beshielded fromdirect light.Even if astrong lightstriking thelens does notcreate obviousevidence oflens flare shown here, it may reduce the contrast of the image.Assuming you can’t easily change your camera position, you’llneed a lens shade or lens hood to protect a camera image from

offending glare or loss ofcontrast. Since most lens flareproblems are apparent in thevideo viewfinder, the effect of alens shade can be observed andchecked.Most zoom lenses have arudimentary lens shade built in,but it’s primarily effective at thewide-angle position. At longerfocal lengths, with prime

lenses, or when you face conditions such as the church settingshown above, you may need a lens shade such as the one on theleft.

Rather than invest in a lens shade, it’s easier and cheaper toimprovise a lens shade with dull black paper and masking tape,

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or even shield the lens with your hand. Just zoom the lens tothe desired point and then try shading the lens as you wouldyour eyes. Check the viewfinder to make sure that you can’t seeyour efforts appearing at the edge or corner of the frame.In addition to lens shades, there are a number of otherattachments that fit over the front of a camera lens, startingwith....

FiltersGlass filters consist of a transparent colored gel sandwichedbetween two precisely ground and sometimes coated pieces ofglass.Filters can be placed in a circular holder that screws over the endof the camera lens, (as shown here) or inserted into a filter

wheel behind thecamera lens (to bediscussed later).A type of filter that’smuch cheaper than aglass filter is the gel.A gel is a small,square or rectangularsheet of optic plasticused in front of the

lens in conjunction with a matte box. Among professionalvideographers, these filter types are referred to as round filtersand rectangular filters.There are many types of filters. We’ll only cover the mostcommonly used types.

Ultraviolet FiltersNews photographers often put an ultraviolet filter (UV filter)over the camera lens to protect it from the adverse conditionsencountered in ENG (electronic newsgathering) work. Adamaged filter is much cheaper to replace than a lens. Protectionof this type is particularly important when the camera is used inhigh winds where dirt or sleet can be blown into the lens. Byscreening out ultraviolet light, the filter also slightly enhancesimage color and contrast, and reduces haze in distant scenes. Inso doing, the filter also brings the scene being photographedmore in line with what the eye sees. Video cameras also tend tobe more sensitive to ultra-violet light, which can add a kind ofhaze to some scenes. Since UV filters screen out ultra-violet lightwhile not appreciably affecting colors, many videographers keepan ultraviolet filter permanently over the lens of their camera.

Using Filters for Major Color ShiftsAlthough general color correction in a video camera is donethrough the combination of optical and electronic cameraadjustments, it’s sometimes desirable to introduce a strong,dominant color into a scene. For example, when a scene calledfor a segment shot in a photographic darkroom, one cameraoperator simulated a red darkroom safelight by placing a darkred glass filter over the camera lens. (Darkrooms haven’t usedred filter safelights to print pictures for decades, but since mostaudiences still think they do, directors feel they must supportthe myth.)

If the camera has an internal white balance sensor, the cameramust be color balanced before the filter is placed over the lens or

else the white balance system will try to cancel out the effect ofthe colored filter.

Neutral Density FiltersSometimes it’s desirable to control the amount of light passingthrough a lens without stopping down the iris (moving to ahigher f-stop number). Under bright sunlight conditions youmay want to keep a relatively wide f-stop so that you can useselective focus. Using this technique you can throw distractingobjects in the background and foreground out of focus.Although using a higher shutter speed is normally the bestsolution (we’ll get to that later), the use of a neutral density orND filter will achieve the same result. A neutral density filter is agray filter that reduces light by one or more f-stops withoutaffecting color. Professional video cameras normally have one ormore neutral density filters included in their internal filterwheels. To select a filter you simply rotate it into positionbehind the lens. The table below shows ND filter grades andthe amount of light they subtract.

Even on a bright day a 1.2 ND filter will force the camera irisopen enough to allow for creative selective focus effects.

Polarizing FiltersMost people are familiar with the effect that polarized sun-glasses have on reducing reflections and cutting down glare.Unlike sunglasses, the effect of professional polarizing filterscan be continuously varied-and, as a result, go much farther intheir effect.Polarizing filters can:• reduce glare and reflections• deepen blue skies• penetrate haze

• saturate (intensify) colorsOnce its many applications are understood, a polarizing filtercan become a videographer’s most valuable filter. Simplepolarizing filters need between one and one-half to two extra f-stops of exposure. The effect of some professional polarizingfilters is adjustable. Rotating the orientation of two polarizingfilters used next to each other in the housing does this. Whendoing critical copy work, such as photographing paintings witha shiny surface, polarizing filters can be used over the lights, aswell as the camera lens. Rotating one or more of these filters caneliminate all objectionable reflections.

Contrast Control FiltersAlthough the latest generation of professional video cameras iscapable of capturing contrast or brightness ranges up to 700:1-far in excess of standard motion picture film stocks-hometelevision sets and viewing conditions limit that range to notmore than 30:1. This means that the brightest element in ascene can’t be more than 30 times brighter than the darkestelement with any hope of seeing the detail in each. (Digital

0.3 ND filter 1 f-stop 0.6 ND filter 2 f-stops 0.9 ND filter 3 f-stops 1.2 ND filter 4 f-stops

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receivers do considerably better, but until everyone has a digitalset, we need to “play it safe.”)“Real world scenes” often contain collections of elements thatexceed the 30:1 brightness range. Although we might be able tocontrol this with lighting, etc. in the studio, things become a bitmore challenging outside. For critical exterior scenes theprofessional videographer must often consider ways to reducethe brightness range. One way is with the use of a contrastcontrol filter. There are actually three types of these filters-lowcontrast, soft contrast, and the Tiffen Ultra Contrast. The latterfilter seems to affect sharpness the least and result in the leastamount of highlight or shadow flare-assuming that’s desirable.All of these filters, together with various fog and mist filters,are used to simulate the “film look” in video.

Filters For “the Film Look”Compared to film, some people feel that digital video can looka bit harsh, overly sharp, and even a bit brassy. At the sametime, many people feel that video is a unique medium, and itshould not try to take on the characteristics of film. Even so,some Directors of Photography (DPs) feel that people are morecomfortable with the softer “film look.”

Day-For-NightA common special effect-especially in the days of black andwhite film and television-was the “night scene” shot in broaddaylight-so-called day-for-night. In the black and white days adeep red filter could be used over the lens to turn blue skiesdark, even black. Although not quite as easy to pull off in color,underexposing the camera by at least two f-stops and eitherusing a blue filter, or creating a bluish effect when you whitebalance your camera creates this. A contrast control filter andcareful control of lighting (including avoiding the sky in scenes)adds to the effect. To make the “night” effect more convincingother filtering embellishments can be added duringpostproduction editing. With the sensitivity of professionalcameras now down to one foot-candle (a few lux), “night-for-night” scenes are within reach. Whatever approach you use,some experimentation will be needed using a high-quality colormonitor as a reference.

Color Conversion FiltersColor conversion filters are designed to correct the sizable shiftin color temperature between incandescent light and sunlight ashift of about 2,000K. Although minor color balancing is doneelectronically in professional cameras, colored filters best handlemajor shifts.There are two series of filters in this category, the Wratten #80series, which are blue and convert incandescent light to the colortemperature of sunlight, and the Wratten #84 series, which areamber, and convert daylight to the color temperature oftungsten light. Since video cameras are optimized for one colortemperature, these filters are used-generally in a filter wheel, andoften in conjunction with a ND filter-to make the necessary“ballpark” adjustment. The rest is done electronically when thecamera is color balanced through the filter.

Filters for Fluorescent LightSome lighting sources are difficult to correct. A prime example,and one that videographers frequently run into, is fluorescent

light. These lights seem to be everywhere, and they can be aproblem. Although in recent years camera manufacturers havetried to compensate for the greenish cast that fluorescent lightscan create, when it comes to such things as getting true-to-lifeskin tones-and assuming you can’t turn off the lights and setup your own incandescent lights-you might need to experimentwith a fluorescent light filter. We say “experiment” because thereare dozens of fluorescent tubes, each with different colorcharacteristics. But one characteristic they all have is a “brokenspectrum,” or gaps in the range of colors they emit. The eye can(more or less) compensate for this when it views things first-hand, but film and video cameras typically have problems.There are other sources of light that are even worse-in particularthe metal halide lights often used in gymnasiums and for streetlighting. Although the public has gotten used to these lightingaberrations in news and documentary footage, when it comes tosuch things as drama or commercials it’s generally a differentstory. As we will see, there are some color balanced fluorescentlamps that are not a problem, because they have been especiallydesigned for TV and film work. But, don’t expect to find themin schools, offices, or boardrooms.

Special Effect FiltersAlthough there are scores of special effect filters available, we’lljust highlight four of the most popular: the star filter, thestarburst filter, the diffusion or soft focus filter, and the fogfilter.Star Filters - You’ve undoubtedly seen scenes in which “fingersof light” projected out from the sides of shiny objects especiallybright lights.This effect iscreated with aglass star filterthat has amicroscopic gridof crossingparallel lines cutinto its surface.Notice in thepicture on the right that the four-point star filter used alsoslightly softens and diffuses the image.Star filters can produce four, five, six, or eight-point stars,depending on the lines engraved on the surface of the glass.The star effect varies with the f-stop used.A starburst filter (on the left, below) adds color to the divergingrays. Both star filters and starburst filters slightly reduce theoverall sharpness of the image, which may or may not bedesirable.

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Soft Focus and Diffusion Filters - Sometimes you may want tocreate a dreamy, soft focus effect. This can be done by using asoft focus filter or a diffusion filter (on the right, above). Thesefilters, which are available in various levels of intensity, wereregularly used in the early cinema to give starlets a soft, dreamyappearance, while hiding signs of aging. (Some “over-30”starlets even had this requirement written into their contracts.)A similar effect can be achieved by shooting through fine screenwire placed close to the lens, or by shooting through a singlethickness of a nylon stocking. The f-stop used will greatly affectthe level of diffusion. In the case of soft focus filters ordiffusion materials it’s important to white balance your camerawith these items in place.Fog Filters - A certain amount of “atmosphere” can be addedto dramatic locations by suggesting a foggy morning orevening. Without having to rely on nature or artificial fogmachines, fog filters can create somewhat of the same effect.(Note the photo on the right.)

General Considerations in Using FiltersWhenever a filter is used with a video camera the black level ofthe video is raised slightly. This can create a slight graying effect.Because of this, it’s advisable to readjust camera setup or blacklevel (either automatically or manually) whenever a filter is used.Unlike electronic special effects created during postproduction,the optical effects created by filters during the taping of a scenecan’t be undone. To make sure there are no unpleasant sur-prises, it’s best to carefully check the results on location with thehelp of a high-quality color monitor.

Camera Filter WheelsAs we’ve noted, professional video cameras have one or twofilter wheels located behind the lens that can hold a number offilters. Individualfilters on each wheelcan be rotated intothe lens light pathas needed.Note in the photoon the right that thecamera has two filter wheels. One labeled 1 - 4, and one A - D.Each wheel can be turned to rotate into position the variousoptions noted on the right of the photo. For example 2-Bwould be a 1/4 ND (neutral density) filter, along with a 3,200Kcolor correction filter.Filter wheels might also contain -• a fluorescent light filter, which can reduce the blue-green

effect of fluorescent lights• one or more special effects filters, including the previously

discussed star filter• an opaque “lens cap,” which blocks all light going through

the lensAlthough filters shown are located behind the lens, it should benoted that some filters, such as polarizing filters, must bemounted in front of the camera lens to be most effective.

Matte BoxesA matte box is a device mounted on the front of the camerathat acts both as an adjustable lens hood and as a way of

holding gelatinfilters.As we noted earlier,instead of usingcircular glass filters,comparativelyinexpensive squareor rectangularcolored gels (gelatinfilters) can beinserted into the the

matte box, just in front of the lens. Note photo on the left.Matte boxes can also hold small cutout patterns or masks. Forexample, a keyhole-shaped pattern can be cut out of a piece ofcardboard and used to give the illusion of shooting through akeyhole (although these days there are very few keyholes you cansee through). Most of the effects formerly created by matteboxes are now more easily and more predictably achievedelectronically with a special-effects generator.

Periscope LensA “bug’s eye” view of subject matter is possible with thisperiscope/probe system.This angle is useful whenactors are electronically keyedinto realistic or fantasyminiature models. The effectis enhanced with the wide-angle views of the four lensesthat come with the system.This model is modular indesign and can be used withSDTV, HDTV, and a full range of film cameras.

F-Stops and Creative Focus TechniquesCats and owls can see in dim light better than we can, in partbecause the lenses of their eyes allow more light to enter. Wecould say that the speed of the lenses in their eyes is “faster”than the lens speed of our eyes. Lens speed is defined as themaximum amount of light that the lens can transmit. Like thepupil of an eye that automatically adjusts to varying light levels,camera lenses have an iris that controls the amount of light thatcan go through the lens. Most of us know that under very lowlight conditions the iris (pupil) of our eyes opens up almostcompletely to allow in the maximum amount of light. Inbright sunlight the pupil contracts in an effort to avoidoverloading the light-sensitive rods and cones in the back ofour eyes.

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In the same way, the amount of light falling on the light-sensitive target of a TV camera must be carefully controlled withthe aid of an iris in the middle of the lens (shown above on theleft). Too much light, and the picture will become overexposedand washed out; too little, and detail in the darker areas of thepicture will be lost.Although an iris can be smoothly adjusted from a very smallopening to the point of being wide open, certain specific pointsthroughout this range are marked in terms of levels of lighttransmission. These numerical points are called f-stops. Each f-stop represents the number of times the distance across lensopening must be multiplied to arrive at the lens focal length.Thus, the “f” stands for the factor involved. Put another way, f-stop numbers are derived from the ratio between the lensopening and the lens focal length.If you are into formulas, here’s how that looks:

f-stop = focal length / lens openingThus, when a lens iris is set at f/8, the diameter of the lensopening must be multiplied by 8 to arrive at the lens focallength; when it is set at f/2.0, the diameter of the iris openingmust be multiplied by 2 to arrive at the focal length.This bit of math explains the strange set of numbers used forf-stop designations, and the fact that the smaller the f-stopnumber the more light the lens transmits.The following illustrates this relationship.

1.4, 2.0, 2.8, 4.0, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22<=== more light ~ less light ==>Occasionally we see f-stops not illustrated above. Exampleswould be f/1.2, f/3.5 and f/4.5. These are midpoint settingsbetween whole f-stops, and on some lenses they represent themaximum aperture (speed) of the lens.

The figure at the right compares a series of f-stops.We’ve notedthat the speedof a lens isequal to itsmaximum(wide-open)f-stop. In the drawing shown above, f/l.4 would be the speedof the lens represented. When an iris setting is opened up onef-stop (from f/22 to f/16 in the drawing above, for example), itwould represent a 100 percent increase in the light goingthrough the lens. Conversely, if the lens is stopped down onestop (from f/16 to f/22, for example), the light is cut by 50percent.Put another way, when you open up one stop you double thelight; when you stop down one stop you halve the amount oflight going through the lens.Once the f-stop range is understood, it will be obvious which

way a lens iris should beadjusted to compensatefor a picture that is eithertoo light or too dark.

Cameras with automaticexposure controls use a

small electric motor to automatically open or close the iris inresponse to varying light conditions. On professional camerasthe f-stop settings are visible on the lens barrel and sometimesin the camera’s viewfinder display.On many consumer cameras the numbers aren’t shown andexposure adjustments are automatic-which may or may not setthe iris at the best setting for specific subject matter. (Manufac-turers don’t want to trouble unsophisticated consumers withsuch things as f-stops, but professionals want to know aboutsuch things, because they can greatly affect the quality of video.)A typical situation where automatic exposure adjustment willnot provide the best video is illustrated here. When automaticcircuitry is used,bright back-grounds, lights,and windows in ascene will generallyresult in dark(underexposed)video and mutedcolor.

This problemrepeatedly showsup in amateur videos and in the work of beginningvideography students.

Depth of FieldDepth of field is defined as the range of distance in front ofthe camera that is in sharp focus.Theoretically, if a camera is focused at a specific distance, onlyobjects at that exact distance will be completely sharp, andobjects in front of and behind that point will be, to varyingdegrees, blurry.

In actual fact, areas in front of and behind the point of focusmay be acceptably sharp. The term acceptably sharp is subjective.A picture doesn’t just abruptly become unacceptably blurry at acertain point in front of or behind the point of focus. Thetransition from sharp to out of focus is gradual.For practical purposes the limits of sharpness are reached whendetails become objectionably indistinct (blurry). This will varyaccording to the medium. What is acceptably sharp in standardNTSC television (SDTV) will be much greater than what isacceptable in HDTV. In the latter case, the superior clarity of themedium will more readily reveal sharpness problems.

Depth of Field and F-stopsThe larger the f-stop number (the smaller the iris opening), thegreater the depth of field will be.

Therefore, the depth of field of a lens used at f/11 will begreater than when thesame lens is used at f/5.6; and depth of field atf/5.6 will be greater thanat f/2.8.Except for extremecloseups, depth of fieldextends approximately

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1/3 of the way in front of the point of focus and 2/3rdsbehind it. The drawing on the right illustrates this range.

Depth of Field and Focal LengthAlthough depth of field also appears to be related to lens focallength, it’s only an apparent relationship. As long as the sameimage size is maintained on the target, all lenses of similardesign when set at a specific f-stop will have about the samedepth of field, regardless of focal length. The followingparagraphs will take a bit of careful reading to understand. (Itdoesn’t help that some textbooks have this informationwrong!) The reason a wide- angle lens appears to have a muchgreater depth of field than a telephoto lens is that, by compari-son, the size of the image on the camera’s target is muchsmaller. The smaller (compressed) image size created by thewide-angle lens simply hides the lack of sharpness.

If you were to enlarge a section of image area out of the wide-angle shot exactly equal to the image area created by thetelephoto lens, you would find the depth of field would be thesame. Because wide-angle lenses (or zoom lenses used at wide-angle positions) are good at hiding a lack of sharpness, they area good choice when accurate focus is a problem. Of course,when you use a wide-angle lens setting you may need to movemuch closer to subject matter to keep the same-sized image.This means you are, in a sense, right back where you started. Bymoving in close, you’ve lost the sharpness advantage youseemingly gained by using the wide-angle lens in the first place.With a telephoto lens or zoom lens used at a telephoto setting,focus has to be much more precise. In fact, when zoomed infully (at maximum focal length) the area of acceptable sharpnessmay be less than a few inches (20mm, or so), especially if thelens is used at a wide aperture (low f-stop number). This canrepresent either a major problem or a creative tool. In the lattercase it can force a viewer to concentrate on a specific object or areaof a scene. (Our eyes tend to avoid areas of a picture that arenot clear, and they are drawn to areas that are sharply focused.)

Focusing A LensIt might seem that focusing a lens is a simple process of just“getting things clear.” True, but a few things complicate theissue. It’s probably obvious at this point that a zoom lensshould be focused after first zooming into a close shot (usingmaximum focal length). Since focusing errors will be the mostobvious at this point, focusing will be easier and more accurate.Once focused, the lenscan be zoomed backto whatever focallength is needed.

If the scene contains aperson, you will wantto focus on thecatchlight or gleam inone eye. There are tworeasons for this: the person’s eyes are normally the first place welook in viewing a scene, and this small, bright spot is easy tofocus on. Note the extreme close-up woman’s eye in the cameraviewfinder in the photo on the right. If you don’t zoom in andfocus, but try to focus while holding a wide shot, you will

inevitably find when you later zoom in that the picture will “goout of focus.” (The focus error that wasn’t noticeable beforewill suddenly be greatly magnified.)

Selective FocusOne of the important creative tools available to a videographeror cinematographer is focus-making sure certain some things arein focus and others aren’t. This ends up being an effective wayof directing attention toward things that are important in ascene and away from things which can be distracting, or need tobe de-emphasized or hidden.

The term selective focus is used to describe the process of usinglimited depth of field to intentionally throw areas of the pictureout of focus. This technique is widely used in film and isassociated with the so-called “film look” that many people finddesirable. Consider the scene in the left. By throwing thebuilding and the newspaper out of focus, the woman standsout clearly in the photo and is not lost in a confusion ofdistracting elements.If the scene is brightly lit, as this one is, you may have to use a

high CCD shutter speed oreven a light reducing neutraldensity filter to reduce theamount of light goingthrough the lens. Tocompensate for either ofthese actions, the iris willhave to be opened up to letin more light. whichminimizes depth of fieldand creates the selective focuseffect.Zoom lenses used atmaximum focal length(zoomed in) can createsomewhat the same effect.

In either case you will need to study the effect in a high-resolution video monitor to make sure you are achieving theeffect you want.

Follow FocusIn video production we are often dealing with moving subjects.A person may quickly move outside the limits of depth of fieldunless the lens can be quickly refocused. Professionals knowwhich way to turn the focus control to keep a moving subject insharp focus. (Nonprofessionals end up throwing a slightlyblurry image totally out of focus for a few seconds when theyfirst turn the focus adjustment the wrong way.) The techniqueof follow focus is used to subtly refocus the camera to accom-modate subject movement. (This is not to be confused withrack focus, to be discussed below.)

The Macro Lens SettingMost zoom lenses have a macro setting that enables the lens toattain sharp focus on an object only a few inches or even a fewmillimeters from the front of the lens.Although lenses differ, to reach the macro position on manyzoom lenses a button or lever on the barrel of the lens is

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pushed to allow the zoom adjustment to travel beyond itsnormal stopping point.

Many newer lenses are called continuous focus lenses. These areinternal focus lenses that can be smoothly and continuouslyadjusted from infinity to a few inches without manually havingto shift the lens into a macro mode.Videographers often forget about the macro capability, but itoffers many dramatic possibilities. For example, a flower,stamp, or a portion of a drawing or snapshot can be made tofill the TV screen. A tripod or camera mount is a “must” inusing the macro setting. Since depth of field extends only a fewmillimeters at this super-close range, focus is extremely critical.

Rack Focus (Pull Focus)Rack focus or Pull focus is similar to selective focus, only the

camera operator changes focusto shift viewer attention fromone part of the scene toanother.

Note how rack focus is usedin this series of photos. Inthe first photo on the left

above we see the woman (in focus) sleeping. When the phonerings the focus shifts to thephone, (on the right, above).As she picks up the phone andstarts to talk, the focus shifts(racks) back again to bring herinto focus.To use this technique you haveto rehearse your focus shifts so you can manually rotate the lens

focus control from onepredetermined point toanother. Some videographerstemporarily mark the points onthe lens barrel with a greasepencil. After locking down thecamera on a tripod, they canthen shift from one focus

point to another as needed.

Autofocus LensesAlthough autofocus lenses can be a help in following movingsubjects, you will encounter problems unless you fully under-stand how they work.

Most autofocus devices assume that the area you want in sharpfocus is in the center of the picture. The autofocus area isrepresented by thegreen area in thisphoto.Let’s look at the rackfocus sequencediscussed above.Since the area youwant to focus ondoes not remain in the center of the frame, autofocus wouldnot be useful.Note that in the photo below the center area is correctly focused(thanks to autofocus) but that the main subject is blurry. Ofcourse, the goal in this case was to have it the other way around.

To make this scene work with autofocus you would have to panor tilt the camera to bring the main subject into the autofocusarea. This would change the composition in a way that manywould find undesirable.Some camcorders allow you to center the subject matter in theautofocus zone and then lock the autofocus on this area. Youcan then can reframe the scene for the best composition.One camcorder attempts to track eye movement in theviewfinder and shift focus accordingly. If you were looking atthe women, the camera would focus there; but as soon as youlooked at the building in the background, the camera wouldshift focus to this point.Autofocus systems have other weaknesses. Most can be fooledby reflections, and flat, monochrome areas with no detail. Mostautofocus systems also have trouble determining accurate focuswhen shooting through glass, wire fences, etc. And, finally,autofocus devices (especially under low light) can keep readjust-

ing or searching for focusas you shoot, which canbe quite distracting.For all of these reasonsprofessionalvideographers typicallyturn off autofocus, if iteven exists on their

particular video camera, and rely on their own focusing tech-niques. The only exception would be in a chaotic situationwhere there is no time to manually try to keep moving subjectmatter in focus.

Notes

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LESSON 7:LIGHTS AND LIGHTING PRINCIPLES

Lighting: Hard and Soft LightThe art of cinematography is the art of lighting

and making thatlight tell thestory.

Stephen H.Burum, ASC(ApocalypseNow, Carlito’sWay, MissionImpossible,Body Double,Life or Some-thing Like It,etc.).

Lighting can emphasize important details or completely hidethem. It can flatter a subject by bringing out positive attributes,and it can de-emphasize or hide less attractive attributes.Lighting can even impart a sinister and hostile look. It alldepends on how you choose to use the concepts we’ll becovering in the next few modules. Television is based on themedium of light; in fact, without light there could be no video.Just as sound must be skillfully controlled in audio production,light must be expertly controlled in television.As video-especially HDTV-has begun to emulate the moreartistic dimensions of film, there has been a greater emphasison creative lighting. But, before you can successfully controllight, you need to understand and control its three basiccharacteristics:• coherence (quality)• color temperature• intensity

In this module we’ll cover the first of these.

Light CoherenceCoherence, often called quality, is the hardness or softness oflight. Light quality is probably the least understood and themost neglected of the three variables.

Hard LightLight that is transmitted directly from a small point source

results in relatively coherent (parallel)rays. This gives the light a hard, crisp,sharply defined appearance. The lightfrom a clear, unfrosted light bulb, afocused spotlight, or the noonday sun ina clear sky, all represent hard lightsources.

Hard light casts a sharp, clearly definedshadow. When hard light is used toilluminate a face, imperfections in the

skin stand out. The result is less than flattering. But in otherapplications, such as bringing out the texture in leather, or theengraving on a piece of jewelry, this can be an advantage.

Note in the photo on the left how the writing stands out. Alsonote the clearly defined shadow of the flower at the bottom ofthe photo. Compare this photo with the one in the sectionbelow (with soft light) where the letters are hard to read and theshadow of the flower has all but disappeared.Several types of lighting instruments are used in TV to createhard light, including the beam-spot projector and the ellipsoidalspotlight.

Soft LightSoft (diffused) light has the opposite effect. As shown in thephoto on the left below, soft light tends to hide surfaceirregularities and detail.

Spun-glass diffusers (photo above) are used over the front oflights to soften and diffuse their beams. At the same time,diffusers also reduce the intensity of light.Soft light sources are used in production to create a broad, evenarea of light. In the field, videographers often rely on umbrellareflectors (on the right, below) to create a soft lighting effect. Asyou can see, this is simply a light bounced off the inside of asilver or white, umbrella-like reflector. The illustration belowon the left shows a much heavier soft light that is commonlyhung.

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Since soft light tends to hide lines, wrinkles and blemishes, it’sdesirable in doing glamour work. Thephoto of the model on the left wasshot with soft light.A soft light source placed close to thecamera minimizes surface detail. Theeffect is commonly referred to as flatlighting.Although it has certain applications,especially in extreme close-ups of

objects where shadows would obscure important details, flatlighting leaves subject matter somewhat “dimensionless.”When used over a large area, it can impart an arid and sterile-looking appearance.

Ultra-Soft LightingThere are a few occasions when ultra-soft lighting is necessary tokeep video equipment from exceeding its brightness or contrast

range limitations andcompressing (losing)important detail.To create this ultra softlighting the subjectmatter was surroundedby a white sheet, leavingonly a small openingfor the camera lens.

Three lights placed at different angles lit the sides of the sheet.

Color TemperatureAlthough the second attribute of light, color temperature, refersto its basic color, we’re also speaking of a characteristic of lightthat goes beyond the obvious.For example, in the photo on the right, both sources of light(sunlight on the right; a standard light bulb on the left)normally appear as white lightto the eye. It’s only when we seethem together that we noticethat the colors of the twosources of light are quitedifferent.As we’ve noted, under normalconditions, a human perceptualadjustment called approximatecolor consistency comes intoplay and automatically makesadjustments for sources oflight that we assume are white.Strangely, when we look atvideo or film, approximatecolor consistency doesn’t work in the same way. Unless colorcorrections are made, we’ll notice significant (and annoying)color shifts between scenes when they are cut together.

Although light can be any color between infrared and ultravio-let, there are two basic color standards: 3,200K (Kelvin) forincandescent lamps used in studios and 5,600K for averagedaylight. The latter can vary, as we will see.

Sunlight’s Varying Color TemperatureThe color of sunlight can actually vary greatly, depending on thetime of day, the amount of haze or smog in the air, and thegeographic longitude and latitude of the area.Because of its angle to the earth in the early morning and lateafternoon, sunlight must travel through more of the earth’s

atmosphere.Note thedifferent lengthsof the red lineson the left. Thelonger line in thedrawing repre-sents the sun’sangle at sunrise

or sunset. The longer path results in more blue light beingabsorbed than red (shorter wavelengths of light are morereadily absorbed). Consequently, the color temperature of thesun is shifted toward red, which accounts for the red in sunrisesand sunsets.

During midday, the sun’s rays have less distance to travelthrough the atmosphere (the overhead sun in the illustration)and the temperature of direct sunlight at noon equals about5,500K. (Depending on conditions, this number can be from5,400 to 6,000K). As the sun moves across the sky there aresubtle color shifts. And, if the sun moves in and out of cloudcover, color temperatures (and light quality) will also dramati-cally change.Color temperature is also shifted as a result of travelingthrough haze or an overcast sky. If a camera is not color-balanced under these conditions, this light will impart a cold,bluish look to skin tones. The color temperature of averagesummer shade is rather blue-about 8,000K. Midday skylight(no direct sun) can range from 9,500K to 30,000K. How can thecolor temperature of the sun possibly get to 30,000K? Well, it’snot actually sunlight that’s directly involved, but the light fromthe blue sky, which acts to filter out some of the red compo-nents of the sunlight.

Artificial Light SourcesWe mentioned that 3,200K is the standard color temperature

for TV lighting-considerably lower(redder) than averagedaylight. Note thehigh proportion ofyellow and red in theincandescent lightarea of this illustra-tion. This artificialtype of lighting is

commonly referred to as incandescent light, or tungsten light,after the coiled tungsten filament in these lamps.

Not all incandescent light is 3,200K. A common 100-watt lightbulb, for example, is only about 2,850K. A candle flame (forthose of you who have a need to shoot productions undercandlelight!) is even redder-about 1,900K. Most of these

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sources can be handled by the white balance circuitry of yourvideo camera—assuming you remember to regularly whitebalance your camera. There are, however, sources of artificialillumination that tend to defy proper color (white) balancing.

Broken Spectrum SourcesYou may have noticed that sometimes videos and still photosshot under standard fluorescent lights often exhibit a greenish-blue cast. Fluorescent lamps belong to the group of lightingdevices known collectively as discharge lamps-glass tubes filledwith metal vapor with electrodes at each end. Unlike tungsten-type lights, standard fluorescent lamps have a broken spectrum.Instead of a relatively smooth mix of colors from infrared toultraviolet, fluorescent light has sharp bands or spikes of color-primarily in the blue-green areas. Even though the eye will notnotice these spikes, color shifts can result with video. Althoughthis blue-green appearance used to be very pronounced in videothat was shot under fluorescent lights, recent improvements inCCD/CMOS color response have reduced the problem.

The Daylight Fluorescent TubeUsing a popular fluorescent tube, the daylight fluorescent, as anexample, the average color temperature for this tube is 6,500K.

Note in thisillustration thejumps in the blue-green areas of thecolor spectrum. Thismeans that blue-green tones can beexaggerated and redswill be rendered

slightly gray and dull. Although some video cameras havefluorescent filters included in their filter wheels, they can’tcompletely or consistently solve these problems. For one thing,there are about 30 different fluorescent tubes in use, each withslightly different color characteristics. In terms of color tempera-ture they range from 6,500K to less than 3,000K.

Warm-White FluorescentThe standard consumer-type fluorescent lamp that causes theleast color temperature problem is the warm-white fluorescent,at 3,050K. Even though this type of fluorescent light can makesubject matter look slightly pale and greenish. To avoid theunpredictable effects of standard fluorescent lights,videographers who want to accurately reproduce skin tonessimply turn the fluorescents off and set up their own lightingequipment. This not only to solves the color temperatureproblem, but it brings the level of light up to an more accept-able level.

Color-Balanced Fluorescent LampsThus far in this discussion we have used the term “standardfluorescent lights.” In recent years, at least two fluorescent tubemanufacturers have started producing high-intensity fluorescentbulbs that use special chemical compounds to smooth out thespectrum spikes found in standard fluorescent tubes.Banks of color-balanced fluorescent lights produce a soft,virtually shadow less light over a wide area. This type of light(shown on the right) has been gaining popularity in certain

studio applications. Compared to traditional studio lighting, itgenerates much less heat and consumes much less energy.However, since thesefluorescent banks can’tproject light any greatdistance, their use islimited to subject matterthat’s relatively close tothe lights. Often, color-balanced fluorescentbanks are used toprovide an over-all, evenlighting, and other, more coherent lighting instruments are thenadded as accent (key) lights.

Other Types of Discharge LightsOther types of discharge lamps can cause much more severecolor problems in video than standard fluorescent lamps. Onetype of sodium vapor lamp, used primarily for street lighting,produces a brilliant yellowish-orange, broken spectrum lightthat will drastically (and hopelessly) skew color balance. Operat-ing at higher internal pressures are mercury vapor lamps,sometimes used for large interior areas such as gymnasiums.Although the basic color temperature ranges from 3,500K to5,900K, depending on the lamp, because they are brokenspectrum, they can do strange things to color. Sometimes theyare mixed with other types of lamps to smooth out the colorspectrum problem. Another type of discharge lamp is the metalhalide lamp that ranges from 3,800K to 5,900K.

TV Set and Video Monitor Color BalanceBefore leaving the subject of color temperature we need tomention a factor that also needs to be considered in reproduc-ing video and film images-the inherent color temperature of theTV sets and color monitors that display the images. Profes-sional TV monitors use a standardized set of SMPTE colorphosphors that create “white” at 6,500K. Note that this is bluerthan sunlight, and much bluer than incandescent light. How-ever, the color temperature of most home TV sets isconsiderably higher than 6,500K-commonly 7,100K in theUnited States and 9,300K in Japan. TV sets sold in mostEuropean countries are much closer to the 6,500K standard.One of the reasons for the high color temperature in U.S. andJapanese sets is the consumer desire for bright, saturated colors,which are easier to create when there is a large blue componentin the phosphor mix.

Light IntensityCreative manipulation of lightcan elicit stunning images froma modest consumer camcorder,while poor lighting will cripplethe most expensive, state-of-the-art broadcast camera.Michael GrotticelliThe third and last lightingvariable is intensity. As we willsee, the control of light intensity (or quantity) represents amajor variable in dramatic production. For example, in the

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photo above the inside and outside illumination levels have tobe carefully balanced to keep one from overpowering the otherand spoiling the effect. Note how the different color tempera-tures are also important to the effect.Although these things are easy to see in the photo, in an actualsetting the eye ends up being a poor judge of both relativeintensity and color temperature. Light intensity (quantity) ismeasured in foot-candles (candela) in the United States, or inlux in most other countries. Even in the United States “lux”seems to be replacing “foot-candles.” As we’ve noted, a foot-candle equals about 10.74 lux (or, for a rough conversion,multiply foot-candles by 10 to get lux).To provide some points of reference:

• sunlight on an average day ranges from 32,000 to 100,000 lux• TV studios are lit at about 1,000 lux• a bright office has about 400 lux of illumination• moonlight represents about 1 lux• starlight measures a mere 0.00005 luxAlthough most TV cameras need at least 1000 lux (about 90FC) to produce good quality video, many can produce acceptablepictures under 10 lux (about 9 FC) of light. The average studioillumination is now is about 150 FC, or 1,500 lux.

Light MetersLight meters are used to measure light intensity. As we will see,being able to establish rather exact intensities for the variouslights is important for professional video work. Uneven lightaround a scene will cause variations in video levels. Majorlighting intensity differences can result in dark or even washedout skin tones. But, it’s possible to walk around a set with anincident light meter (discussed below) and quickly find dark or“hot” areas where lighting needs to be adjusted.

There is another reason for being able to accurately measurelight on a set. Bysubtly manipulat-ing the brightnessin the primary andsecondary areas ofa scene, you canachieve a sophisti-cated means ofvisual control. Aswe’ve noted, oureyes are drawn to

light areas in a scene. Therefore, you can use light to emphasizethe scene’s center of interest and downplay secondary orpotentially distracting elements. (Note illustration on the left).Before you can use relative intensities creatively (and avoidintensity related problems) you need to be able to accuratelymeasure light intensity.Since the eye is a rather unreliable judge in setting up lighting,we should either use a light meter or a keen eye and a high-quality color monitor. Although the latter may be preferred formaking final adjustments, when lights are first being put intoplace it’s much faster to use a light meter.There are two types of meters: reflected and incident.

Reflected Light MetersA reflected light meter measures the amount of light beingreflected from (off of) the main subject matter in a scene. Thisis the type of built-in light measure-ment system used in most stillcameras. Because a reflected lightmeter assumes that all subjectmatter reflects 18 percent of thelight falling on it—a so-calledaverage scene—it can be easily fooledby nonstandard subject matter. Thisis why the auto-iris or auto-exposure devices in video camerascan get you into trouble. Theaccuracy of reflected light readings can be improved by using aspot meter (shown on the right). Spot meters are a type ofreflected light meter that can measure light within a one- to five-degree angle of view-sort of like looking at things with a set ofbinoculars. In a studio setting, for example, you can standwhere the cameras will be and take readings off of all of theimportant subject matter in the scene. If light readings betweendifferent elements in a scene are greater than five f-stops, theoptimum contrast ratio has been exceeded and you will end upwith some of the problems we discussed earlier. Contrast ratioscan be reduced either by throwing more light on the dark areasor by reducing light intensity on bright areas.

Incident Light MetersWhereas a reflected light meter is valuable in determiningcontrast (brightness) ratios in a scene, an incident light meter

(shown here) can tell you how bright thelight falling on a scene is. Instead ofmeasuring the amount of light reflectedfrom subject matter, incident meters measurethe amount of light falling on the subject.

To get an accurate reading in the studio withthis type of meter you must point it directlyat the light you are measuring while standing

in the position of the talent. Some incident-type meters, such asthe one shown here, read directly in foot-candles or lux, othersrequire a conversion scale.Some light meters, such as the one shown below on the right,can be used as reflected light meters(including spot meters) and incidentmeters.Often, you have to shoot video undervery low light conditions. News anddocumentary work and some of thenetwork reality shows that rely onexisting light are good examples.Today’s professional video cameras arevery sensitive to light, but in checkingout a location, and before you take thetime to set up all your equipment,you may want to make sure your camera can “make pictures.”

If you use a meter for this purpose, you first have to knowhow sensitive your camera is in terms of an exposure index

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(EI/ISO/ASA sensitivity). Once you know this, it’s easy tocheck out shooting locations.By taking multiple readings off of different subject matter inthe scene with a meter like this, you can also tell if variouselements in the scene exceed the maximum brightness range forgood video. The use of a meter is especially important inprofessional HDTV production, which is technically moredemanding that SDTV.

Color Temperature MetersWe noted in the opening section that sometimes it’s important

to use color temperature to achievecreative effects. There are colortemperature meters-one is shownon the left-that provide a readoutof the dominant color temperatureof a light.In video, color temperature metersaren’t used nearly as much as light

meters because cameras can be white-balanced to automaticallyaccommodate different light sources. But, in creating anintentional difference between light sources, as in the case of thephoto at the beginning of this module, knowing the colortemperatures of light sources can be important.Gels (colored filters) can be used in front of lights to changetheir color. We’ll discuss the creative use of color in lights in alater module.

Controlling Light IntensityOf course, it does little good to know how to measure thebrightness of lights if we can’t control their brightness. Thereare several ways of doing this.

Intensity Control Through Varying DistanceAs the distance between a light source and the subject increases,the light is spread out over a larger area and the intensitydecreases. Put more precisely, the intensity of light from anunfocused light source decreases according to the inverse-squarelaw. We’ll leave precise FC/lux calculations to the mathemati-cians and illustrate this concept by showing the intensity of alight bulb at different distances from a subject.

To use another example, let’s say when a light is 3 meters (10feet) away from a subject you find that there’s 4000 lux of lighton your subject. If you then double the light-to-subjectdistance to 6 meters (20 feet), you will end up with only about1/4 the original light, or 1000 lux.This exact relationship does not hold with focused types oflights, such as Fresnels and spotlights, and lighting instrumentsthat have highly polished reflectors. Even so, by keeping this

general concept in mind you will be able to vary the intensitiesof various lights to arrive at approximate lighting ratios.

This concept proves particularly useful in setting up lights onlocations. In these situations altering light intensities becomes amatter of just moving the lighting stands closer or farther awayfrom subjects.

ScrimsAnother way to control the intensity oflight is with scrims, which resemble aframe of finely-woven screen wire. Byusing a single or double thickness scrimover a light, the light’s intensity can becut 30 to 60 percent.

Focusing LightsMany lighting instruments can be focused. This also influencesintensity. By using a lever or a crank, the beam of these lightscan be pinned down and concentrated over a narrow area, orflooded out to cover a larger area.

DimmersLastly, brightness can be reduced in incandescent lights byreducing the voltage to the lamps with dimmers. Unfortunately,this also affects color temperature. A rough rule of thumb isthat for every one-volt drop in the voltage to an incandescentlight, the color temperature drops by 10K. Since the human eyecan detect a 200K color shift in the 2,000-4,000K. range, thismeans that a studio light can only be dimmed by about 20percent (in relation to the other lights) without being noticed.

The Key Light

In typical lighting setups, lighting instruments serve fourfunctions:• key lights• fill lights• back lights• background lights

The photo below was shot with so-called formula or three-point lighting. Even though some lighting directors say there isno such thing as a “formula” for lighting, the formula we’lldiscuss will provide excellent results for most of your videowork. Later, we’ll have a series of examples that shows thisformula in action.If you study this photo you may detect four light sources:

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• on the left (the key light )• on the right (a much dimmer

fill light )• on the hair (a back light ) and• on the background (a

background light )Note: black and white photos andmovies are often preferred whenstudying lighting because lightingeffects are more readily apparentwithout the dimension of color.

The combination effect of thesefour lights (put in exactly the right place, at exactly the rightintensity and with the right quality/coherence), creates anoptimum over-all effect.We’ll start with the key light and take up the other lights later.By the way, in case you are wondering, yes, we call this three-point lighting, even though it involves at least four lights. Sincethe background light is not really on the subject, it doesn’tcount in three-point lighting.

Key Light AttributesAs the name implies, the key light is the main light, the lightthat defines and most affects the appearance of subject matter.In terms of coherence or quality, it should be in the middle of

the hard-to-soft range.In the studio, thisgenerally means aFresnel light.

In three-point (formula)lighting the key light isplaced at an angle ofbetween 30- and 45-degrees from either theleft or the right of thecamera.

In the photograph of the model above, the key light is on theleft, just as it’s shown here.Forty-five degrees off to one side is best (as shown in thedrawing), because, among other things, it brings out moretexture and form (dimension) in the subject. For the sake ofconsistency, the 45-degree angle will be used throughout thisdiscussion.This brings us to the rule we’ll need to keep in mind, especiallyif multiple cameras and camera angles are involved in theproduction:

Light for the Closeup CameraDoes it matter if the key is on the right or the left? Possibly.There are four things you need to think about in making thisdecision.• the person’s best side Put the key on this side. It will

emphasize the positive and downplay the negative facialcharacteristics.

• follow source Is there an apparent source of light in thesetting such as a window or nearby table lamp? If so, be sureto key from this direction.

• consistency In most settings it will look a bit strange if twopeople are sitting next to each other and one is keyed fromthe left and one from the right.

• what’s most practical If there is a wall or obstruction on oneside of the subject-a possible problem when doing on-location shoots-you will generally want to key from the sidethat will enable you to use a 45-degree angle.

In multiple-camera productions you will have to confer with thedirector during the camera-blocking phase of preproduction tofind out which cameras will be taking most of the closeups ofeach person. One thing you don’t want is to “put lightseverywhere” in a frantic effort to wipe out every shadow fromevery conceivable camera angle. In a studio setting where thereare multiple areas to light, you can end up with scores of lights.Three-point lighting for a closeup position will end up being20-point lighting, which is the same as poor lighting. It’s notunusual for a large set in a major dramatic setting to requiremore than 100 lights. Unless basic lighting simplicity ispreserved on the major closeup talent positions, things can endup in a mess-which brings us to another lighting guideline:

The Simpler the Design, the Better the EffectAmong other things, the key light creates the catchlight in eyes-the (single) spectral reflection in each eye that gives the eyes their“sparkle.” Note the catchlight effect in the photo of the modelat the beginning of this section. When you try to “put lightseverywhere,” it not only results in a multitude of catchlights ineyes, but it generally results in flat, lifeless lighting. Numerouslights hitting talent areas also create a confusing horde ofshadows. Barn doors and flags can be a great help in keepinglight out of unwanted areas. In single-camera, things are mucheasier, because there is only one camera angle to worry about atany one time.

The Key’s Vertical AngleWe have established the horizontal angle for the key light isapproximately 45 degrees to the left or right of the subject inrelation to the camera. One other key light angle should beconsidered: elevation.As shown below, this angle is also commonly 45 degrees for thekey light. We’ll cover the other lights shown later.

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Some lighting directors prefer to place the key right next to thecamera, or at a vertical angle of less than 30 degrees. Sometimesin limited on-location conditions this may be unavoidable.However, three problems result from reducing these angles:• the full illusion of depth and form will be sacrificed (not

especially desirable unless you want to create a flat effect withminimal surface detail)

• there is a risk of having shadows from the key light appearon the background directly behind the subject (where they aremost objectionable)

• the talent is forced to look almost directly into a bright keylight when they try to look at their camera (which can resultin squinting, not to mention make reading a cameraprompter difficult)

Ideally, when the talent face their close-up camera they shouldsee the key light 45-degrees off to one side of the camera at anelevation of about 45-degrees-which is not unlike the effectwe’re used to seeing in sunlight.

Keys and Boom MicsSince the key light is the brightest light on the front of a subject,it’s the one that will create the darkest shadows. Shadows fromboom mics (microphones suspended from long poles over thetalent areas) can be minimized by positioning the boom parallelto (directly under) key lights.

By not placing talent too close to a background, the boom shadowwill end up on the floor rather than creating distracting shadowson the background-assuming you keep the key at the recommendedheight of 45 degrees.

The Sun As A KeyWhen shooting on location during the day, the sun willnormally be your key light. However, direct sunlight from a clearsky results in deep, blackshadow areas with a majorloss of detail.

If the sun is directly overhead,a “high-noon effect” will becreated, producing dark eyeshadows. Put technically, inboth instances you’ve grosslyexceeded the brightness rangeof the video system.Suffice it to say, direct sun-light, especially for close-ups,can look unflattering-not onlyto the person in front of the camera, but for your mastery ofproduction skills.First of all, to get around the “high noon effect,” it may be bestto shoot sunlit, on-location productions in midmorning ormid-afternoon when the sun is at an elevation of about 45degrees.If subjects can also be oriented so that the sun (the key light)ends up being 30 to 45 degrees off to one side of the camera,lighting will be best-especially if a fill light (to be discussed later)is used to slightly fill the shadows caused by the sun.

On an overcast day the diffused sunlight will provide a softsource of light.If the diffusedsunlight iscoming frombehind thesubject, it canprovide goodback lighting,while theambient lightfrom the overcastsky furnishes

soft front lighting. With the proper level of cloud cover this canresult in soft, flattering lighting, as shown in this illustration.But there can be a problem.Note the bright background in this photo. In camcorders withautomatic exposure control this will result in underexposure(with unnaturally dark skin tones) unless the back light controlis used to open up the iris two or three f-stops.

If the camera has a manual iris control, you have an even betteroption. You can manually open the iris while carefully observ-ing the result in the viewfinder. The soft light effect in directsunlight can be achieved with the help of a large translucentscreen. A thin white sheet can sometimes be used, but forprofessional applications commercial versions, such as thisGriffolyn screen, are available. Although the above setting is indirect sunlight, the subjects sitting in the Jeep are softly lit.

The Fill, Back and Background Lights

We’ve noted that the key light establishes the dimension, form,and surface detail of subject matter. Although the remaininglights have less important roles, they are nevertheless critical increating an acceptable lighting effect.The key light by itself - whether it’s the sun in a clear sky or afocused quartz light in the studio - produces distractingshadows. The purpose of the fill light is to partially (but notentirely) fill in the shadows created by the horizontal and verticalangles of the key light.

The Fill LightThe fill light should be placed about 90 degrees away from thekey light. This means that if you draw lines from the key to thesubject and then to the fill light, you’ll create a right angle.Although the fill can be positioned at any point from rightbeside the camera to 45 degrees away, it’s safest to place the fill45 degrees from the camera.

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By lighting a full 90 degree area, an important margin of safetyis created in casesubjects unexpectedlymove and cameraangles have to bechanged during theproduction. Havingto stop a productionto change theposition of lights canrepresent a

timeconsuming and costly delay - not to mention, making youa bit unpopular with the cast and crew.Although the horizontal angle for the key should be about 45

degrees, the vertical angleof the fill is less critical.Generally, the fill is placedjust above the camera, asshownon theleft,which

means it ends up being slightly lower thanthe key. In this position it can easily dowhat it’s intended to do: partially fill in theshadows created by the key light.

The height of the fill can be lowered fromthe grid to the proper angle by an exten-sion rod (pipe) or by a counterbalanced extension device shownon the right.We’ve suggested that the fill light should be softer than the key.

A soft light source is able tosubtly fill in some of the key’sshadows without creating asecond catchlight in the eyes.Note in the photo here how theshadow from the key on thecheek is only partially removedby the fill, creating a gradualrounding off of the key lighton the cheek. This key-filldifference provides much of theperception of three dimensions

that’s desirable in a medium that’s limited to two dimensions.

Fill Light Options

A good choice for a studio fill light is a scoop, or a bank ofcolor-balanced fluorescents. When doing on-location work

these options are a bit unwieldy, so a portable quartz stand lightcan be used with a diffuser. The diffuser not only softens the filllight, but it can appropriately reduce its intensity. We’ll cover therelative intensity of each of the lights later in the lecture.Outside, when the sun is being used a key, a reflector board canbe positioned at about 90-degrees from the sun to reflectsunlight into the shadow areas. Large white Styrofoam or foamcore boards are often used for close-ups in ENG work. A largeblank, white artists canvass in a wooden frame, available at mostartist supply stores, is being used here.The photos below illustrate a subject in harsh sunlight with andwithout a reflector fill.

If a key light puts out a wide beam of light, part of this lightcan be bounced off of a reflector board to act as a fill.

The Back LightAt this point we’ve covered two of the three lights on thesubject in formula lighting.The third point is represented by the backlight. The function ofthe backlight is to separate the subject from the background bycreating a subtle rim of light around the subject.

The backlight, sometimes called a hair light, should be placeddirectly behind the subject in relation to the close-up camera.From an overhead perspective you should be able to draw a

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straight line from the lens of the close-up camera, through thesubject, directly to thebacklight.Although the elevation ofthe backlight is oftendictated by conditions, a 45degree angle is mostdesirable. If the back light istoo low, it will be picked upby the camera in wide shots;if it’s too high it will spillover the top of the subject’s head, lighting up the tip of thenose.Compared to the key, a smaller, lower-wattage instrument canbe used for a backlight for two reasons. First, backlights areoften placed closer to the subject than the key light, and, second,with subjects confined to a limited area like a chair, the beamsof many lights can easily be “pinned down” (focused into anarrower beam) to intensify the beam.

By using only back lights with no front lighting a silhouetteeffect can be created. This can be used for dramatic effects or tohide someone’s identity. (Note the photo of the womanreading the script above.) In trying to successfully eliminate allfront lighting-especially in an effort to hide someone’s identity-watch out for reflected light from walls and the floor.

Outside the studio, the use of backlight (generally in the form ofsunlight) can add depth andsepa-rationtosub-jectmat-ter.Note the effect of strong backlightin these two photos.

At the same time, strong backlight without adequate front lightcan create an exposure problem-unless you intentionally want toachieve a silhouette effect.

Remember, on many camcorders there is a back light controlthat’s designed to compensate (to some degree) for thisexposure problem. A careful balance between front light andback light can add a 3-D quality to scenes.

Lighting ComparisonsIn the following pictures we started with the backlight shown

on the left. By scrolling up anddown you can study the effect ofother lights.

On the left we’ve used“straight-on” lighting similar toa flash on a still camera or asun-gun mounted on acamcorder.Even with back light there islittle depth or dimension in thefeatures. This harsh style oflighting should be avoided.

If we use only a key light and aback light (left) we achieve depthand dimension, but without a filllight there are dark shadow areasthat hide detail.

On the right we have added afill light to the scene above andarrived at traditional three-point lighting.

Not only have form anddimension been preserved,but we’ve “opened up” theshadows to reveal detail.

The soft lighting on the left (withkey and fill of equal intensity andof soft quality) reveals all detail,but leaves the subjects lookingflat, without real form or dimen-sion.

Background LightsBackground lights are used to illuminate the background areaand add depth and separation between scene elements.(Remember that a back light is designed to light up the back ofsubjects and a background light is designed to light up the frontof backgrounds. The effect of the backlight is shown below.

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Once the background light is added, the lighting setup iscomplete, as shown in the drawing on the right above.Any type of light can be used as a background light as long as itprovides fairly even illumination across the background, doesnot hit the central subject matter, and is at the appropriateintensity.If the background has detail or texture, you will want to put thebackground light on the same side as the key, as shown in thedrawing above. This keeps the dominant light consistent in thescene.

Note in the photo on the left above that you can see the effectof both the backlight and the background lights.This brings us to the last major issue in formula lighting: therelative intensity of each of the lights. We’ll cover that in thenext section.

Lighting Ratios

Unless each of the four basic lights we’ve discussed is at theproper intensity, the formula lighting approach - or any lightingapproach - will not work. Since the key light is the dominantlight on the subject, it must be stronger than the fill light. Incolor production the fill should be about one-half the intensityof the key. This key-to-fill brightness difference is expressed interms of a lighting ratio.If the key light is twice as bright as the fill, the ratio will be 2:1,which is the standard for most TV applications. At the sametime, some lighting directors, especially in TV news, prefer tomake the key and fill the same intensity, resulting in a flat, high-key effect. Using the 2:1 ratio, if the key light is 2000 lux, the fillwill be 1000 lux; if the key light is 90 foot-candles (FC) the filllight would be 45 FC. Although many lights may be used in ascene, the lighting ratio refers to the ratio between just twolights: the key and the fill. The key-to-fill ratio affects how theform, dimension and surface texture of subject matter will berendered. To achieve dramatic effects, and occasionally to meetthe needs of special subject matter, ratios other than 2:1 can beused.If a lux or foot-candle meter isn’t available to establish theproper lighting ratios, a standard photographic light meter canbe used. The f-stop difference between the intensity of lightscan be translated into a lighting ratio. To achieve a standard 1:2ratio, make the key light one f-stop brighter than the fill. Forexample, the key light (when measured by itself) could call foran exposure of f:16 and the fill light (when measured by itself)an exposure of f:11.

Lighting RatiosWith differences (in f-stops) requiredbetween key and fill light intensities• 1:1 - no difference (flat lighting)• 2:1 - One f-stop (for general color photography,

videography)• 3:1 - One and two-thirds f-stops (for general black and white

photography)• 4:1 - Two f-stops (for low-key dramatic effect)• 8:1 - Three f-stops (for a very low-key dramatic effect)

Because of the video contrast range limitations, for ratiosbeyond this the dark areas will probably just be rendered asblack, without discernible detail.

Sometimes it’s desirable to minimize or smooth out the surfacedetail of subject matter. If highly diffused key and fill lights areused close to the camera there will be a flattening of theappearance of subject matter and a minimizing of surface detailand texture.

Reducing the key-to-fill lighting ratio to 1:1, with the keyintensity equal to the fill intensity, adds to this flat lightingeffect. We’ll use these photos of a jewelry box to illustrate this.The first photo below was shot with a low lighting ratio (flatlighting), the second with a high lighting ratio.

Although form and dimension are sacrificed in flat lighting, thistype of lighting can be useful in minimizing wrinkles and skinproblems, and in creating a soft, flattering effect for the humanface.

This could be very important in a cosmetic commercial, forexample.In contrast, by increasing the key-to-fill ratio to 1:5 and beyond,surface detail and texture will be emphasized-especially if hardkey light is used at an angle from 65 to 85 degrees off to oneside, as shown on the right above.The two photos below were taken of the same section ofconcrete blocks on a wall. The photo on the left was taken on anovercast day, and the photo on the right was illuminated by theoverhead sun on a clear day. Here we can see the difference inboth the quality (hardness and softness) of the sunlight andthe lighting ratio. On the overcast day the key-fill ratio ends upbeing about the same, since the light is diffused.

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Back Light IntensityTo provide the subtle rim of light around subjects, the backlight has to be slightly brighter than the key. In the case of anon-camera person, back lightintensity will depend on the haircolor and clothes. Subjects whohave brown hair and clothes in themid-gray range will require a backlight one and one-half times theintensity of the key. Assuming akey light intensity of 1,500 lux,the back light would then be 2,250lux. If you don’t have a meterthat reads in lux or foot-candles,you can simply move the backlight slightly closer to the subjectthan the key light, or until you see the desired subtle rim oflight around the subject.An Afro hair style and a dull black coat will take more back lightthan and a blond wearing light clothing. Be careful to observethe effect on a monitor or in a well-adjusted camera viewfinder. Withsubjects who have hair and clothingof similar reflectance, the intensityof the back light is not too difficultto determine. But difficulties arisewhen a person has dark hair and alight coat, or blond hair and darkclothing. In such cases the beam ofthe back light(s) can be partiallymasked off with barn doors so thatthe brightest part of the beam willhit the dark areas. The color temperature of the back light is notnearly as critical as it is with key and fill lights. Within limits,dimmers can be used.

Background Light IntensityBecause the background is of secondary importance to thecenter of interest, it should receive a lower level of illumination.Generally, the intensity of background light should be about 2/3 the intensity of key light. This will insure that the centralsubject matter stands out slightly from the background.In case you have forgotten Math 101, you can get two-thirds ofany number by multiplying it by two and dividing the result bythree. There-fore, if the keyis 2,000 lux, thelight falling onthe backgroundshould measureabout 1,300lux.If you are usinga photographicmeter, you canset the back-ground light 1/2 to 2/3 of a f-stop less than the key light.

Since backgrounds are typically one-dimensional (flat) and ofsecondary importance to the main subject matter, the placementof the lights and their angles are not critical. But, the light acrossthe background should be even-especially if you are usingchroma key. By walking across the background area with anincident light meter, you can find dark or bright spots.

Subject-to-Background DistanceShadows on backgrounds from mic booms, moving talent, etc.,can be distracting and annoying. Background lights will lighten,but normally not eliminate, shadows. However, by movingsubjects 3 meters (9 or more feet) away a background, you willfind (if the key is at an elevation of 45 degrees) that shadowswill end up on the floor, out of sight, instead of on the backwall behind the subject.

Sometimes, however, it’s necessary for talent to move in close toa background. An example would be someone explaining achart on a wall. The use of a large soft light would render theshadows from the front lights almost invisible-if you don’tmind the soft, diffused look it will create in the video. Other-wise, you will just need to use a key angle that doesn’t createdistracting shadows. Unduly dark backgrounds can be bright-ened up by using a higher level of illumination, and bright,intrusive backgrounds can be “pulled down” by loweringbackground illumination. Of course not all productions willinvolve just one subject, so now we’ll take up lighting multiplesubjects.

Special Lighting Situations

Although the three-point lighting approach we’ve discussed canbe relied upon to produce excellent results, we also need to lookat some special lighting situations.Let’s start with a simplified design that creates a softer effect

than the three-point formulaapproach we’vecovered.In the drawingbelow note that asoft front lightreplaces both thekey and fill. Theumbrella reflectorshown here, or alight bounced off

a large white card, will provide similar results. In this case thebroad area covered by the key acts as both a key and a fill.

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Although the picture produced will not provide the same depthand dimension as with formula lighting, the softer effect maybe more flattering for some subjects, especially if wrinkles andage lines are an issue.If the background is close behind a subject, this may eliminatethe need for a background light. Since you are using a diffusedlight source, the background will probably be softly lit, andshadows on the background will be less noticeable. A backlightis still desirable to provide needed subject-background separa-tion.

Special Lighting Situation

Camera LightsIn ENG (electronic newsgathering) where quality is oftensecondary to getting a story, camera-mounted, tungsten-halogenor HMI lights(often called sun-guns) aresometimes usedas a sole source ofillumination.These lights can bemounted on thetop of the cameraor held by anassistant.They are typicallypowered bybatteries-generally,the same 12-volt batteries that power the camera.

When used inside, this type of light provides the same(questionable) quality as the familiar single-flash-on-the-cameradoes in still photography.As a result of the straight-on angle involved, picture detail anddepth are sacrificed. Because of the relationship betweendistance and light intensity, the detail and color of foregroundobjects often becomes washed out, and objects in the distancetypically go completely dark.For these reasons, a camera light works best if importantsubject matter is all at about the same distance from the camera.These lights are often used outside in combination with a color-correcting dichroic filter to reduce harsh shadows created bydirect sunlight.

Attachments to Lighting Instruments

Barn DoorsFrom the lighting instruments themselves, we now turn to

attachments that are used with theselights. Adjustable black metal flapscalled barn doors can be attached tosome lights to mask off unwantedlight and to keep it from spilling intoareas where it’s not needed.While barn doors provide a softcutoff (edge) to the perimeters of the

light, flags provide a sharper, more defined cutoff point.

FlagsFlags consist of any type of opaque material that can block andsharply-define the edges of the light source. They are oftencreated and shaped, as needed, from double or triple layers ofaluminum foil.Flags are generally either clipped to stands or attached to theouter edges of barn doors. The further away they are from thelight source, the more sharply defined the light cutoff will be.

Filter FramesFilter frames are typically a part of the barn door attachmentthat slides over the front of lighting instruments. They canhold:• one or more

scrims toreduce lightintensity

• one or morediffusers tosoften the light, or

• a colored gel to alter the color of the lightEach of these simply slides into the filter frame, which in turnattaches to the front of the lighting instrument.

More Lighting Instruments

Cycs and studio backgrounds can be lit from the top andbottom with cyc lights.The one here sits on the studio floor and is directed up at thebackground.

A six-section is shown; but,depending on the area thatneeds to be covered, groundcyc lights can have from oneto 12 sections.

The cyc light on the right is attached tothe grid and is directed down alongbackground. A large background areamay require a number of these lights.

The lamps in Fresnels have been knownto explode, breaking the large Fresnel lensin the front. Since these glass lenses areheavy and they are positioned ten ormore feet (3 or more meters) above thetalent, this constitutes a major safetyhazard.

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The large Fresnel on the right has a wire screen in front of theFresnel lens that is designed to keep broken glass from falling.The use of safety cables or chains that loop from the light tothe lighting grid are also important to safety.Softlights are similar to scoops in their effect. However, insteadof a large amount of direct lightfrom the lamp hitting subjects, theillumination from softlight is allindirect. Light from the concealedlamps is all reflected from the largereflective area. Housings can acceptone or more lamps from 300 to1,000 watts.

Open face lighting instruments aretypically mounted on floor stand andused in on-location lighting. The frontof these lights accepts scrims anddiffusers.

Ellipsoidal Spots

The ellipsoidal spot produces a hard, focused beam of light.Used with gels, it can project colored pools of light on abackground.Some ellipsoidal have slots at their optical midpoint that accepta “cookie” (cucalorus), a small metal pattern (shown in red inthe middle of the drawing below) that can be used to project awide variety of patterns on a background.In some cases, a background pattern (see samples on the left)

may be all you need in a mediumshot or closeup to suggest acomplete setting. For example, acolored stained glass pattern behinda person would suggest that theperson is in a church.Abstract patterns, or patternssuggesting the theme of a program,can also be used to break up whatmight otherwise be a blank back-ground.

These can either be in the form of acookie inside the light as indicated inthe drawing above, or a large patternmounted on a stand. In the lattercase these large patterns are referred

to as gobos, a term which stands for “go between.” When acoherent light source such as an ellipsoidal spot is directed at thepattern, a shadow of the pattern appears on the background.Although Fresnels, scoops, and ellipsoidal spots are the mostused types of studio lights, several other types of lightinginstruments are also used..

Notes

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LESSON 8:BASICS OF EDITING

Continuity Editing

Editing is the creative force of filmic reality...and the foundationof film art. (V.I. Pudovkin, 1915)The above statement was made in 1915, and since that timeediting has become even more important.Editing establishes the structure and content of the productionalong with the production’s overall mood, intensity, and tempo.In this lecture we’ll explore the various dimensions of thistopic. We’ll start with continuity editing. Continuity editingrefers to arranging the sequence of shots to suggest a progres-sion of events. Given the same shots an editor can suggestmany different scenarios.Let’s start with a simple example of only two shots• a man glancing up in

surprise• another man pulling a

gun and firing towardthe camera

In this order it appearsthat the first man wasshot. However, if youreverse the order of these two scenes, the first man is watching ashooting.Let’s look at what we can do with just three shots.• people jumping from a car• the car on fire• an explosionIn the 1-2-3 sequence shown the shots suggest that people arejumping from a car seconds before it catches fire and explodes.

A 3-2-1 order suggests that there is an explosion and then thecar bursts into flames; and, as a result, the people have to jumpout.In a 2-3-1 sequence people jump from the car after a fire causesan explosion. If the sequence is changed to 2-1-3, it appears thatas a result of a fire passengers jump out of the car just in timeto escape a devastating explosion. Very different scenarios withonly three shots to work with!When hundreds of scenes and takes of scenes are available toan editor, which is normally the case in dramatic productions,the editor has tremendous control over the basic continuity andmessage of the production.

Changing Expected ContinuityContinuity editing primarily suggests guiding an audiencethrough a sequence of events and, in the process, showingthem what they want to see when they want to see it. In theend, you’ve told a story, or logically traced a series of events totheir conclusion.

In dramatic television good editors sometimes break from theexpected to achieve a dramatic effect. Unfulfilled expectations canbe used to create audience tension. Let’s take this simple shotsequence:• A man is working at his desk late at night.• There is a knock at the door.• The man behind the desk routinely calls out, “Come in.”• After looking up, the calm expression on the man’s face

dramatically changes to alarm.Why? We don’t know. Where is the shot of who or what justcame in? What happens if we don’t cut to that expected shot?The audience is then just left hanging with curiosity andapprehension-or, depending on how it’s handled, withfrustration and resentment.Here’s an example of the latter. In a story about the changes inthe U.S. $100 bill a treasury spokesperson spends considerabletime giving specific details on the changes that were necessary tofoil counterfeiting. Let’s assume that the whole time all we see isa two-shot of the men carefully examining one of the new $100bills. Obviously, we would want to see a closeup of the bill sowe can see the changes they are referring to. If there is no suchshot, we feel frustrated.

So, unless you want to leave your audience hanging for momen-tary dramatic effect, always keep in mind what you think theaudience expects to see at any given moment. If you do, youredit decision list (sequence of edits) will largely write itself.In news and documentary work the more logically your canpresent events (without extraneous material) the less roomthere will be for misunderstanding or frustration. In these typesof productions you want to be as clear and concrete as possible.In dramatic production we have much more creative latitude. Infact, with dramatic productions it’s often desirable to leave somethings open for interpretation. Sometimes for dramatic effectand to keep an audience guessing (for a while) you may want touse editing to intentionally delay answering an obviousquestion.For example, at the end of the film, One Night Stand, director-writer-producer Mike Figgis focuses on the two main couples inthe film, but keeps us guessing about who ends up withwhom. The dialogue keeps you guessing, and there are two-shots showing each man with each woman. It is only at the veryend of the sequence that the question is answered. (By the way,the director’s narration included with the R-rated DVD version

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provides informative scene-by-scene commentary on theproduction and acting.)

Acceleration EditingIn film and video production time is routinely condensed andexpanded.

For example, let’s say you want to tell the story of a youngwoman going out on an important date. The process of justwatching her pick out clothes from her closet, take a shower, dryher hair, do her nails, put on her clothes and make-up, check thewhole effect in a mirror, make any necessary adjustments, andthen drive to some prearranged place could take 90 minutes.That’s the total time devoted to most feature films-and theinteresting part hasn’t even started yet!Very early in the film business audiences were taught to assumethings not shown. For example, the 90 minutes or so it tookthe woman to meet her date could be shown in 19 seconds.• a shot of her concluding a conversation on the phone and

moving quickly out of the frame (3 seconds)• a quick shot of her pulling

clothes out of her closet (2seconds)

• a shot of her through asteamy shower door (2seconds)

• a couple shots of her blow-drying her hair (4 seconds)

• a quick shot of her headingout the front door. (2seconds)

• one or two shots of herdriving (4 seconds)

• and finally, a shot of herpulling up in front of the prearranged meeting place (2seconds)

• Or how about this.• A shot of her hanging up the phone, jumping up and

moving out of frame.• A shot of her arriving at the agreed upon place.

Expanding TimeOccasionally, an editor or director will want to drag out ahappening beyond the actual time represented.The noted director, Alfred Hitchcock, (North By Northwest,Psycho, etc.) used the example of a scene where a group ofpeople sitting around a dinner table was blown up by a timebomb. In a real-time version of the scene, the people sit downat the table and the bomb goes off. End of people; end ofscene. But Hitchcock was famous for suspense, and no realsuspense would be generated by this approach. In a secondversion the people gather, talk, and casually sit down at thedinner table. A shot of the bomb ticking away under the tableis shown revealing to the audience what is about to happen.Unaware of the bomb, the people continue their banal conver-sations. Closer shots of the bomb are then intercut with theguests laughing and enjoying dinner. The intercutting continues

(and speeds up) until the bomb finally blows the dinner partyto bits. The latter version understandably creates far more of anemotional impact.

Causality

Often, a part of continuity editing is to suggest or explaincause. A good script (enhanced by good editing) suggests orexplains why things happen.For example, in a dramatic production it would seem strange tocut to a shot of someone answering the phone unless we hadheard the phone ring. A ringing phone brings about a response;the phone is answered.We may see a female corpse on the living room floor during thefirst five minutes of a dramatic film, but not know who killedher or why until 90 minutes later.In this case effect precedes cause. Although strict continuityediting would dictate that we present events in a logicalsequence, it would make a more interesting story-one thatwould be more likely to hold an audience-if we present theresult first and reveal the cause gradually over time. Is this notthe approach of almost every crime story?

Sometimes we assume cause.If we are shown a shot of someone with all the signs of beingdrunk (effect), we can probably safely assume they have been

drinking (cause).If we see a shot ofsomeone attempting adifficult feat on skis for thefirst time, followed by ashot of them arriving backhome with one leg in a cast,we assume that thingsdidn’t quite work out.Let’s go back to the corpse

on the living room floor. Knowing that the husband did it maynot be enough (maybe for the police, but not for mostviewers). In causality there is also the question of why. Thisbrings up motivation.

MotivationUnder motivation, we can assume any one of the age-oldmotives, including money, jealousy and revenge. But, evenknowing that the motive was revenge may not be enough for awell thought-out, satisfying production. Revenge must have acause.To provide that answer we may have to take the viewer back toincidents in the past. We could show a woman with a string oflovers. We could then see suspicion, jealousy, resentment, andanger building in her husband. Finally, we could see that thesenegative emotions could no longer be restrained. Now weunderstand. We’ve been shown effect, cause, and motivation.Editors must perceive the dynamics of these cause-and-effectrelationships to skillfully handle them. They must also have anunderstanding of human psychology so that they can portrayfeelings and events realistically. How many serious dramaticproductions have you seen where actions and reactions justdon’t seem to be realistic? Does this not take away from the

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credibility of the production? Writers and directors also knowthey shouldn’t reveal answers (motivations) too quickly. In agood mystery we will probably try to hold our audience byleading them through critical developments in a step-by-stepfashion.

Continuity Techniques

While holding to the basic continuity of a story, an editor canenhance the look of a production by adding insert shots andcutaways. We introduced these previously, but now let’s look atthese from the standpoint of editing.

Insert ShotsInsert shots add needed information, information thatwouldn’t otherwise be immediately visible or clear. In our earlierexample of the new $100 bill, a CU of the bill that was beingdiscussed would be an insert shot. In the photos below theclose-up of the woman’s hands on the right is an insert shot.

An insert shot is a close-up of something that exists within thebasic scene. (Photo above.) The latter is typically represented bythe establishing (wide) shot.

CutawaysUnlike insert shots that show significant aspects of the overallscene in close-up, cutaways cut away from the main scene oraction to add related material.

Here, we cut away from a person descending into a mineshaft(photo on the left) to a shot of a man who is already at a lower

level. The fact that the man shown on the left is glancing downprovides motivation to cut away to the shot above.During a parade, we might cut away from the parade to a shotof people watching from a nearby rooftop or a child in a strollersleeping through the commotion. In the editing process wehave to rely on regular insert shots and cutaways to effectivelypresent the elements of a story. We can only hope that whoevershot the original footage had enough production savvy toshoot them.

Relational EditingMany years ago, the Russian filmmakers Pudovkin andKuleshov conducted an experiment in which they juxtaposed ascene of a man sitting motionless and totally expressionless in achair with various other scenes. The latter included a close-up ofa bowl of soup, a shot of a coffin containing a female corpse,and a shot of a little girl playing. To an audience viewing theedited film, the man suddenly became involved in these scenes.When the shot of the man was placed next to the shot of thecoffin, the audience thought that the actor showed deep sorrow.When it was placed next to the close-up of the food, theaudience perceived hunger in his face; and when it was associ-ated with the shot of the little girl, the audience saw the actor asexperiencing parental pride.Thus, one of the most important tenets of editing wasexperimentally established: the human tendency to try toestablish a relationship between a series of scenes. In relationalediting, scenes, which by themselves do not seem to be relatedtake on a cause-effect significance when edited together in asequence. The scene on the left begs for an immediate scene toexplain who the woman is waving at. If this scene is followedby a shot of a car pulling up to the curb, we would naturallyassume that the woman will go the car and get in. To followthis shot with the scene of students in a library for examplewould probably not make much sense. Thus, in relationalediting we expect to see scenes come together in a logicalsequence to tell some sort of story.It’s easy-and generally even desirable-to combine continuity andrelational editing. Remember the scenario in the last module of

the woman who was apparentlymurdered by her husband? What if wepreceded the shot of the corpse on theliving room floor with shots thatincluded the woman covertly cleaningout large sums of money from a homesafe as her husband entered from adoorway to catch her? Is a relationshipbetween these events suggested? Dowe now have a clue as to what mighthave happened? When it comes to the

next topic, thematic editing, these fundamental concepts change.

Thematic EditingIn thematic editing, also referred to as montage editing, imagesare edited together based only on a central theme. In contrast tomost types of editing, thematic editing is not designed to tell astory by developing an idea in a logical sequence.

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In a more general sense, thematic editing refers to (as they say inthe textbooks) a rapid, impressionistic sequence of discon-nected scenes designed to communicate feelings or experiences.This type of editing is often used in music videos, commercials,and film trailers (promotional clips). The intent is not to trace astory line, but to simply communicate action, excitement,danger, or even the “good times” we often see depicted incommercials.

Parallel CuttingEarly films used to follow just one story line-generally, with thehero in almost every scene. Today, we would find this simplisticstory structure rather boring. Afternoon soap operas, sitcoms,and dramatic productions typically have two or more storiestaking place at the same time.

The multiple story lines can be as simple as intercutting betweenthe husband who murdered his wife in the previous scenarioand the simultaneous work of the police as they try to convicthim. This is referred to as parallel action. When the segmentsare cut together to follow the multiple story lines, it’s referred toas parallel cutting. By cutting back and forth between two ormore mini-stories within the overall story, production pace canbe varied and overall interest heightened. And, if the charactersor situation in one story don’t hold your attention, possibly thecharacters or situations in one of the other storylines will.

Solving Continuity ProblemsAs we’ve noted, audiences have learned to accept the techniqueof cutting out extraneous footage to keep a story moving.Strictly speaking, these are discontinuities in the action. Whilesome discontinuities in action are expected and understood,some are not. When edits end up being confusing or unset-tling, they are called jump cuts. If you are very observant you’llnotice that many films and weekly television series providegood examples of minor discontinuities in action. Here aresome examples:• A two-shot of a couple talking on a dock will show their hair

blowing gently in the breeze, but in an immediate close-upof one of them, the wind has inexplicably stopped blowing.

• A close-up of an actress may show her laughing, but in animmediate cut to a master shot we see that she is not evensmiling.

• A man is walking with his arm around the waist of hisgirlfriend, but an immediate cut to another angle suddenlyshows that his arm is around her shoulder.

These problems are primarily due to shooting in single-camera,film-style, where a significant period of time can elapse betweenscene setups and takes. It would be nice if such discontinuitiescould always be noticed during shooting. New scenes could beimmediately shot and we wouldn’t need to try to fix thingsduring editing. Sometimes, however, these problems onlybecome evident when you later try to cut scenes together. Apartfrom costly and time-consuming re-shooting, there are somepossible solutions.

Bridging Jumps in ActionLet’s start with how a jump cut in a major dramatic productionmight be handled. Remember our young woman who wasgetting ready for a date? Let’s say we see her hang up the phone

in the kitchen and then head out the door to the bathroom. Noproblem yet. Let’s now assume that after exiting the kitchen(moving left-to-right), the hallway scene has her immediatelyreaching the bathroom door from the right. Now she’s movingright-to-left.The audience is left with a question: Why did she instantly seemto turn a full 180-degrees and start walking in the oppositedirection to get to the bathroom? The solution to most ofthese problems is to use the cutaways and insert shots wediscussed earlier. With this particular continuity problem wecould add a quick close-up of someone’s hands (which look likethose of our actress) opening a linen closet and taking out atowel. Not only is a bit of visual variety introduced, but whenyou cut to her entering the bathroom we won’t be as apt tonotice the reversal in action.

If that didn’t work, you might consider putting the scene ofher in front of her closet deciding on her clothes before thebathroom shot. All of these tricks can be used to covercontinuity problems.

Bridging Interview EditsInterviews are almost never run in their entirety. An audienceused to short, pithy sound bites will quickly get bored byanswers that wander from the topic, are less than eloquent, orthat are... just boring. In interviews you may shoot ten timesmore footage than you end up using.

It’s the job of the video editor to cut the footage down• without leaving out anything important• without distorting what was said, and• without abrupt changes in mood, pacing, energy, or

rhetorical directionNot an easy job.To start with, cutting a section out of dialogue will normally

result in an abrupt andnoticeable jump in thevideo of the personspeaking. One solution,illustrated here, is toinsert a three- or four-second cutaway shotover the jump in thevideo.

This assumes, ofcourse, that you’ve already made a smooth audio edit between

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the segments. These cutaways, which are typically done with aninsert edit, are often reaction shots (“noddies”) of the inter-viewer.Typically, these cutaway shots are on a separate videotape (a B-roll) as opposed to the videotape used to record the interviewanswers (the A-roll). In linear editing this process of recordingon two separate videotapes makes things easier. With nonlinearediting two tapes aren’t necessary. We’ll cover that in more detaillater. Editors depend greatly on this supplementary, B-rollfootage to bridge a wide range of editing problems. Therefore,you should always take the time to tape a variety of B-roll shotson every interview-insert shots, cutaways, whatever you can getthat might be useful in editing.Another (and somewhat less than elegant) way of handling thejump cut associated with editing together nonsequentialsegments of an interview is to use an effect such as a dissolvebetween the segments. This makes it obvious to an audiencethat segments have been cut out, and it smoothes out the“jump” in the resulting jump cut.

Abrupt Changes in Image SizeAnother type of jump cut results from a major, abrupt changein subject size. Going from a wide-angle (establishing shot)directly to a close shot can be too abrupt. An intermediatemedium shot is generally needed to smooth out the transitionand orient the audience to the new area you are concentratingon.

For example, if you cut from the shot on the left directly to theone on the right (the area indicated by the arrow), the audiencewould have trouble knowing where the new action was takingplace within the overall scene-or even if it was in the first scene.However, if you cut to the medium shot as shown here beforethe close shot, the area you are moving to becomes apparent. Awell-established 1-2-3 shot formula covers this. It starts with

1. a momentary wide shot(also called a master or establishingshot), then

2. a cut to a medium shot,and then3. cuts to various close-upshots

To “back out of a scene,” if that’s necessary, the shot order canbe reversed.Periodically going back to the wide or establishing shot is oftennecessary to remind viewers where everyone and everything is.This is especially important during or after a talent move. When

you cut back to the wide shot in this way, it’s referred to ascutting to a reestablishing shot.Although this long-shot-to-medium-shot-to-close-up formulais somewhat traditional (and it was even mandated at a timewhen some Hollywood studios were cranking out one featurefilm a week in an assembly line fashion), there will be timeswhen an editor will see an advantage in another approach. Forexample, by starting a scene with an extreme close-up of acrucial object, you can immediately focus attention on thatobject. In a drama that could be smashed picture frame, a gun,or any crucial subject matter. Once the importance or significanceof the object was established, the camera can dolly or zoomback to reveal the surrounding scene.

Shooting AnglesAnother type of jump cut results from cutting from one shotto a shot that is almost identical. Not only is it hard to justify anew shot that is not significantly different, but a cut of this typesimply looks like a mistake. To cover this situation,videographers keep the 30-degree rule in mind. According tothis rule, a new shot of the same subject matter can be justifiedonly if you change the camera angle by at least 30 degrees. Ofcourse, cutting to a significantly different shot-for example,from a two-shot to a one shot-would be okay (even at basicallythe same angle), because the two shots would be significantlydifferent to start with. Related to shooting angles is the issue ofon-screen direction. An example of this is illustrated in thefollowing photos. If the woman were talking to the man onthe phone, which angle seems the most logical: her facing theright (first photo), or facing the left (photo on the right)?

We assume that if two people are talking they will be facing eachother-even though on the telephone this is not necessarily thecase. Although this seems logical when we look at photos suchas these, when you are shooting in the single-camera style andscenes are shot hours or even days apart, these things are easy tooverlook.

Crossing The LineAnd, finally, we come to one of the most vexing continuityproblems-crossing the line. Any time a new camera angleexceeds 180 degrees you will have crossed the line-the actionaxis-and the action will be reversed. This is hard to fix duringediting, although some of the techniques we’ve outlined canhelp.

Football fans know that action on the field is reversed when thedirector cuts to a camera across the field. For this reason it’snever done in following a play-only later during a replay. Andthen it’s only justified (generally with an explanation) if that

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camera position revealssomething that the othercameras couldn’t see.When something is beingcovered live, this type ofreversal of action isimmediately obvious. Theproblem can be much lessobvious when actors must

be shot from different angles during single-camera, film-styleproduction.Let’s say you wanted a close-up of the man at the left of thisphoto.

If the camera for this shot were placed over the woman’s rightshoulder (behind the blue line in the illustration above), thisman would end up looking to our left as he talked to thecouple instead of to our right as shown in the photo. Youwould have “crossed the line.” Note, however, that camerapositions #1 or #2 in front of the blue line could be usedwithout reversing the action.If all close-ups are shot from in front of the action axis, the eye-lines of each person - the direction and angle each person islooking - will be consistent with what we saw in the establish-ing shot.Occasionally, a director will intentionally violate the 180-degreerule for dramatic effect. For example, during a riot scene adirector might choose to intentionally cross the line on manyshots in order to communicate confusion and disorientation.That should tell you something right there about the effect ofcrossing the line. Assuming that confusion is not the objective,an editor must always remember to maintain the audience’sperspective as scenes are shot and edits are made.

Technical ContinuityAny noticeable, abrupt, or undesirable change in audio or videoduring a production is referred to as a technical continuityproblem.We tend to accept some technical continuity problems; otherswe don’t. News and documentaries are often shot underdrastically different conditions, and so we tend to accept suchthings as changes in video color balance or audio ambiancebetween scenes. But in such things as dramatic productions wedon’t want technical inconsistencies diverting our attentionfrom the storyline. In this type of production the medium(television) should be totally “transparent” so there’s nothingto get in the way of the message (the story).

Audio Continuity ProblemsAudio continuity problems can be caused by a wide range offactors including shot-to-shot variations in:

• background sound• sound ambiance (reverberation within a room, mic distance,

etc.)• frequency response of mic or audio equipment• audio levelsIn single-camera production most of these inconsistencies arenot easy to detect on location; it’s only when the various shotsor takes start to be assembled during editing that you discoverthe problem.

As you cut from one scene to another, you may discover thatthe talent suddenly seems to move closer or farther away fromthe mic, or that the level or type of background sound changes(passing traffic, an air conditioner, or whatever).Some problems can be helped with the skilled use of graphicequalizers or reverberation units. Changes in background soundcan sometimes be masked by recording a bed of some addi-tional and consistent sound, such as music or street noise.As in most of life, it’s easier to avoid problems than to fixthem - assuming there even is a way to fix them.

Things To Be Alert ForFirst, be aware that mics used at different distances reproducesounds differently. This is due to changes in surroundingacoustics, as well as the fact that specific frequencies diminishover distance. Although some expensive directional mics willminimize the effect of distance, most mics exhibit “proximity”or “presence” effects. A good pair of padded earphones placedon top of a set of well-trained ears can help in detecting audiodifferences.With the increased reliability of wireless mics, many productionfacilities are equipping actors with their own personal mics. Thedistance of the mic-it’s generally hidden in the person’s clothes-can’t change, and because of the proximity of the mic,background sounds tend to be eliminated. Finally, you need towatch for changes in background sounds. For example, thesound of a passing car or a motorcycle may abruptly appear ordisappear when you cut to a shot that was recorded at adifferent time.Even if an obvious background sound doesn’t disappear, itslevel may change when you cut from one person to another.This may be due to differences in microphone distance coupledwith the level adjustments needed to compensate for thedifferent strength of voices.The scene here would make a beautiful background for aninterview, but the running watercould create major soundproblems-especially for a singlecamera interview or a dramaticproduction.

Audio technicians will often askto keep the camera or audiorecorder running for severalminutes after an interview sothat the ambient sound on thelocation can be recorded. In thecase of the waterfall above, it

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might be possible to lay down this continuous backgroundsound behind all of the interview segments, and thereby evenout sound inconsistencies. Sounds of traffic, which could evencome from a sound effect CD, could be used to the same end.

Continuity Issues in Background MusicMusic can smooth the transition between segments and createoverall production unity-if it’s used in the right way.

Background music should add to the overall mood and effectof the production without calling attention to itself. The musicselected should match the mood, pace, and time period of theproduction. Vocals should be avoided when the productioncontains normal (competing) dialogue.Ideally, the beginning of a musical selection should coincidewith the start of a video segment and end as the segment ends.This almost never happens, of course, at least without a littleproduction help.With today’s computer-based editing systems musical selectionscan be shortened or lengthened to accommodate accompanyingvideo. This is not too hard when a piece contains repetitivesections separated by momentary pauses - you can just take outsegments to shorten the piece and repeat segments to lengthenit. To a limited degree you can electronically speed up and slowdown instrumental segments, especially if the music is not wellknown.The video can also be slightly speeded up or slowed down withcomputer-based editing equipment, but you’ll want to do thatas a last resort. (Rather than edit out segments, many featurefilms used on television are speeded up slightly to provide timefor extra commercials.) Since a noticeable music continuity issuearises when music has to be faded out “midstream” to concludeat the end of a video segment, you can try backtiming themusic.

If the music is longer than the video, you can start the music apredetermined amount of time before rolling the video. Youthen fade in the music as the video starts. If you calculate thingscorrectly, the music and the video will both end at the sametime.Let’s assume, for example, that a music selection is two minutesand 40 seconds long and the video is only two minutes long. By

starting theaudio 40seconds beforethe video, theyshould bothend together.As will see later,all of this is

fairly easy when you are using a nonlinear, computer-basedediting system. (Everything is visible on the computer screen’stime line.) With linear editing the process takes a bit more workand planning.

Video Continuity ProblemsVideo has its own continuity problems; for example, changesin:• color balance

• tonal balance• light levels; exposure• camera optics; sharpness• recording qualityIntercutting scenes from cameras with noticeably different colorcharacteristics (color balance) will immediately be apparent toviewers.

To alleviate this problem, all cameras should be carefully color-balanced and compared before a production. This is especiallyimportant if multiple cameras are beingused and the shots will later be cuttogether.Once cameras are color balancedand matched, an electronic test patternwith all of the primary and secondarycolors should be recorded at the begin-ning of the videotape. This is used to color balance the videoplayback.

Notice in the photos above that several things subtly changeespecially skin tones and color balance. Backgrounds are lesscritical, since your audience probably doesn’t know what colorthey are supposed to be anyway. Cutting from the closeup tothe two-shot would also represent a problem because of thechange in the position of the woman’s head.Editing systems often make use of a vectorscope for adjustingcolors on tapes before editing starts. A vetoroscope and awaveform monitor are both a part of the software of profes-sional nonlinear editing systems. These professional editorsallow you to change the basic color balance of scenes. However,the subtle differences between some colors may not be able tobe satisfactorily changed, which is why the initial color balancingof cameras is so important.

Editing GuidelinesToday’s nonlinear computer editors are capable of just aboutany effect you can envision. Because of this, it’s tempting to try

to impress your audience withall the production razzle-dazzleyou can manage. But, wheneverany production technique callsattention to itself, especially indramatic productions, you’vediverted attention away fromyour central message. Videoprofessionals-or maybe weshould say true artisans of thecraft-know that productiontechniques are best when they

are transparent; i.e., when they go unnoticed by the average

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viewer. However, in music videos, commercials, and program-ming themes we are in an era of where production (primarilyediting) techniques are being used as a kind of “eye candy” tomesmerize audiences. It’s difficult to predict whether thisediting razzle-dazzle will be a passing infatuation, like someproduction gimmicks have been, or whether ostentatious effectswill become a standard competitive feature of TV and audioproduction.

Even though the traditional rules of editing seem to beregularly transgressed in commercials, music videos, etc., themore substantive productions-the ones that often win awardsfor editing-seem to generally adhere to some accepted editingguidelines. As in the case of the guidelines for good composi-tion, we are not referring to them as rules. As you will see, manyof these guidelines apply primarily to single-camera, dramatic,film-style production.

Guideline # 1: Edits work best when they are motivated. Inmaking any cut or transition from one shot to another there is arisk of breaking audience concentration and subtly pullingattention away from the story or subject matter. When cuts ortransitions are motivated by production content, they are moreapt to go unnoticed. For example, if someone glances to oneside during a dramatic scene, we can use that as motivation tocut to whatever has caught the actor’s attention. When oneperson stops talking and another starts, that provides themotivation to make a cut from one person to the other. If wehear a door open, or someone calls out from off-camera, wegenerally expect to see a shot of whoever it is. If someone picksup a strange object to examine it, it’s natural to cut to an insertshot of the object.Guideline # 2: Whenever possible cut on subject movement. Ifcuts are prompted by action, that action will divert attentionfrom the cut, making the transition more fluid. Small jump cutsare also less noticeable because viewers are caught up in theaction. If a man is getting out of a chair, for example, you cancut at the midpoint in the action. In this case some of theaction will be included in both shots. In cutting, keep the 30-degree rule in mind that we previously discussed.

Maintaining Consistency in Action and DetailEditing for single-camera production requires great attention todetail. Directors will generally give the editor several takes ofeach scene. Not only should the relative position of feet orhands, etc., in both shots match, but also the general energylevel of voices and gestures.

You will also need to make sure nothing has changed in thescene - hair, clothing, the placement of props, etc. - and that the

talent is doing the same thing in exactly the same way in eachshot.Note in the photos below that if we cut from the close-up ofthe woman taking to the four-shot, that the position of herface changes. This represents a clear continuity problem-made allthe more apparent because our eyes would be focused on her.

Part of the art of acting is in to maintain absolute consistency inthe takes. This means that during each take talent mustremember to synchronize moves and gestures with specificwords in the dialogue. Otherwise, it will be difficult, if notimpossible, to cut directly between these takes during editing.It’s the Continuity Director’s job to see not only that the actor’sclothes, jewelry, hair, make-up, etc., remain consistent betweentakes, but also that props (movable objects on the set) remainconsistent.It’s easy for an object on the set to be picked up at the end ofone scene or take and then be put down in a different placebefore the camera rolls on the next take. When the scenes arethen edited together, the object will then seem to disappear, orinstantly jump from one place to another.

Discounting the fact that you would not want to cut betweentwo shots that are very similar, do you see any problem incutting between the two shots above? Okay, you may havecaught the obvious disappearance of her earrings and adifference in color balance, but did you notice the change in theposition of the hair on her forehead?

Entering and Exiting the FrameAs an editor, you often must cut from one scene as someoneexits the frame on the right and then cut to another scene as theperson enters another shot from the left. It’s best to cut out ofthe first scene as the person’s eyes pass the edge of the frame,and then cut to the second scene about six frames before theperson’s eyes enter the frame of the next scene.The time is significant. It takes about a quarter of a second forviewers’ eyes to switch from one side of the frame to the other.During this time, whatever is taking place on the screenbecomes a bit scrambled, and viewers need a bit of time torefocus on the new action. Otherwise, the lost interval can createa kind of subtle jump in the action. Like a good magician thatcan take your attention off something they don’t want you to

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see, an editor can use distractions in the scene to cover the slightmismatches in action that inevitably arise in single-cameraproduction. An editor knows that when someone in a scene istalking, attention is generally focused on the person’s mouth oreyes, and a viewer will tend to miss inconsistencies in otherparts of the scene.Or, as we’ve seen, scenes can be added to divert attention.Remember the role insert shots and cutaways can play incovering jump cuts.Guideline # 3: Keep in Mind the Strengths and Limitations ofthe Medium. Remember:

Television is a Closeup MediumAn editor must remember that a significant amount of picturedetail is lost in the 525- and 625-line broadcast television

systems. The onlyway to showneeded details isthrough close-ups. Except forestablishing shotsdesigned tomomentarilyorient theaudience tosubject placement,

the director and the editor should emphasize medium shotsand close-ups. There are some things to keep in mind in thisregard. Close-ups on individuals are appropriate for interviewsand dramas, but not as appropriate

First, some DefinitionsThe basic goal of off-line editing is to create a list of editdecisions. Before all-digital and tapeless camcorders, thisinvolved using a copy of the original videotape footage in orderto protect the original videotape from damage during the oftenarduous process of making edit decisions.

Off-line editing involves reviewing footage and compiling a listof time-code numbers that specify the “in” and “out” pointsof each needed scene. In this phase a rough cut (an initial roughversion without special effects, color corrections, etc.) isassembled, which can be shown to a director, producer, orsponsor for approval. Typically, at this point a number ofchanges will be made.In on-line editing the goal is to use the original footage to createthe final edited version of a program, complete with audio andvideo effects, color correction, etc.

Since this process can berather expensive if full-time engineers and costly,high-quality on-lineequipment are involved,an off-line phase willreduce editing expensesand allow time for greaterexperimentation. Animportant part of the

creative process is trying out many possibilities with video,music, and effects. Hours can be spent on just a few minutes, oreven a few seconds, of a production.When time is limited, such as in preparing a news segment, youprobably can’t afford the luxury of an off-line phase.A laptop computer equipped with one of the many availableediting programs can assemble a basic news segment. We’ll talkmore about this later.

Guideline number 4: Cut away from the scene the moment thevisual statement is made.First, a personal observation. From the perspective of havingtaught video production for more than eight years, I can saythat more than 90% of the videos I see from students are toolong. Most could have been vastly improved by being editeddown-often by at least 50%.When I tell students this they seem skeptical until I show themsample scenes from commercials, dramatic productions, newssegments, and resume reels from noted professionals.If you ask someone if he or she enjoyed a movie and they reply,“Well, it was kind of slow,” that will probably be a movie youwill avoid. “Slow moving” connotes boring. In today’s fast-paced and highly competitive film and television fields that’sone thing you don’t want to be if you want to stay in thebusiness.

of a production rests largely with the editing, although the bestediting in the world won’t save bad acting or a script that isboring to start with.So how long should scenes be?First, keep in mind that audience interest quickly wanes once theessential visual information is conveyed. Shots with newinformation stimulate viewer interest.

In this regard there are some additional points that should beconsidered.

New vs. Familiar Subject MatterShot length is in part dictated by the complexity and familiarityof the subject matter. How long does it take for a viewer to seethe key elements in a scene? Can they be grasped in a second(take a look at some contemporary commercials), or does thesubject matter require time to study?You wouldn’t need a 15-second shot of the Statue of Liberty,because we’ve all seen it many times. A one or two-second shotwould be all you would need to remind viewers of thesymbolism (unless, of course you were pointing out specificareas of damage, restoration, or whatever).On the other hand, we wouldn’t appreciate a one or two secondshot of a little green Martian who just stepped out of a flyingsaucer on the White House Lawn. Those of us who haven’tseen these space creatures would want plenty of (scene) time tosee what one really looks like.

Earlier we mentioned montage editing. With this techniqueshots may be only a fraction of a second (10-15 video frames)long. Obviously, this is not enough time even to begin to see allof the elements in the scene. The idea in this case is simply tocommunicate general impressions, not details. Commercials

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often use this technique to communicate such things asexcitement or “good times.”

Digital Editing With A Video ServerOnce video editing becomes totally digital with equipment thatcan handle video with minimal compression, there will be noneed for the traditional on-line and off-line editing phases.Digital recordings can be made in the studio or on location andtransferred directly into a video server for editing. There will beno danger of tape damage in editors, no matter how manytimes the footage is previewed. (Digital information stored on acomputer disk does not gradually degrade with repeated accessthe way it can when it’s recorded on videotape.) When a videoserver is used, the original footage can be viewed and edited byanyone with a video link to the server. This is generally some-one within the production facility; but, thanks to high-speedInternet connections, it could even be someone in another city-or even in another country. In the case of animation and specialeffects, which are labor intensive, projects are often electronicallytransferred to countries where labor is comparatively cheap.

Creating a Paper-and-Pencil EditRegardless of what approach you take to editing, previewingfootage and making a paper-and-pencil edit can save consider-able time.For one thing, you may not really know what you have-what tolook for and what to reject-until you have a chance to review allof your footage.By jotting down your tentative in and out time codes, you willalso be able to add up the time of the segments and get an ideaof how long your production will be. At that point-andassuming you have to make the project a certain length-you willknow if you need to add or subtract segments. Having to goback and shorten or lengthen a project after you think you haveit completed, is not most people’s idea of fun! A form for apaper-and-pencil EDL, such as the abbreviated one shownbelow, will give you an idea of how this data is listed.

There are also computer programs designed for logging time-codes and creating EDLs. By using a mouse, scenes can be

moved around on the screen andassembled in any desired sequence.The programs can keep track oftime-codes and provide total times atany point.

There are EDL programs and time-code calculators available as softwarefor PDA’s (Personal Digital Assis-tants), such as the Palm Pilot shownon the left.

Videotape Log

Sequence Reel # Start Code End Code Scene Description

.

.

.

.

.

If you are preparing a news script on a computer, the timecodes and scene descriptions can be typed in while you view thescenes on a monitor.When you finish logging all of the scenes, you can split thecomputer screen horizontally, putting the time code and scenelistings on the top, and your word-processing program forwriting your script on the bottom.By using a small camcorder and a laptop computer, producershave been able to create an entire EDL while flying from theEast to the West coasts of the United States.

Once the EDL is created, it can be uploaded from a computerdisk directly into a video server or editor for final editing.

Six Digital Editing Quick Tips1. Although with camera in hand, you may want to shoot

everything that you think you can possibly use, when itcomes to uploading or capturing this footage on a computerhard disk, you will want to restrain yourself. After reviewingthe footage and making a rough paper-and-pencil edit,upload only the footage that you are reasonably certain youwill use. Not only does excess footage take up valuable harddrive space, but prodding through this footage duringediting adds considerable time to the editing process.

2. After the footage is uploaded or captured, trim the front andback ends of the segments to get rid anything you’re notgoing to use. This will speed up editing, reduce storagespace, and make the clips easier to identify on the editingscreen.

3. Once this is done (#2 above), look for connections betweensegments; specifically, how one segment you are consideringwill end and another will start. Look for ways to make scenesflow together without jarring jump cuts in the action,composition, or technical continuity.

4. Find appropriate cutaways. In addition to enhancing themain theme or story, they should add visual variety andcontribute to the visual pace.

5. Use transition effects sparingly. Although some editingprograms feature 101 ways to move from one video sourceto another, beware! True professionals know that they can bedistracting and get in the way of the message—not tomention looking hooky.

6. Use music creatively and appropriately. Strangely, “silence” ina video is generally distracting, causing viewers to wonderwhat’s wrong with the sound. Finding music that supportsthe video without calling attention to itself (unless, ofcourse, it’s a music video) can be a formidable task in itself.

Unit Learning ObjectivesOn completion of this unit a student must be able to:• Understand the various streams of TV Production• Comprehend the working and use of varied equipment• Appreciate the aesthetics of these fields• Project the future trends in these four disciplines

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V

UNIT IIITHE WORLD OF TV NEWSLESSON 9:

THE ART OF TV ANCHORING

In this section we’ll look at what it takes to launch a successfulcareer in a competitive field liketelevision.If I can speak personally for amoment, I have been involved intelevision for over two decades-as aneditor, as a producer-director ofmany hours of TV programming,and now, as a university professor.In the latter capacity, I watched someof my students work up throughthe ranks to become producers ofTV series and feature-length films.Others found the going too rough,

abandoned their dream, and found employment elsewhere.What made the difference? Probably eight things.1. Motivation In any competitive field you must really want to

make it. This type of motivation does not waver from week-to-week or month-to-month, but is consistent and single-minded. In short, you must stay focused on your goal.

2. Personality Although admittedly a vague term, itencompasses several things. First, since television is acollaborative effort, it requires an ability to work with othersto accomplish professional goals.

Included in this category is attitude. In this context we’redefinitely not talking about someone who “has an attitude.”We’re talking about the general demeanor of individuals, howthey accept assignments, whether they are pleasant to work with,and how they take suggestions or criticism.There is often considerable pressure in TV production, andthin-skinned individuals who can’t detach themselves fromtheir work and take constructive criticism are in for a bumpyride.3. Knowledge and skills Producers and directors look for

individuals who know how to solve problems on their own,how to use the technology toits best advantage, and whocan be relied upon to “makeit work.”

Excuses for not getting the jobdone right and on time aregenerally viewed as an admis-sion of failure. Keep in mind that TV is a competitive businessand employers know they can rather easily replace people whodon’t meet their expectations.4. Creativity Although we’ve been trying to define this for

centuries, it involves looking at things in new ways, andgetting your audience to see and experience things from freshperspectives.

The more thoroughly you understand the television mediumthe better chance you will have of using it in interesting, creativeways.5. Willingness to sacrifice for your goals In highly competitive

fields the supply of job applicants exceeds the number ofjob openings. For starting positions this means that

employers may offer lowstarting salaries.Those who stick it out and“pay their dues” can end upworking in a field that isexciting and satisfying. Formany people, doing some-thing they enjoy throughouttheir lives is more importantthan making more money ina job that they dread to faceeach morning.

And for those whose honed skills are in demand, the financialrewards can eventually be very great.But if your main goal is to have a predictable, 9-to-5 job withoptimum stability, the field of broadcasting will probably not agood choice. There is much uncertainty in the field, and thehours you may have to put in can take a toll on a social life andmarriage.In doing documentary work you may be away from home fordays or weeks at a time. In news, you may be called out on astory at any hour of the day or night. Some areas of news, suchas being a foreign correspondent, can even be dangerous.6. An aptitude for working with words and pictures Successful

television anchors, writers, directors, and artists have anaptitude for images and an ability to visualize their ideas.

Although television is largely visual, at it’s core it’s word-based.We have to clearly communicate our ideas to sponsors, cast, andcrew in the form of proposals, scripts, and instructions. Anability to write and communicate well is directly related tosuccess.7. Reliability and an ability to meet deadlines If you can’t be

relied upon to get the job done within the assigned time,your chances of getting future assignments will rapidlydiminish-and eventually become nonexistent.

To avoid costly overtime expenses in one union productionfacility, engineers were instructed to shut down all equipmentprecisely at the end of the scheduled time. Late starts, the needto redo segments, etc., had to somehow be made up by thedirector before the end of allotted production time.8. Lifelong learning If you assume that when you get out of

college, you will know all you need to for lifelong successhere’s a news flash: That’s not the way it works.

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Although formal education isuseful and it may enable you to“get in the door,” moststudents say that it’s only whenthey come face-to-face with on-the-job experiences that theyreally start learning about theirprofession. And, it doesn’t evenend there.The electronic media fields change very rapidly. It’s the peoplewho keep up with developments as reported by newspapersand “the trades” (profes-sional magazines andjournals) that are in thebest position to takeadvantage of the latestdevelopments. Evensomething as simple asknowing how to makebest use the latestcomputer program can give you an important competitiveadvantage. And, of course, successful news people tend to be“news addicts”-constantly reading about current events. Ifreading newspapers and newsmagazine, and “being in theknow” doesn’t interest you, you may want to examine yourinterests and goals.

On-Camera vs. Behind-the-CameraIt seems as if the majority of students who become interestedin television as a career want to be seen on-camera. But themajority of jobs are behind-the-camera. This means that on-camera jobs are extremely competitive and far more difficult toland than production (behind-the-camera) jobs.Most on-camera jobs are in news. It’s not unusual for a newsdirector or personnel manager in a major market (geographicarea) to get 50 resumes a day for an advertised on-camera newsposition. Even when there is no opening, applications maycome in on a daily basis. Most of these people have a collegedegree and are experienced in news.Even small market stations that pay low salaries receive manyapplications from people who want to gain experience in hopesof moving to a larger market in a few years. Depending on thestation (and the union restrictions), it’s sometimes possible tostart out behind the camera and then move on to an on-cameraposition. Small stations occasionally provide this opportunity.More than one behind-the-camera person has been given thisopportunity when an on-air person was on vacation orsuddenly became ill.Things are a bit easier behind the camera, especially for thosewho have production experience. With minimal experience youmust be willing to start out with a simple, low-paying job. Thejoke about some of the best people in the industry starting outin the mailroom contains a lot of truth. Many did. If you havewhat it takes you can count on moving up.

But, whatever your goal, it’s best to have a “Plan B.” In otherwords, adequately prepare yourself for a job in a second area.

You may have to rely on this to pay the bills while you arewaiting for the kind of job you want.

InternshipsApart from actual paid, on-the-job experience, internshipexperience ends up being the most important “plus” on yourrésumé. Among other things an internship suggests that youhave been serious about the field and that the college-to-jobtransition should be easier. Internships also provide importantprofessional contacts. By keeping in touch with people youmeet and work with during an internship, you will often knowof job openings far in advance of seeing them posted on theInternet or in professional publications. One of the best waysto keep in touch with these people is by maintaining a perma-nent e-mail address. Keep in mind that landing your first jobwill probably be the hardest, since most people hired in TVcome from other stations (and have that valuable qualificationcalled “experience”).

Résumés and Cover LettersFor each job opening there will generally be a number ofinterested candidates. Only onewill get the job. When you firstapply for a job you will probablybe represented solely by a coverletter and résumé. Withoutdwelling on the need forimpeccable writing, organiza-tion, etc., let’s just say that yourrésumé and cover letter have tobe strong enough to outshinethe competition and get youinvited in for an interview. The computer scanning of résumésis becoming more commonplace. This can work to youradvantage if you understand the process.Preparation for landing that first job must start long before theinterview. You need a head start on such things as internshipexperience and compiling an impressive résumé. Let’s look atsome résumé considerations.Since on-the-job training is costly to an employer, experience isranked at the top of desirable qualifications. Not everyone willbe fortunate enough to spend time working at a TV station.But for those who have been able to wangle even part-time jobsin the field, employment prospects will be better. Unless youcan fully “feather out” a résumé with professional experience,don’t neglect unrelated employment, especially if you’re justgraduating. Showing an employer that you can hold down ajob-any job-indicates that you’ve learned to deal with responsi-bilities and deadlines. Plus, it will provide an employer withsome “real-world” references. When listing your experience on awritten résumé don’t overlook extracurricular activities. Haveyou produced or directed a TV show or a series at your school?Have you won any awards? Such things may separate you fromother applicants.

The Résumé ReelWhile in production classes be sure to save good examples ofyour work for your résumé reel. In most areas of TV prospec-tive employers assume you will have a reel of your best work.

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In assembling your reel, don’t save the best to last. Thosereviewing a stack of tapes often don’t take the time to viewmore than an opening cut. Ideally, you’ll want to lead offstrong and finish strong and make the whole résumé reel nolonger than 5-10 minutes. (After you produce or direct severalnetwork productions and a few national commercials you canmake it longer-and expect it all to be watched!) Even thoughyour time is short, make sure you clearly get your ideas across.Don’t worry about bars and tone at the beginning; this is notintended for broadcast. Employers know that anyone can makean exciting segment out of exciting events. The real test is ifyou can make more mundane subject matter interesting.Employers may be suspicious of segments that have impres-sive lighting, cinematography, and special effects that you don’tcredit. Unless you do all these things yourself, don’t try to takecredit for them. Use a computer to make a professional tapelabel, and be sure you include your name and contact informa-tion. You will, of course, include a cover letter with moreinformation.Rather than just stark black lettering on a white videotape label,more creative applicants have been known to capture animpressive frame out of their video to use as a background forthe label. Being creative and very computer literate (withoutbeing ostentatious or pretentious) are important qualificationsin this field. It’s a good idea to tailor your résumé reel to the jobyou are applying for. Is the job in sports, weather, fieldreporting, studio anchoring, or interviewing? Make sure yourrésumé reel emphasizes what you are interested in while notclosing the door to other possibilities. Study the stations’sprogramming if at all possible and include only what seems tofit into the job description and their approach to things. Inorder to do this you will need to have a lot of raw material tochoose from. If you are not going to have ready access to videoediting equipment, you might consider equipping yourcomputer with an editing program. Once you do, you shouldbe able to quickly assemble tailor made résumé reels as the needarises. Unlike many fields, which may sift through applicants forweeks or even months, jobs in broadcasting are generally filledrather quickly.

[A successful future] ...begins with believing in yourself evenwhen odds seem impossible. You also have to commit tobeing a student for life.”-Lazlo Kovacs, recipient of the American Society of Cinematog-raphers’ 2002 Lifetime Achievement Award. His work includesmore than 70 narrative and feature films.

Women In BroadcastingIt may be difficult for today’s young TV viewers to imagine atime when every face in TVnews (with the possibleexception of “the weather girl”)was male. For decades it wasassumed that women could notimpart the same authority toTV news that men could-especially in anchor positions.Thus, ratings conscious

program managers kept women out of key on-air newspositions.A number of research studies challenged this view. Afterprofessional male and female newscasters delivered identicalnewscasts, written tests were given to audiences to determinesuch things as recall and credibility. The results found that therewas essentially no difference between the male and femalenewscasts. Although research dispelling the myths surroundingthe credibility of female newscasters may have helped, it was thegovernment mandated equal opportunity laws in the mid-to-late 1900s that were mostly responsible for opening the door toboth women and racial minorities in broadcasting.

Looking for Work in All the Right PlacesLarge media corporations publish monthly bulletins of jobs.There are also numerous media employment agencies; butmake sure you fully check them out before you invest anymoney. Our college has an informal placement service for helpin this regard. Several broadcast-related trade publicationsregularly carry ads for jobs.When all other leads dry up, you can use the “shotgun ap-proach” of sending out unsolicited résumés to selected TVstations and production facilities. By checking TV station webpages on the Internet, or by looking up stations you can findthe names of personnel managers and department heads. If atall possible, direct your letter to a specific person by name andtitle.Even though you may not hear from many of the people youwrite to-they are very busy-they may keep your résumé on fileand you may get a call when a job opens up. The job-huntingprocess may take a while.

Learn to Handle Rejection Without DejectionIf you can stay optimistically persistent and keep pursuing everypossibility, the chances are good that eventually you’ll end upbeing the right person at the right place at the right time

Handling the Personal InterviewIf you get called for an interview, make sure to do your“homework” before you go in. Know everything possible

about the facility. If you can, talk tosome present and maybe even somepast employees. Surveys of employershave indicated some shortcomings ofrecent graduates that, if detected duringan interview, can knock them out ofthe running.Although you might consider some ofthe following a “bad rap,” you still needto know that many employers are onthe lookout for these weaknesses.

Because of the problems inherent in firing employees, whenfaced with some questions about a prospective hire, manyemployers and personnel managers simply adhere to the saying,“If in doubt, don’t.” In a competitive field like television thereare just too many qualified applicants to take a chance.

Suffice it to say, keep these “big five” knockout factors in mindand don’t give a prospective employer any reason to doubt yoursuitability.

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The Five Knockout Factors1. Inability to follow instructions - Employers have said that

new hires have difficulty following instructions, eitherpreferring (with limited knowledge about why things aredone in certain ways) to “do it their way,” or simply notbeing able to carefully listen to and carry out instructions.

2. Promptness and reliability issues - It’s alleged that many newhires, especially those who have not successfully held a jobbefore, don’t appreciate the need of getting things doneright (the first time) and on time.

3. A need for constant supervision - It’s alleged that many newhires sit around wait around for someone to tell them whatneeds to be done, instead of being “self-starters” (being ableto figure out what needs to be done and do it).

4. Attitude problems - This knockout factor parallels #2 ofthe 7 criteria for success listed at the beginning of thismodule. We’re talking about the general positive or negativedemeanor of individuals, whether they are pleasant to workwith, how they accept assignments, and how they takesuggestions and criticism.

5. Slovenly work habits; slovenly personal habits. This relatesto everything from being neat, well-groomed, and organized,to following through on important details in workassignments.

A factor that was not mentioned, but one that represents a verydecisive knockout factor, is substance abuse (primarily drugsand alcohol). Both are clearly linked to accidents, absenteeism,and problems in the work place. No employer wants to risk theproblems either represent.

Personnel managers are alsoaware that smoking has beenlinked to general healthproblems, absenteeism, andreduced efficiency. So, whenthis is an issue, and apersonnel manager faces achoice between two equallyqualified candidates.....well,you can figure that out.(And, yes, it is lawful insome states to refuse employment on the basis of smoking.)Not surprisingly, promotions and advancement are related to allof these factors. Unfortunately, some people only find outabout these realities after having been repeatedly been fired fromjobs or regularly passed over for promotions. Once you have astring of “negatives” of this sort on you record, gettingsubsequent jobs and promotions becomes increasingly difficult.Turning from the negative to the positive, when you are able toget into the field, you’ll know that you are in the company ofothers like yourself-men and women who have demonstratedthat they have what it takes to make it in a competitive,rewarding, and often very exciting profession.

Twelve Factors in NewsworthinessThose involved in broadcast news must understand 12 factorsthat constitute news value, or newsworthiness.

• timeliness• proximity• exceptional quality• possible future impact• prominence• conflict• the number of people involved or affected• consequence• human interest• pathos• shock value• titillation component1. Timeliness: News is what’s new. An afternoon raid on a

rock cocaine house may warrant a live ENG report duringthe 6 p.m. news. However, tomorrow, unless there aremajor new developments, the same story will probably notbe important enough to mention.

2. Proximity: If 15 people are killed in your hometown, yourlocal TV station will undoubtedly consider it news. But if15 people are killed in Manzanillo, Montserrat,Moyobambaor, or some other distant place you’ve neverheard of, it will probably pass without notice. But there areexceptions.

3. Exceptional quality: One exception centers on how thepeople died. If thepeople in Manzanillowere killed because of abus or car accident, thiswould not be nearly asnewsworthy as if theydied from an earthquakeor stings from “killer bees,” feared insects that have nowinvaded the world.

Exceptional quality refers to how uncommon an event is. Aman getting a job as a music conductor is not news—unlessthat man is blind.4. Possible future impact: The killer bee example illustrates

another news element: possible future impact. The fact thatthe killer bees are now in the country and may eventually bea threat to people watching the news makes the story muchmore newsworthy.

A mundane burglary of an office in the Watergate Hotel inWashington, DC, was hardly news until two reporters namedWoodward and Bernstein saw the implications and the possiblefuture impact. Eventually, the story behind this seeminglycommon burglary brought down a U.S. President.5. Prominence: The 15 deaths in Manzanillo might also go by

unnoticed by the local media unless someone prominentwas on the bus-possibly a movie star or a well-knownpolitician. If a U.S. Supreme Court Justice gets married, it’snews; if John Smith, your next-door neighbor, getsmarried, it probably isn’t.

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6. Conflict: Conflict in its many forms has long held theinterest of observers. The conflictmay be physical or emotional. It canbe open, overt conflict, such as a civiluprising against police authority, or itmay be ideological conflict betweenpolitical candidates.

The conflict could be as simple as a person standing on hisprinciples and spending a year fighting city hall over a parkingcitation. In addition to “people against people” conflict, therecan be conflict with wild animals, nature, the environment, oreven the frontier of space.7. The number of people involved or affected: The more

people involved in a news event, be it a demonstration or atragic accident, the more newsworthy the story is. Likewise,the number of people affected by the event, whether it’s anew health threat or a new tax ruling, the more newsworthythe story is.

8. Consequence: The fact that a car hit a utility pole isn’t news,unless, as a consequence, power is lost throughout a city forseveral hours. The fact that a computer virus found its wayinto a computer system might not be news until itbankrupts a business, shuts down a telephone system, orendangers lives by destroying crucial medical data at ahospital.

9. Human interest: Human-interest stories are generally softnews. Examples would be a baby beauty contest, a personwhose pet happens to be anine-foot boa constrictor, or aman who makes a cart so thathis two-legged dog can movearound again.

On a slow news day even a storyof fire fighters getting a cat out ofa tree might make a suitable story.(Or, as shown here, a kid meetinga kid.) Human-interest angles canbe found in most hard newsstories. A flood will undoubtedly have many human-interestangles: a lost child reunited with its parents after two days, a boywho lost his dog, or families returning to their mud-filledhomes.10. Pathos: The fact that people like to hear about the

misfortunes of others can’t be denied. Seeing or hearingabout such things commonly elicits feelings of pity, sorrow,sympathy, and compassion. Some call these stories“tearjerkers.”

Examples are the child who is now all alone after his parentswere killed in a car accident, the elderly woman who just lost herlife savings to a con artist, or the blind man whose seeing-eyedog was poisoned.This category isn’t just limited to people. How about horsesthat were found neglected and starving, or the dog that sits atthe curb expectantly waiting for its master to return from workeach day, even though the man was killed in an accident weeksago.

11. Shock value: An explosion in a factory has less shock valueif it was caused by gas leak than if it was caused by aterrorist. The story of a six year-old boy who shot hismother with a revolver found in a bedside drawer has moreshock (and therefore news) value than if same woman diedof a heart attack.

Both shock value and the titillation factor (below) are wellknown to the tabloid press. The lure of these two factors is alsorelated to some stories getting inordinate attention, such as thesordid details of a politician’s or evangelist’s affair-which bringsus to the final point.12. Titillation component: This factor primarily involves sex

and is commonly featured-some would say exploitedduring rating periods.This category includes everythingfrom the new fashions in women’s swimwear to an in-depth series on legal prostitution.

Makeup for TVThe use of makeup is divided into three categories:• Basic - designed to compensate for undesirable changes in

appearance introduced by the television process.• Corrective - designed to enhance positive attributes and

downplay flaws.• Character - which introduces major changes in appearance.Although people might think that makeup is reserved forpeople “who just want to lookbetter” on TV or in film, in actualfact, makeup may be required tojust retain a subject’s normalappearance. This is because thetelevision and film processes tosome degree can introduce (ormake obvious) undesirableattributes to skin tones andfeatures. As we saw earlier, moderndigital cameras have skin enhancingsetup options that can reduce, butgenerally not eliminate the need for makeup. In particular, theycan appreciably smooth out wrinkles and conceal minorblemishes. Video engineers may not always want to apply thesetechniques, however, since they to some degree degradeoptimum video sharpness, color, and quality. Note thedifference between the two photos below.

With the advent of high-definition television, the need forpeople skilled in the application of effective but subtle makeuphas increased. As in most areas of television, makeup is an

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element that is best when it goes unnoticed. This brings us toour first category.

Basic MakeupIn both film and video work, makeup on the face and possiblyeven the body is needed-especially for people who will be oncamera any length of time. For starters, normal skin contains a

certain amount of oil thatgenerally goes unnoticeduntil viewed in a close-up.The heat of studio lightsand personal tension canexaggerate this shine. Atthe very least, subjectsshould use a face powderthat matches their skintone.

After this, we move to so-called basic makeup. Forthis, the skin should firstbe cleaned with mild soapor cleansing cream prior to

the application of a makeup base or foundation. Both areavailable in either oil or water base, but the latter has theadvantage of not requiring face powder and being easier toremove. Before these are applied, it’s best to use an astringent totighten facial pores and prepare the skin.A shade of base or foundation should be selected that matchesthe normal skin tones, unless the goal is to slightly lighten ordarken all skin tones. In this case, it’s best not to go beyondtwo shades lighter or darker than the normal tone. There aresome 20 shades available, and if for some reason the propershade isn’t available, shades can be mixed to provide an in-between shade. A foam rubber sponge, which can be moistenedslightly, is used to apply the base or foundation to the face, ears,and neck. With deeply tanned Caucasian skin tones it may benecessary to even out skin tones around the eyes or bridge ofthe nose by mixing the base or foundation with a touch ofrouge. Other evidences of uneven tan, such as the halter strapmarks over the shoulders of a woman, should be filled in sothey blend with adjacent skin. Even right after shaving, dark-haired men will evidence “a five o’clock shadow” that can bereduced or eliminated by blending in the foundation or makeupbase.

Lighting ConsiderationsMakeup should always be checked, and if possible even applied,under the lighting that will be used in photographing thesubject. Even when video cameras are properly color balanced,sunlight, incandescent, and fluorescent lighting will all affectsubject matter in different ways. For this reason, many makeupmirrors have adjustments for each of these types of light.

This consideration is particularly important with fluorescentlight-if you can’t avoid that type of lighting-because these lightstend to be low in red light and high in green. Since normal skintones contain a significant amount of green to start with, youmay note obvious green skin tones under fluorescent light. Theproblem may be compounded if the makeup, itself, has green

elements. This is just another reason that you should use a highquality, properly colour balanced video monitor to check theresults.

The EyesEyebrows should be brushed with a clean eyebrow brush andplucked of any stray or unruly hairs. Though bushy eyebrowsmay be acceptable for men, women should carefully shape theirbrows into a gentle arch that tapers off at the ends.

Making fine delicate strokes, use an eyebrow pencil of anappropriate shade to fill in or reshape the eyebrows. Forwomen, a touch of eye shadow is almost always desirable. Thedry powder or cake type of eye shadow is preferred over thecream type, since it both lends itself to easier and more subtleblending and holds up better under hot studio lights.Whether a woman’s eye shadow should match her eyes, clothes,or neither, is a fashion opinion, which can vary from season toseason. Whatever the color choice, it should be subtle. A darkershade of the same color used on the eyelids (or a soft brownshade) can be lightly brushed into the lid crease to add depthand size to the eye. Women with heavy-lidded eyes shouldavoid this last technique because it will probably emphasize theproblem. A dot of ivory or pale yellow eye shadow smoothedunder the brow bone will lighten and “open” the eyes.Eyeliner can be applied close to the top lashes either by using asoft, fine brush or a sharp eyebrow pencil. An eyelash curler anda light application of mascara will accent eyelashes. Excessclumps of mascara should be removed with a few upwardstrokes of a clean brush. False eyelashes can be used, but theyshould be carefully trimmed to fit the individual’s eyes.

The LipsAnother aspect of particular importance to women is theproper selection of lipstick. Some types of lipstick and rougenot designed for television have a latent blue hue, which cantake on a decided purple appearance when photographed. Apure red lipstick that will harmonize with the skin colorationand wardrobe is best.Before applying lipstick, lips should be outlined by using eithera lipstick brush or a lip pencil. If the lips are well proportioned,this accentuates them. But lip outlining can also be used as acorrective technique. People with either overly thin or full lipscan improve their lip line by first covering their lips with theirbase makeup and then drawing or outlining a more desiredshape. A lip brush should also be used to give color to theentire lip.After the application of lipstick, you should blot the lips with atissue to avoid an unnatural shine. Lip gloss is generallyundesirable for television. Although lipstick is not generallyused on men, it is sometimes appropriate to add a touch of anatural-colored lipstick to smooth out a possible line betweenthe lips and the beginning of the base makeup. A brown shadeof lipstick applied with a brush is recommended.

Hands, Ears, and TeethIf hands are to appear on camera, as when products aredemonstrated through close-ups, special care must be taken.Use an appropriate shade of makeup base to ensure that handsmatch other parts of the body and to minimize wrinkles and

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color variations. Nails should be well manicured. Clear orcolored fingernail polish can be used. The appearance of thehands should be carefully checked on a TV monitor prior to aproduction.Extreme close-ups will often reveal makeup flaws that are notnormally visible since they are often slightly lighter and redderthan adjacent skin tones, ears can be a special problem. Addedto this is the fact that back lights will often shine through earsto some degree, further raising their tonal value. To control thisand bring ears back to their proper tonal perspective, theyshould be covered with a base makeup that is two or threeshades darker than the face. The makeup base should then becovered with a translucent face powder.Bad teeth can beminimized with an appropriate shade of tooth enamel ordentine fluid. Special coverings are available for this purpose.

The BodySince more and more skin seems to be showing up in films andon TV, we need to mention parts of the body other than theface and hands.Elbows, knees, and ankles can look unnaturallydark unless you use makeup to lighten these areas. Using a q-tip, or the edge of a sponge, stretch marks on the stomach canbe “painted in” to some degree with a liquid makeup two tofour shades lighter than the base.(See photo.) With dark-hairedindividuals, areas of the body that have been shaved will needthe same treatment. Scars and removed tattoos will take extraamounts of base or foundation. Often, you can use liberalamounts the same shade as adjacent skin.

Dark-Skinned PeopleThe makeup needs of dark-skinned people are not greatlydifferent from those that have been outlined. Appropriateshades of makeup are available for most of the darker skintones; however, to arrive at the needed tone, it may be necessaryto do more in the way of blending different makeup shades.Generally, makeup for dark-skinned people should be appliedsparingly. Black males and other males with dark skin may notneed makeup at all. They often photograph quite well withoutit.Problems can arise, however, with very dark-skinned blackmales who do not exhibit a natural skin sheen, since the tonalreflectance level can drop so low that a loss of form anddimension results. It is desirable to preserve these highlights,and occasionally even accent them with baby oil or glycerin.

Concealing and Emphasizing Facial Features WithCorrective MakeupThrough corrective makeup procedures it may be necessary toplay down undesirable facial features and emphasize positiveattributes through contouring and highlighting. In correctivemakeup we are starting with the base or foundation and thenblending in shades or makeup that are either darker or lighter.Incontouring, a darker shade of makeup than the foundation orbase is used to downplay features, such as a high forehead or aoverly prominent nose. Contouring can also be used to bringout the classic jaw line that’s seen as desirable for women. Inthis case, a darker shade of makeup is carefully blended into thefoundation or base. To achieve this “classic look,” the darkermakeup will go from the chin line up to the earlobes and intothe hollows of the cheeks.In highlighting, the object is toreverse this effect-to emphasize or pull the eye toward certain

facial features or areas. In this case, use a shade of makeup thatis lighter than the foundation or base.This approach shouldalso be used in shadowy areas under the eyes and under thelower lip to keep them from looking unusually dark on camera.Either use makeup two to three shades lighter than the base, ora translucent white highlighter.In the case of both men andwomen, color can be added to the cheeks by mixing a very lighttrace of rouge with the existing base makeup and then blendingit in with a sponge.After all this is done, it’s often necessary touse some transparent powder to dull down some (but not all)of the facial sheen. This is normally applied with a powder puffor soft bristled brush.Sometimes there will be light spots onthe skin, due to aging or whatever, that can be covered with atanning spray carefully painted on with a q-tip. The spray ratherthan the lotion is best for this.Since it takes a number of hours-even up to a day-before the effect becomes noticed, this is atechnique that definitely requires planning ahead. And, sinceresults aren’t immediately apparent and last several days, youneed to experiment with this technique well in advance of goingon camera. However, once mastered, this represents a relativelyinexpensive and convenient way of keeping this type of skindiscoloration hidden. Prescription skin dye is also available, forthis purpose, but it’s quite expensive.

Makeup RemovalWomen may prefer to leave makeup after leaving the TV studio.Unlike stage makeup, it should be so natural looking that thereshould be no need to remove it, especially early in the day.Men,being a bit more sensitive to these things, will probably want toremove makeup with a cleansing cream or lotion. Afterremoving makeup, women may want to use an astringent tocondition their skin. Men can use aftershave lotion for the samepurpose.

Character MakeupCharacter makeup covers great range, from adding or subjectingyears, to today’s grisly science fiction and horror-film transfor-mations. It would take a good-sized book to cover charactermakeup; and, in fact, numerous books have been written onthe subject.Since it has limited application in normal productionwork, we well simply use the following photos to give you anidea of what can be done.Note that the young man shown above can be transformed intoan old man through the use of elaborate makeup and prosthe-ses (and a few hours’ work).In this case, a bald cap is first usedto cover up the young man’s hair (first photo). At that point,prostheses are used to add wrinkles and sagging areas to theface.Then liberal amounts of makeup are then painted on toblend everything together. Although it may sound simple,character makeup can easily take many hours to apply.

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Studio Hand Signals

Sample News Script• 11 PM News - 12/03/03 Writer: P. SmithStudio - JacobsServer - video only: (file: fedfire.01)Server - video+audio (file: fedfire.07)Studio - JacobsSelma Fed. Records Fire- page 1 of 2 (17)FIRE OFFICIALS SAY THE BLAZE THAT RAVAGEDTHE FEDERAL RECORDS STORAGE FACILITY INSELMA VALLEY IS NOW UNDER CONTROL.

MORE THAN 40 FIRE FIGHTERS BATTLED THEFLAMES THAT ERUPTED LATE WEDNESDAY NIGHT.TV-3’S JOHN JACOBS ASKED FIRE FIGHTER JENNI-FER CARRY IF THE BLAZE MAY HAVE BEEN THEWORK OF AN ARSONIST.((In cue: “Well, it’s a bit too early to tell yet, but there seems tobe...))SERVER SEGMENT: 1:12((Out cue: “..and so as fire fighter Jennifer Carry says, it’s reallytoo early to tell about arson. This is John Jacobs for TV-3"))BECAUSE THE FIRE INVOLVED FEDERAL RECORDS ,THE F-B-I HAS BEEN CALLED IN TO INVESTIGATE.EARLIER THIS AFTERNOON TV-3’S SANDRA PARKS

ASKED BUREAU CHIEF TIM RAY ABOUT THE F-B-I’SINVOLVEMENT.Although originally narration was written in all caps (as above),many writers now prefer to type narration in standard upperand lower case letters. The all-caps format was originally used bythe broadcast wire services because it was easier for announcersto read.The illustration below shows a computer program used towrite TV news scripts. The various stories in the newscast arelisted in the lower half of the screen and the correspondingscript for each entry is displayed in the top section. The windowin the top left lists the various news shows during the week

The program has “drag and drop” capability, which means thatthe various stories can be moved or rearranged with a computermouse.

Notes

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LESSON 10 - 11:BASICS OF SNG/ENG

Studio Production

As a first step in seeing how studio productions are done, weneed to take a closer look at the role and responsibilities of thekey person in this process-the director.

The Role of the DirectorIn addition to the specific duties and responsibilities, thedirector’s job is to get the crew and talent to function as a team,and in the process bring out the best work of each person.Any director worth the title can stay on top of things when thecrew, talent, and equipment perform exactly as expected. Butmuch of the value and respect that people place on directorsdepends on their ability to stay in control when, despite all thebest-laid plans, things begin to fall apart.A crew member or on-camera person may get sick, a key personmay refuse to continue unless some special accommodation ismade, a studio camera may go out, or a mic may suddenly fail.Vacillating, giving mixed signals, or not being able to make adecision at a crucial time can result in production paralysis. Inlarge-scale productions everyone is typically working underpressure. Directors must be able to control their own tensionand anxiety-not an easy task when they have responsibility foreverything-while being sensitive to the differing abilities andtemperaments of talent and crew. A heavy-handed approachwith the wrong person can temporarily destroy that person’seffectiveness and turn a bad situation into a disaster. Conversely,a mealy-mouthed approach that elicits no respect or leadershipability can be just as bad.

Requisitioning Equipment and FacilitiesTo help insure that a director can get the talent, crew, andequipment that he or she needs, and possibly eliminate any

conflict withthe needs ofotherproductions,the crew andequipment fora productionshould berequested farin advance.Thus, the first

step in getting a production going will normally be to fill out aFacilities Request Form. Production facilities typically haveforms tailored to their own needs and equipment. On thisform you will list such things as the production and rehearsaldates and times, studio space needed, personnel required, andthe number of cameras, video recorders, and mics needed.

Not anticipating a need may mean there will be last-minutedelays in getting what you want. Worse still, you may even haveto do without something you need, especially if someone elsehas requisitioned the equipment for the same time period. Inaddition to being used by the studio’s Facilities Manager to planon the necessary talent, crew, facilities, and equipment, theFacilities Request Form is used to anticipate production costs.

Studio SetsEven though virtual sets are now being used in some studios,the traditional hardwall and softwall sets (note photo below)are still the most widely-used setting for studio productions.

Ever since television began, settings have been suggested bypainted backgrounds.Note in this ABC sitcom that the “restaurant” walls are simplypainted flats made to look real. Most viewers at home neverquestion thefact that thisscene is nottaking place inan actualrestaurant.Althoughpainted flatsof this typeare expensiveto create-theytypicallyrequire set designers, set builders, artists, and painters, not tomention costly materials-once built, they offer some advantagesover on-location settings.

For example, sound, acoustics, lighting, and backgrounds can allbe optimized for the TV system. In the case of a sitcom such asthe one above, an audience of 100 or more people can beaccommodated to bolster talent performance and help with thelaugh track.

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Television textbooks, used to devote many pages to the designand construction of sets. But, things have changed. Beyondnews, some local commercials, and possibly an interview show,most local TV stations now do little in the way of live studioproduction. Of course, as the photo above shows, sets are stilla major component of the major production studios. In thisabbreviated coverage of sets, we’ll start with a set componentthat is a part of most TV studios-the cyc.

CycsAlthough curtains and drapes used to be commonly used asbackgrounds in early studios, these were soon replaced by cycs(cycloramas). Studio cycs, which are large neutral gray seamlessbackdrops, provide a simple and highly versatile background.Cycs are made of light gray canvas, muslin, plaster, or anymaterial that can be finished so that corners and seams are notvisible. Cycs normally cover two sides of the studio. The canvasor muslin type can be hung from a track near the ceiling. Withhanging canvas or muslin cycs, small rollers make it possible forthe cyc to be pulled into place as needed. Assuming that thetalent is far enough away from the cyc, lighting can be controlledso that the background effect can be light or dark. Colored lightscan be used on the cyc to create interesting background effects.When lit evenly, the smooth surface of the cyc, even as it goesaround the corner of a studio, can provide an “infinity effect” anendless space behind subjects.

Four Categories of SetsIt’s sometimes helpful to think of sets in terms of fourcategories. Representational-Supportive, Symbolic, Realistic orReplica, and Fantasy. Let’s briefly look at each one.Most studio sets are Represential-Supportive, which is a bit ofscholarly and probably unnecessary jargon for a set thatrepresents the nature of the show and supports it in some way.For example, a news set generally incorporates elements that insome way suggests“news.”The set on the right wasdesigned for a 60s show-atime of psychedelic colors,peace symbols, andantiwar demonstrations.

Often, the backgroundand its elements are vitalto the show. For example, the contestant scoreboards, puzzlephrases, and spinning wheels, etc. used in game shows are

directly involved in the show.Each year the AcademyAwards broadcast has anelaborate set designed toaccommodate the presenta-tions, dance numbers, etc.An elaborate and costly setlike this takes many monthsof preparation. It’s first built

on a small scale, as shown here. The colors and proportions canthen be checked before construction starts on the actual set.

Symbolic Sets are used to suggest a realistic background withouthaving to include all of the details. For example, venetian blindsover what looks like a window can suggest an office formedium shots and close-ups of one or two people. A shadowof bars projected behind a person suggests a jail cell, and abackground image of a stained-glass window suggests a church.A symbolic set is far less costly than the next category.As the name suggests, Realistic or Replica Sets appear from theperspective of the multiple camera angles to be authentic. Thesets for dramas are normally of this type.Since they involve considerable detail and a need to “hold up”from a variety of camera angles, they are the most demandingand expensive type of set to build.

Movie sets used to be almost all of this type. Often, entirestreets would be built for exterior scenes, or multiple rooms ofa house would beconstructed. However,today, many films areshot on location usingexisting- althoughgenerally somewhatmodified- settings.The final category iscalled Fantasy Sets. Thistype of set is abstractand stylistic - sometimes a bizarre and deliberate distortion ofreality. It’s a “anything goes, as long as it’s interesting” type ofset. Today, this type of set is often computer generated andends up being a virtual set.

Hardwall and Softwall FlatsStudio sets are composed of sections, generally four feet (1.3meters) wide and eight to ten feet (2.5 - 3 meters) high. They areseamlessly lashed together from the back with cord or rope, sothat the divisions don’t show.

Hardwall flats normally consist of 1/4-inch (6.25mm) compo-sition board or paneling nailed to 1X3 or 2X4 inch (25mm by76mm, or 51mm by 101mm) wooden frames. Wood paneling,of course, comes in a wide variety of patterns and surfaces.Shiny surfaces should be avoided because they can causeproblems with lights.Softwall flats, which consist of wooden frames covered bystretched canvas or bleached muslin, are much lighter and easierto move, store, and paint. The canvas or muslin is stapled orglued to the 1 X 3 inch (25mm by 76mm) wooden frames.Before painting, a flameproof sealer is applied to the surface.Softwall flats can be painted to depict any type of setting. Thedisadvantage of this type of set is that the muslin or canvas iseasy to tear or damage.

Seamless PaperSeamless paper, which comes in 9 to 12 foot by 36 foot (2.7 to5.2 by 11 meter) rolls, is readily available from display housesand photo supply stores-and is relatively inexpensive. Eventhough the paper is of a heavy gauge, it’s still easy to tear, andmust be handled carefully. Mate finishes are available in dozensof colors. The major advantage of this type of background isthat it can go up quickly. With the help of an assistant, a

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seamless paper backgrounds can rolled and stapled along astudio wall in just a few minutes.

RisersThe use of risers, or small studio platforms, have severaladvantages in studio production.

Since they elevate seatedtalent in relation to thecamera, they provide a morestraight-on camera-to-talentshooting angle. Otherwise,cameras may be lookingdown on the talent, or thecameras will have to belowered to the point of

making camera operation uncomfortable. Risers are normallymade of heavy wooden frames covered by sturdy plywood. Inorder to keep thesurface from squeaking when the talent moves, glue and screwsshould be used in assembly. You generally don’t have to worryabout a perfect construction job, since risers are generally coveredwith carpeting. Fitting together different colors, shapes, andsizes of carpeting can make attractive designs. Polystyrene blocksare sometimes used for both standing set pieces and risers.(Note the polystyrene set pieces used in the backgroundelements of the sets above.) Since polystyrene is relative soft,when used for a riser it must be covered with a material, such asthin plywood, that will distribute weight evenly over the surface.Nails can be used to keep the plywood from sliding. Comparedto all-wood risers, polystyrene risers are cheaper, lighter, andquieter-but, of course, much less durable.

The Directing ProcessFor every audio or video event that takes place during aproduction several behind-the-scenes production steps aretypically required. Because production involves the activities ofnumerous crew members-the number can range from 6 to morethan 60-the director’s instructions must be clearly and succinctlyphrased. Even the word sequence is important.

If the director says, “Will you pan to the left and up a littlewhen you ‘lose [your tally] light’ on camera one,” all cameraoperators must wait until the end of the sentence before theyknow who the director is talking to; and then they mustremember what the instructions were.However, if the director says, “Camera one, when you loselight, pan left and up a little,” the first two words indicate who,the next four words tell when, and the last six words indicatewhat. After the first two words, crew members know that onlycamera one’s operator is being addressed. This will get theattention of the camera one operator, and the rest of the crewmembers can concentrate on their individual tasks.The “when” in the sentence tells camera one not to immediatelypan and tilt, but to prepare for a quick move once the cameratally (“on-air”) light is off. This may involve loosening the panand tilt controls on the camera’s pan head and being ready tomake the adjustment-possibly within the brief interval whenthe director switches to a reaction shot. Even a one- or two-second delay can make the difference between a tight show and

one where the production changes lag behind the action.Although the specifics of the jargon vary somewhat betweenproduction facilities, directors tend to use some of the samebasic terminology. To illustrate this, let’s trace a director’s PL lineconversation to the crew for the opening of a simple interviewshow.This production uses two cameras, one of which moves fromposition A to position B. In position A the camera gets theestablishing (wide) shot. In position B it gets close-ups and

over-the-shouldershots.Since the guests onthis show are differenteach week and willrequire differentopening and closingannouncements, onlythe show’s theme

music is prerecorded on a CDR or audio tape. The slate and theopening and closing announcements are read off-camera, live.

Before we get to the actual show, let’s look at several things thatthe audience will not see, but that are still important to theproduction.

Color Bars, Slate, Countdown Clock, and TrailerIn professional productions there are four elements recorded onthe tape that are not seen by the audience:1. First on the tape are color bars for a minimum of 30 seconds

accompanied by a 0dB audio tone on allaudio tracks. These are used to set propercolor balance and audio and video levelsfor the videotape playback. The white level(note the white block) and the primary(red, green and blue) and secondary

(magenta, cyan and yellow) color bars should register correctlyon a TV screen and on a orscope

2. After the color bars is the slate (shown below) which ispicked up on a camera while the following programinformation is read by an announcer. (Some slates are nowtotally electronically generated.)

• the title of the program• the episode title and number• the date (and possibly recording VCR

number)• the audio format (mono, stereo,

Dolby 5.1, etc.)• the presence of closed captioning or extra data

Not all of this information may be necessary, but the labels onthe tape and tape box should also include whatever basicinformation is deemed necessary. The slate shown above showsthe time code numbers that are encoded on the videotape.Network requirements typically specify a start code of01:00:00:00 for the first program on a tape.After these, there is typically an electronic countdown clock thatstarts at 10 seconds and goes to 2 seconds.

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3. At this point there should be exactly two seconds of blackand silence before the program begins. This precise timingmakes it possible to roll a tape on a particular number andthen “punch it up” at the exact moment it’s needed.

4. At the end of the production, network specifications requirefive minutes of black and silence with continuing time codeafter the last scene (generally the closing credits) of aproduction.

Now let’s trace the director’s dialogue for the first minute or soof a very basic interview show. Here we’re assuming an on-camera slate and that videotape is being used to record theshow.

Director's Comments Explanation

Standby on the set. This means "attention" and "quiet" on the set. The command is given 15-30 seconds before rolling tape.

Standby to roll tape. Get ready to start the videotape that will record the show.

Roll tape.

The tape is rolled, and after 5 to 10 seconds, a tape operator calls "speed." This means that things check out and the tape speed is stabilized and ready for recording.

Ready to take bars and tone.

Take bars and tone.

The electronic test pattern (ETP) and audio tone is recorded at OdB. It will be used to set up playback equipment for proper video and audio. This will last from 15 to 60 seconds, depending on the technical requirements of the production facility.

Standby camera ONE on slate; stand by to announce slate.

Take ONE.

Read slate.

Standby black.

Camera one's first shot is the slate identifying the show. During this time the announcer reads the basic program identifying information we previously listed.

Go to black Ready TWO with your closeup of Lee; ready mic; ready cue.

The technical director cuts to black. The show opens "cold" (without an introduction of any kind) with a closeup of Dr. Cherry Lee. This "tease" statement is intended to grab attention and introduce the show's guest and topic.

Take TWO, mic, cue! Cut to camera two with a closeup of Dr. Lee, turn her mic on, and cue her to start.

Stand by ONE on the guest.

Take ONE!

Dr. Lee introduces subject and makes a quick reference to the guest. When Dr. Lee mentions the guest, the director makes a two- to three-second cut to the closeup camera on the guest and then back to Dr. Lee on camera two.

Standby black and standby to roll commercial on tape 4.

Roll tape 4. Go black. Take it.

The commercial is rolled. During the second or two it takes for the tape to stabilize, the TD cuts to black. The commercial is then taken as soon as it comes up. The audio person brings up the sound on the commercial without being cued. (Everyone's script should list basic information, such as VCR playback numbers, etc. Some things, such as cutting mics when they are not needed, are done as needed without a director's command.)

Camera 1 truck left for your wide shot.

Fifteen seconds. Standby in studio.

During the commercial camera #1 will reposition for the opening wide shot. (See drawing above.) This shot will be used for keying the opening program titles.

Standby opening announce and theme.

Ready ONE on your wide shot; ready TWO on a closeup of Lee.

Standby to key in title.

Take ONE; hit music; key title.

When the commercial ends, a wide shot is taken on camera one, the theme music is established, and the title of the show is keyed over the screen.

Fade [music] and read.

The music is faded under and the opening announce for the show is read by an announcer. The opening announce includes the show title, followed by the topic, and the name of the show's host.

Ready TWO with a closeup on Lee. Standby mics and cue. Take TWO, mic, cue.

This is a closeup of the show's interviewer, who now fully introduces the day's guest. The host starts the show.

Camera 1, ready on your closeup on the guest.

Camera 1 trucks back to the opening position for the closeup of the guest. Dr. Lee covers the interval of the camera move by fully introducing the show and guest. When the camera is ready, she asks the first question.

Take ONE. The guest answers first question.

Show continues alternating between closeups of host and guest. Occasionally cameras will zoom out to get over-the-shoulder shots. Closing of show is similar in its pattern to the opening.

Excluding the commercial, all of the above takes less than aminute of production time. At the end of the show, theopening wide shot on camera one can again be used. During the30 seconds or so that the interviewer uses to wrap up the show,camera one can truck right to the mid-position and zoom back.This shot can be used (possibly with dimmed studio lights) asa background for the closing credits and announce. Eventhough this example is a bit of an old-fashioned in its format,it illustrates all the things the director is concerned with “behindthe scenes” (and it represents a good starting assignment forlaboratory exercises).

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Shooting AnglesIn an interview the eyes and facial expressions communicate agreat deal-often even more than what the words the person is

saying.Profile shots(equivalent toshooting thecloseups from cameraposition A) oftenhide these importantclues. A closeup of

the guest from camera position B, as well as a closeup of Dr.Lee from the camera 2 position, provide much stronger shots.These angles also offer more possibilities for shots. You have astrong closeup of the person talking, plus, if you zoom backslightly, an over-the-shoulder shot that can even be used tomomentarily cover comments by the person whose back istoward the camera.

The Need to AnticipateAn essential talent for a director is the ability to react quickly tochanges in action. But “react” implies delay. In fact, the totalreaction time is equal to the accumulated time involved inrecognizing the need for a specific action, communicating thataction to crew members, having them respond, and then tellingthe technical director what you want done (for example, cut tocamera #1). That can represent a delay of several seconds.Although that may not seem long, when audiences are used toseeing production responses in sync with on-camera action, itwill clearly reveal that the director is lagging behind the action.The solution is for the director to try to anticipate what’s goingto happen.

During an interview, a director should be able to sense whenthe interviewer’s question is about to end, or when an answer iswinding up.

Video Switchers and Special EffectsAlthough video switchers like the one pictured here look

impossibly complex, once youunderstand some basics, theyaren’t nearly as intimidating .

By saying “stand by” early and calling for a camera cut a momentbefore it’s needed, a director will be able to cut from one camera

to the other almost on the concluding period or question markof the person’s final sentence.Also, by watching the off-air monitor in the control room, asopposed to the on-air shot of the person talking, the directorwill often be able to see when the off-camera person is about tointerrupt or visually react to what is being said. Using theseclues, a good director can almost appear to have precognitivepowers!Each button represents a video source-even “black,” whichincludes the technical parts of the video signal necessary toproduce stable black. The bottom row of buttons is theprogram bus or direct-take bus. Any button pressed on thisrow sends that video source directly to line out, the final feedbeing broadcast or recorded. The easiest way to instantly cutfrom one video source to another is simply to select it (“punchit up”) on the program bus. The program bus generally handlesmore than 90% of video switching.

But, what if you want to dissolve (fade) from one camera toanother, or fade to black? For this you need to move to the toptwo rows of buttons referred to as effects, or the mix/effectbus. From here, with the help of the fader bars, you can createrudimentary special effects.When the fader bars are in the top position as shown here, anyvideo source punched up on the top row of buttons is sent tothe effects button on the program bus. (To see this clearly, youmay want to refer back to the larger illustration above.) The

buttonsthat havebeenselected aredarkened.In thiscase,camera 3

was selected on the effects bus, so that’s the camera that will besent down to the program bus. Since the effects bus has beenselected on the program bus, its signal will then be sent out andbe displayed on to the line out video monitor. Put another way,the fader bars point toward the top row of buttons on theeffects bus, and camera 3 has been selected on this bus, and,since we have the output of “effects” selected on the programbus, that’s what we are going to end up seeing. If we were tomove the fader bars down to the lower position, the videosource selected on the lower row of buttons on the effects bus(in this case camera #2) would then be sent to the program bus.If the “Effects” button were selected here, Camera #2 would beput on the air.During the process of moving the fader bars from the top tothe bottom, we see a dissolve(and overlapping transition)from camera #3 to camera #2.

If we stop the fader barsmidway between the movefrom top to bottom, we wouldhave both sources of video onthe line-out monitor at thesame time-we would be

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superimposing one camera over the other. Although this usedto be the way we displayed titles, credits, etc., on the screen,today we use an electronic keying process. As illustrated below,a key represents a much cleaner and sharper effect.

Note in the drawing above that in a key one image is electroni-cally “cut out” of the other, while in a super the two images arevisible at the same time, which can look a bit jumbled.To see (preview) an effect, we first punch up effects on thepreview bus. When we get the effect we want on the effects bus,we can cut directly to it by punching up effects on the programbus.

Some switchers, like the one shown in the photo at thebeginning of this module, have multiple effects banks. Asimple version is shown below.

Using what you know about switchers at this point, can youfigure out how black arrived on the screen in the drawingabove?

If you moved the fader bars on Effects #2 to the up position,you would make a transition from black to whatever was onEffects #1. In this case it would be Camera 2 superimposedover Camera 3.Finally, let’s add some real bells and whistles. The top row ofbuttons in this drawing represents various types of wipes.White on the buttons represents one video source, blackanother source. Additional patterns-some switchers havehundreds-can by selected by entering numbers on the keypad.

If wipe is selected on the switcher, the button pushed (indi-cated as a grid in this drawing) shows the moving pattern

(controlled bythe fader bars)that would beinvolved in thetransition fromone videosource to theother.A border alongthe edges of thewipe pattern-atransitionborder-can be

used, and its hue, brightness, sharpness, width, and colorsaturation selected. To add even more variety, the edge of thewipe can also be modulated (made to move) with the patternmodulation controls.The key clip knob controls the video level of the source you aregoing to key into background video. This is adjusted visually onthe preview monitor.

Downstream keyers, which are often used to key in such thingsas opening titles and closing credits, are external (downstreamfrom) the basic switcher. The advantage of a downstream keyeris that it doesn’t require the use a switcher’s effects bank forkeying. This means that the bank stays free to be used for otherthings. The switcher shown at the left incorporates versions allof the features we’ve discussed, plus a computer display thatadds even more options. Although switcher configurationsdiffer, they all center around the same basic concepts.Later, we’ll talk about software-based switchers and special effectunits that are based on a desktop computer.

Chroma KeyThe type of key we’ve been discussing so far is referred to asluminance key because the keying effect is based on the bright-

ness or luminance of thevideo that you are keying in.But, as we saw when wediscussed virtual reality sets,it’s also possible to basekeying on color (chroma). Inchroma key a particular color isselected for removal andanother video source issubstituted in its place. This

type of keying is commonly done during newscasts where agraphic is inserted behind a newscaster, or a weather map iskeyed in behind the weather Person.

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The photo on the right was created by keying the model intothe beach scene. Chroma key is still used to key in virtual realitysets behind talent. Although any color can be used in chromakey, royal blue and a saturated green are the most commonlyused. Most of the special effects we seen on television today aredone with chroma key.

Software-Based Switchers and EffectsMost software-based switchers use the hardware-based switcherthat we’ve discussed as a graphical model. Note the familiar

fader bars and the variousbanks of buttons shownon the computer screen onthe left. In this case, insteadof pushing buttons, youclick on the buttons with amouse. Software basedsystems can be easily andregularly upgraded whennew software is written-an

advantage you don’t have to the same degree with hardware-based equipment. With most software-based systems it’s alsopossible to go beyond basic switching and create such things as3-D illustrations and animated effects.

Multiple-Camera RemotesThe most challenging, exciting, and demanding productions todo are multiple-camera remotes-especially if they are done live.Live productions such as Election coverage and the One DayWorld Cup may require 30 or more cameras, a few tons ofequipment, and months of preparation

But even covering a high-school football game or a homecom-ing parade with just a couple cameras takes skills beyond thoseneeded for a basic studio production. In the studio you have atested, controlled, and even predictable environment. Once youleave the studio, things can get much more complex. One ofthe most important steps in doing a successful remote produc-tion is the first one: doing a thorough on-location survey.

The On-Location SurveyAlthough situations vary, an initial survey for a major, multiple-camera field production typically includes at least 10 points orquestions. (Again, we are starting off by thinking big. Theseelements will need to be scaled down for smaller remotes.)1. A check of available power. What will your total power needs

be on the location in terms of watts or amps? Does theremote van that will house your production equipment take120- or 220-volt power? Is there enough power on thelocation? Will long power lines have to be run to bring inadequate power? Is a portable generator the only solution?

2. If it’s a live production, does the location provide for a clearsatellite uplink or microwave path? Productions are nottransmitted to viewers directly from the field; instead, theymust first be sent to a TV station or a production facility andthen to a transmitter or head-end distribution point. Asignal can be sent from the field by:

• one or more microwave links, such as the one shown here• video phone (assuming it’s a short

news/documentary feed andquality isn’t a major concern)

• a satellite uplink• fiber optic cables3. Will there be sound problems? Is

there a street nearby where noisymotorcycles or trucks can cause audio problems? Dependingon changing wind conditions, is it possible that a locationmay end up being in the flight path of an airport? If theproduction is being done inside, will the acoustics presentaudio problems?

4. What are the existing lighting conditions? Will extra lightshave to be set up? And if so, will the air conditioning be ableto handle the resulting heat? If the shoot is exterior, wherewill the sun be during the schedule time of the shoot? Willdeep shadows caused by the position of the sun requirereflectors or high-powered fill lights?

5. What changes will be necessary at the location toaccommodate the script, talent, and production equipment?Will existingsigns have to beremoved orcovered topreserveauthenticity in adramaticproduction?This isespeciallyimportant inperiod pieces that are set in specific historic eras. A dramaticproduction set in the era depicted by this scene, for example,would have to undergo extensive scrutiny to eliminate itemsand materials that were not available during this era.

Could you have a scene with Albert Einstein using a ball-pointpen, or living in a house with stucco walls? Savvy audiences canbe quick to pick up on these things?In addition, you may have to make changes at the site toaccommodate cameras and equipment.6. What are the restrictions involved in using the location?

Some communities, especially in Southern California, Miami,Chicago, and New York City, have strict guidelines coveringproduction locations, hours, and conditions. Special permits,insurance, and security bonds are required. Even studentsdoing productions for class have run into problems withlocal officials.

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7. Can a contract be drawn up to ensure that you will have thefacilities as long as you need them? Without putting thingsin writing, there can be misunderstandings. You might wantto specify such things as:

• the days or hours when the facility will be needed• the compensation, if any, that will be paid to the owner of

the property• any changes that are planned for the property, including the

interior or exterior of buildings, (repainting, remodeling,redecorating, etc.)

• the user’s responsibility for restoring the location to itsoriginal condition, if that’s deemed desirable

• insurance and bonds that will be secured and a statement onfinancial responsibility on any related liabilities

8. Does the location offer adequate toilet facilities for cast andcrew? Are they readily available (as would normally be thecase in a large athletic facility) or will portable facilities have tobe rented?

9. Will adequate security, police, and first aid be available? Ifequipment is to be left overnight, will security guards have tobe hired? Will off-duty police have to be hired to keeponlookers from interfering with the production?

10.Are there nearby restaurants, or will a catering service have tobe brought in? Nearby restaurants may not be able to handlea large crew within the time allotted for lunch or dinner.

Deciding on Camera PositionsTo show the camera positions decided upon by the director, alocation sketch is generally attached to the facilities request form.When deciding on camera locations, several things should bekept in mind. In addition to the obvious things, such as notshooting against the sun and not placing a camera in a positionthat would result in a reversal of action (crossing the line), thereare some special considerations for stationary cameras.If people suddenly jump up in front of your camera during themost exciting play in a game and block your shot, there may belittle you can do. Members of the press or ENG camerapersonsmay find that the camera positions you’ve selected are ideal,which wouldn’t be surprising if they are good ones. If theydon’t stand directly in front of your camera, they may simplyblock your shot from one or more angles. And, there is anotherpossible problem. If fans or spectators start jumping up anddown in their excitement and shaking the camera platform, theresulting video may be unusable.If the budget allows, you might want to consider renting acamera jib (pictured below on the left) to add some dynamiccamera moves to your production (and shoot over the head ofanyone that could be in the way of your camera shots). Belowyou can also see the remote control unit for a jib or crane-mounted camera.

Finally, in order to hold public relations problems to aminimum, you will need to make sure that your cameras, lights,or other equipment don’t block the view of individuals whohave paid to attend the event.

On-Location Audio ConcernsBecause of the noise common to remote locations, off-cameradirectional mics or personal wireless mics are almost always usedon remotes. In the latter case, be sure to check for multipathreception and dead spots by having an assistant test each RF micwhile talking and slowly walking through the area where it willbe used. Since mic problems are common, back-up mics thatcan be put into service at a moment’s notice should be providedfor each area. When mounting crowd mics (mics that will pickup audience or crowd reaction) make sure they cover a wide area,rather than favoring a few people closest to a mic. Plan for theshortest distances possible for mic cables, and avoid runningthem parallel to power cords where electrical noise might beinduced into an audio line. In wet weather tightly seal up cableconnectors with black plastic electrical tape.

Determining Lighting NeedsOnce the lighting director visits the location, a list of neededlighting instruments and accessories can be drawn up. One ormore lighting kits,such as the oneshown here, maybe needed.As we’ve noted,you need to checkthe sun’s locationduring the timescheduled for theshoot. Payparticular attention to resulting shadows.

And, finally, have a “lighting plan B” worked out, in case itrains, or the day turns out to be dreary or overcast.

Notes

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UNIT 3THE INFORMATION ERALESSON 12:

BASICS OF NEWS PRODUCTION I

If there’s a war, a disaster, or a major civil disturbance some-where in the world, television news will be there. Electronicnewsgathering or ENG technologymakes us an eyewitness to happenings.Although the printed word can bepowerful, as we’ve so often seen in thelast 50 years, seeing images, especially onTV, makes happenings much more real.During the events surrounding theSeptember 11, 2001, terrorists attacks onthe East Coast of the United Stateswhere thousands died, TV news brought the nation and muchof the world together in feelings of outrage and sorrow.When Iraq was invaded in March, 2003, reporters and newscameras were “imbedded” in ships at sea and in the tanks thatrolled into Baghdad, givingviewers around and world anunprecedented “live” view ofthe realities of the war as itunfolded.During this time, anotherapplication of video movedinto prominence in news-theInternet. The major news organizations had assembled a widerange of live video, audio reports, photography collections,animated weaponry displays, and interactive maps for Internetusers.

The Difference Between ENG and EFPElectronic newsgathering (ENG) is a part of electronic fieldproduction (EFP). Although in all-digital operations we’restarting to see the initials DNG used for digital newsgathering,we’ll stick to “ENG” for this discussion.Electronic Field Production (EFP) includes many other types offield productions, including commercials, music videos, on-location dramatic productions, and various types of sportscoverage. EFP work generally provides the opportunity toinsure maximum audio and video quality. In ENG work the

primary goal is to get the story. In 90% of news work there willbe time to insure audio and video quality, which is what thenews director and producer will expect. But conditions are notalways ideal in news work, and if compromises must be madethey are made in audio and video quality, not in story content.The most-watched and celebrated television news story inhistory was shot with one low-resolution black-and-white videocamera, not the quality of video that you would think wouldmake it to every major TV network in the world. The video was

of mankind’sfirst steps on themoon.Although thequality of thefootage was poor,no TV newseditor said toNASA, “You’vegot someinteresting

footage there, NASA, but we’ll have to pass; the quality justdoesn’t come up to our standards.”In democratic society news and documentaries also serve animportant “watchdog” function. Not only do they tend tokeep politicians and other officials honest, but they have alsobrought to light countless illegal activities. Once such thingsbecome public knowledge, corrective action often follows.

The Influence of Broadcast NewsWe can more fully appreciate the power and influence of TVnews when we consider the lengths to which some people andnations go to control it. As we have seen countless times, thenews media are the first target for those who want to controlthe people of a country. Although censorship is often justifiedas a way of protecting values and ideals, history has repeatedlyshown that censorship leads to a suppression of ideas and evento political and military control.Today, there are many countries that censor-or at least try tocensor-broadcast news, books and magazines and the Internet.Although the stated justification may be to protect moralvalues, the list of censored materials sometimes includesrespectable web pages and publications. You can draw your ownconclusions about the real intent.Although broadcast news has problems with quality, as thebearer of “bad tidings” TV news often gets complaints frompeople who at least unconsciously confuse the medium withthe message. Thus, the messenger (TV news) is blamed forinformation that some viewers find distressing or that contra-dict favored beliefs.Thus, stories that will grab and hold an audience are favoredover those that in the long run may be much more consequen-

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tial. Storiesthat are“visual” arefavored overthose thatare staticand moredifficult toexplain orunderstand.A babybeauty

contest or a dog show may win out over coverage of a citycouncil meeting or a international trade conference. Given thepreferences of viewers who are constantly “voting” on programpopularity with their TV remote controls, a news director(whose job largely depends on maximizing ratings and stationprofits) may have little choice but to appeal to popular tastes.At the same time, news is very competitive, and outlets thatbypass or downplay certain stories because they may negativelyimpact advertising profits, or corporate prestige, may find thattheir credibility drops with viewers. According to some observ-ers, this route is unwise, if for no other reason, because it willeventually impact news ratings and, subsequently, profits.

But, there is also this: Most people get most of their newsfrom their favorite TV news station. If these outlets bypasscertain stories because they may be unpopular with certainfactions, the viewers may never know. (How can you misssomething if you don’t know about it in the first place?)

“You Did Some Great Work. You’re Fired!”People who hope to be successful in TV news must understandits influence, as well as the influences that shape its content. Bynot grasping these elements mistakes can be made that can cutshort promising careers.One student was fired from a TV station after doing anexcellent documentary on the effects of river pollution in anarea. It turned out that the river was being polluted by a parentcompany of one of the station’s major advertisers.

Although news content used to be well insulated from salesobjectives at TV stations, with the increased emphasis onprofits that has come with media conglomeration, this is nolonger the case.TV news and documentaries represent a powerful force fordisseminating information and influencing social change. Today,most of what people know about the world, its peoples, andthe critical social and political issues of the times, comes fromTV. Those who produce TV news and documentaries collec-tively hold the keys to much power and influence.

Handling Controversial Subject MatterWith all this as a background, let’s now look at some practicalissues in producing news and documentary pieces. Since“biased” is a word that you don’t want to hear about your work(especially if you plan to stay employed), you don’t want topromote your own view on an issue and not seek opposingviews. So, “Worry about your job and not somebody else’s.Your job is simply to uncover the facts-as many as you can on

both sides of theissue. The lessemotionallyinvolved you arethe better you’llbe able to doyour job. Let thepoliticians,preachers, publicofficials, orwhoever, dosomething about what you find out. That’s their job.”Part of your responsibility as a newsperson is to bring out thevarious sides of an issue. This means you allow each side tostate their views as strongly and convincing as they can. Notonly is it the professional thing to do, but it will also addinterest and controversy to your news stories. Keep your ownbiases out of it. If you keep an open mind right from thebeginning, you may uncover facts that put issues in a wholenew light. In speaking to potential spokespersons for TV newspieces you need to carefully explain the nature of the story. Youalso want to carefully document your attempts at findingopposing views. This will protect you both legally and profes-sionally.In news pieces you have to rely on the telephone to set upinterviews. If key people refuse comment or refuse to beinterviewed, many producers send these people registeredletters, so after the piece is aired they can’t suddenly say theydidn’t understand what was going on, or that they were deniedthe opportunity to present their side.

People who feel they were not given an opportunity to presenttheir side can initiate a costly lawsuit and demand equal air-time. If potential spokespersons refuse to respond to yourregistered letter (after signing for it) and are constantly unavail-able for comment, this should be mentioned in thedocumentary, along with any reasons they might give. At thesame time, keep in mind that when an issue is being litigated,an attorney might restrain them from commenting, a fact thatshould also be mentioned.

Interviewing Techniques: Some Do’s and Don’ts inInterviewingDo your research! Know as much as possible about theperson and the topic. Otherwise you may come off looking likea bit of an ill-informed dolt. Plus, you may later find that youmissed asking the most important questions.Don’t rehearse or go through the questions and answers inadvance. Although you may like to know how they are goingto answer questions, if a person has just answered yourquestion (off air), it is human nature not to repeat them toyour face again (on air). The best and most spontaneousanswers are generally the first answers.

Try to quickly put the person at ease. Since most people arenervous (and rather guarded) around cameras and micro-phones, you may want to ask some easy questions at thebeginning - maybe even questions about their hobbies, work,or kids that you fully intend to cut out of the taped interview

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just to get the conversation flowing. And it should be aconversation, not an interrogation.If the interview is being done “live” in the studio, make surethat the person can’t see himself or herself in a monitor. (Fornon-professionals this can be a major distraction.) Andwherever the interview is being done, try to get the person’smind off of the people and equipment being used in theproduction process.Listen to the person’s answers! Many interviewers are sointent on the television process and formulating their nextquestion that they don’t really hear what the person is saying.This also means that you may have to at least temporarilyabandon your list of questions and immediately pick up onsomething unexpected that was said.

Think in terms of soundbites. This means asking questionsthat will evoke personal, emotions, and not just factualresponses.Conceal your agreement or disagreement with the source.If you don’t you may skew the answers you are getting. Simplylook intensely interested in what the person has to say (withoutnodding or frowning).If you come across as disagreeing with an answer, the personmay thereafter either steer clear of contentious answers or growhostile. Remember, “You can catch more flies with honey thanwith vinegar.” Bullying sources or using coercion often back-fires.Let people know if their answers sound rehearsed. Often,people who know they are going to be asked certain questionsduring a recorded interview will rehearse their answers. Thiscomes across as stilted and insincere — not to mentionrehearsed. Generally, people will take your advice and try to bemore spontaneous.If the interview is being done “live” in the studio, make surethat the person can’t see himself or herself in a monitor. (Fornon-professionals this can be a major distraction.) Andwherever the interview is being done, try to get the person’smind off of the people and equipment being used in theproduction process.Pre-production advice also carries into such things as clothescalling attention to things that you know won’t show up wellon TV. (A male crew member may be willing to loan a maleguest a more appropriate sports coat or a tie, for example; or awoman may be willing to take off highly distracting earrings orjewelry.)Make sure that terms, abbreviations, or concepts that theaudience may not be familiar with are explained. You mayeven have to briefly interrupt the person being interviewed toask what a term they are using means. In during an interviewwith a production person you might interject: “NLE, that’snon-linear editing.”

Ask the same question in different ways in recorded inter-views, especially if it’s a key question. This will give you differentoptions during editing.Try “non-question questions” during tragedies. If a personhas just lost a loved one, for example, don’t ask, “How do you

feel right now?” (How do you think they feel?) Instead youmight say, “I can’t imagine what you are going through rightnow.” This not only shows empathy, but opens the door to abroader range of answers.Use the source’s own language in eliciting responses toquestions they are trying to dodge. If they say, “I can’t talkabout that,” try, “When can you talk about it?”, or “Why can’tyou talk about it?”Avoid two-part, or double-barreled questions. Not only is ithard to remember both questions, but they may just answer thequestion they are most comfortable with.

Whisper during small talk at crime scenes. By making jokesat crime scenes that people can hear - Ever watch Law andOrder? -you might poison key people against you, especiallythose who have suffered in the tragedy that you may later needto interview.

ENG PersonnelThe number and type of positions involved in producing adaily newscast will vary from two or three people in a very small

station tomore than 100in larger ones.Althoughresponsibili-ties and titlescan varyamongstations,generally thenews producer

is the person who is directly in charge of the newscast. He orshe makes the major minute-by-minute decisions on both thetechnical and content aspects of the newscast.

Larger stations have segment producers in charge of specificstories or newscast segments. Some stations will have anexecutive producer who is over the producer(s).Two types of directors are involved in putting the newscast onthe air. The news director is the top person in the NewsDepartment. This person controls the budget, hires and firespersonnel, and has ultimate responsibility for the station’snews.Much further down the ladder of responsibility is the on-airdirector for the newscast. This person’s responsibility is to takethe plans of the producer and “call the shots” in the on-airphase of the broadcast.As the title suggests, the ENG coordinator starts with the storyassignments made by the assignment editor and works withreporters, ENG crews, editors, technicians, and the producer tosee that the stories make it to “air.” ENG coordinators mustnot only thoroughly know their studio and location equipment,but also understand news.

Uncovering TruthUltimately, the job of the journalist-especially the investigativejournalist-is to uncover the truth about situations and explainthat truth in a clear and succinct manner. Yes, this may some-

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times conflict with corporate interests or prevailing beliefs; butby allowing both sides to present their views you can allowviewers to make up their own minds. Even when there seemsto be a major injustice involved, it is not the responsibility ofthe reporter to “prove” that injustice, but simply to bring therelated facts to the public’s attention. In the case of complexstories and situations, this does not exclude the necessaryinterpretation of the facts.

Advice From Mom“Whistleblowers” who report wrongdoing often have a difficulttime: they face a difficult decision in deciding whether to reportwrongdoing, and then if they do, they may face the wrath ofinfluential people.Army reservist Joseph Darby, who had aphoto CD graphically documenting the torture and abuse ofIraqis by U.S. personnel at Abu Ghralib prison in Iraq in 2004,agonized for months over whether to alert the Army.Finally,without disclosing the exact nature of what was bothering him,he called his mother from Iraq, and she gave him advice thatfew experts in law or ethics could match. She said:”I wouldremain true to myself, because the truth sets you free. And truthtriumphs over evil.”

Video JournalistsToday, we commonly see “one-man bands” in the covering oftelevision news; i.e., one person doing everything: cameraoperator, reporter, sound person, and editor. In case you are

wondering what the term “one-manband” refers to, it originally referred to aman who played multiple musicalinstruments at the same time. In thecase of the person on the left, however,we have a one-woman band. In aslightly more modern interpretation, anon-camera reporter shoots the basicstory, then sets up a camera on a tripod,focuses on a mark on the ground, tiltsthe camera up to his or her height andlock it, puts on a mic and checks theaudio, rolls the recorder, and then

standing on the mark delivers the opening and closing to thepiece. Once back at the studio, the same person edits the pieceand does the voice-over narration. (And now you know why it’simportant to know all aspects of TV production!) This has ledto the term, video journalist (VJ), a single field reporter whowrites, reports, shoots and edits stories alone. Not easy, but itsaves hiring extra people. Thus, it’s more essential than everbefore that the entire news process and the associated pitfalls areunderstood.

Reporter’s ChecklistBroadcast news is a highly competitive business and in the rushto get a story on the air it’s sometimes tempting to guess atfacts or depend on unreliable sources. However, errors in storiesnot only damage a station’s credibility, but they can derail areporter’s professional future. Here are five points to keep inmind when writing news stories.1. Question those who claim to be a witness to an event and

confirm that they really were in a position to see whathappened.

2. Use a second source to double-check information that seemssurprising or may be in doubt.

3. Double-check all names, titles, and places, and, whennecessary, write out the pronunciation of names phonetically.

4. When writing the story, carefully check spelling and grammar;do the math on numbers.

5. Make sure that sound bites selected during editing accuratelyreflect what the person meant.

News Producer’s ChecklistOnce reporters turn in their stories and a news producer ordirector takes over, many decisions must still be made beforethe stories are ready for broadcast. Among other things, thestories must be reviewed for balance, lead-ins (story introduc-tions) must be written, and appropriate graphics must beprepared to support the stories. Here are five points that shouldbe considered before the newscast goes on the air.1. Review stories for a balance in views, gaps, and missing

information.2. Double-check phone numbers by calling them; double-check

web addresses by visiting the sites.3. Check graphics for accuracy.4. Make sure the lead-ins to stories and related news promos

accurately reflect the content and nature of the stories.5. Step back and view the overall newscast and make sure that

the most important stories of the day have been covered andthat they accurately reflect the most current information anddevelopments.

News BiasConservatives think that TV news has a liberal bias, and liberalsfeel that news has a conservative bias. Total objectively in newsis impossible, of course, and when you analyze bias complaintsyou are apt to conclude that bias is defined as “any view that’sdifferent from mine.” Although the media is often seen ashaving a liberal bias, it has been shown that most of the large

broadcast operationsare owned ormanaged byindividuals whohold views that arepolitically and sociallyto the right ofcenter.Bias can stem just asmuch from what TVnews reports as whatit doesn’t report.When it comes topolitics, great effort

goes into trying to keep certain things from becoming public. Ithas been well documented that many embarrassing governmentdocuments that have nothing to do with national security aremarked “classified” to keep the information from the public.

To help address this issue The Freedom of Information Actwas passed that allows citizens and reporters access to somegovernment documents. Although the process of obtaining

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documents can be fraught with red tape and delays, and keyinformation is often blacked out, passage of The Freedom ofInformation Act represented a major step forward for investiga-tive journalism.

At Times, A Dangerous ProfessionIn the United States, as elsewhere, reporters have been killedbefore their stories could be aired. Numerous books and articlesdocument this. Although some of these authors might be seenas “conspiracy theorists,” the death of journalists and scores ofinformants on the eve of important revelations, can’t all beviewed as just coincidence.

Suffice it to say, investigating and breaking important storiesoften carries a degree of professional and personal risk. At thesame time, this is the way awards are won and professionalcareers are advanced-and, far more importantly, wrongs arerectified and needed social change is instituted.

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LESSON 13:BASICS OF NEWS PRODUCTION II

News Sources

Broadcast news comes from:• the local reporter’s primary sources• news services such as the Associated Press• media outlets, such as newspapers, radio and TV stations• press releases provided by corporations, agencies, and special

interest groupsThe world’s largest newsgathering association, the AssociatedPress (AP), operates bureaus in 120 U.S. cities and in more than130 foreign countries-reaching one-third of the world’spopulation. In addition to the AP, there are also a number ofsmaller wire services, including those operated by large newspa-pers. Today, stations have computerized newsrooms and thesteady stream of news from these services is electronicallywritten onto a computer hard disk. Using a computer terminal,a news editor can quickly scroll through an index of stories thathave been electronically stored. Some news editing programs,such as the one illustrated below, allow you to bring up wirestores from the newsroom computer (shown on the left) andrewrite it, or copy segments directly into the news script you arewriting (shown on the right).

Newsroom automation has reached the point that, in thewords of one observer, “Computers have taken over thenewsroom.” Unless you are computerphobic, this is not bad; in

fact, it can result in a much tighter and more sophisticatednewscast.

Today, newsroom programs are basic to -• storing a steady stream of news copy from wire services• providing key word search capabilities for wire copy, Internet

sources, and archived stories• facilitating the writing of stories (note illustration above)• calling up stillstore pages of graphics• creating and calling up CG (character generator) pages of text• programming the running order of stories, video, and

graphics (i.e., the complete newscast) on video servers• providing teleprompter outputs• instantly rearranging news stories and recalculating times to

accommodate last minute changes - even while the newscastis on the air

Some newsroom systems can be programmed to switch videoand audio sources to correspond to programmed cues in theteleprompter text.

Television stations affiliated with a network and O-and-Ostations (those owned and operated by a network) receive daily

afternoon and eveningsatellite news feedsprovided by networkreporters and affiliatedTV stations. Since mostof these stories are notused on the network’snightly news, they makegood regional, national,and internationalsegments for localnewscasts.Independent stations(those not affiliated witha network) have televi-sion news services theycan subscribe to-primarily the Cable NewsNetwork (CNN).

Whatever the source, the news feeds are recorded for review bythe local TV news producer or editor. Stories selected forbroadcast are normally saved to a video server or assembled onvideotapes and “rolled into” the local news as needed.Regional, national, or even international stories can often bedeveloped from a local perspective. As examples, a major eventthat takes place in a foreign country can elicit reactions from localpeople of the same nationality; a crime wave in an adjoiningcounty may cause local people to react; or a shakeup in a New

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York company may impact employees or related businesses inthe station’s area. Balance between local, regional, national, andinternational stories must be considered. Plus, you need toconsider the important element of visual variety, which in thiscase involves a balance between ENG segments and stories thatare simply read on-camera with supporting graphics.Although the anchor point for most newscasts is a TV studio,TV audiences like the visual variety and authenticity associatedwith news segments done outside the studio. Newscasts arebeing anchored now from foreign countries that dominate thenight’s news coverage.

Setting Up A Typical On-Location News InterviewFor better or worse, interviews are the basic staple of news anddocumentaries. Let’s take a look at a typical office interview

situation.The camera isfirst set up inposition “A”and focusedon theinterview

subject. The reporter asks all of his or her questions and theresponses are taped on an “A-roll” videotape. Note that bothcloseups and over-the-shoulder shots are possible from thisangle.Then the camera is moved to position “B.” (If you are going tobe using a linear editing system, a separate “B-roll” of videotapewill speed the editing process. If you are using nonlinear editingor a video server where you have almost instant access to alluploaded segments, it will be faster just to record questions andanswers on the same tape.)With the camera focused on the reporter, all of the questionsare then asked over again. This time, however, the interviewsubject does not answer the questions. In fact, if you can dowithout the over-the-shoulder shots, the interview subjectdoesn’t even have to be there at all. The reporter simply looks ata “spot on the wall” behind where the person was sitting andre-asks the questions.

For pre-roll purposes on tape editing systems a five- to eight-second pause should separate each question. Reporter reactionshots or “noddies,” which we discussed in the editing section,are also taped from this angle. During editing, the goal will beto condense things as much as possible and still remain true tothe subject’s answers. When you do cut out an unnecessarysegment of ananswer, you cancover theresulting jumpcut with a“noddie,” aninsert shot, or acutaway.Often, areporter’s question will be obvious in an answer and you cansave time by not using the question. Remember, the faster youcan move things along without sacrificing clarity, the better.

You could start out by lighting the set for the “A” and “B”camera positions at the same time. However, for a shortinterview it’s easier and takes less equipment to first light andmic camera position “A.” Then after you get all of your A-rollfootage, move the camera to position “B,” mic the reporter,and move your lights to the appropriate position for this(reverse) angle. One of the most difficult aspects of editing aninterview, especially when considerable editing and rearranginghas to be done, is to achieve smooth linking from one audiosegment to the next. This includes preserving the brief pausesthat normally occur in conversation.Although editing approaches differ, for interviews most editorsfirst concentrate on audio. Once they have a tightly edited “radioprogram,” they go back and cover the video jump cuts withinsert shots, reaction shots, and cutaways.

Camera Positions and Lighting For A Typical OfficeInterviewRather than require two cameras, two camera operators, two setsof lights, a microphone mixer and an audio person to do aninterview segment, most short interviews are done in the A-roll, B-roll style illustrated below. This approach only requires asingle camera, one set of lights, and one microphone pluggedinto the camera. It is even possible-although not too conve-nient-for a interviewer/reporter to handle everything.A-Roll: First, the camera is set up to record the guest answeringthe interviewer’s questions. In the first drawing only the guestis lit. The camera position allows for both closeups of theguest and (when the camera is zoomed back) shots over theshoulder of the interviewer. Note in the illustration below thatthe key light is a bit closer to the guest, making its intensitytwice that of the fill light.A back light (approximately 1½ times the intensity of the key)and a background light (approximately 2/3rds the intensity ofthe key) serve to separate the subject from the background andadd depth to the scene.

B-roll: Once all of the answers are recorded, the camera angle isreversed and focused on the interviewer. The mic (typically a

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personal mic or lav) is then moved from the guest to theinterviewer.This angle provides closeups on the interviewer as all of thequestions are re-asked, but this time not answered by the guest.The questions, if not obvious from an answer given, will beedited into the interview as needed.These closeups and over-the-shoulder shots of the interviewerwill also be used to cover edits when nonessential parts of theguest’s answers are edited out. Otherwise you would see a jumpcut. These shots are generally taped after all of the questionshave been asked. They consist of the interviewer nodding or(apparently) just listening to an answer. These reaction shotsare often called noddies. In a humorous interview they couldshow the interviewer smiling or even laughing.

It’s possible to record the B-roll footage (the questions)without the guest being present. This may be necessary if theguest is on a tight schedule. Even so, to preserve audioacoustics and visual ambiance, the B-roll should be taped in thesame setting as the interview questions-the guest just won’t besitting in his or her chair and you won’t be able to do any over-the-shoulder shots with the guest in the foreground.Note in drawing #2 below that the lights have been reposi-tioned and are now aimed at the interviewer. All of the lightingangles and intensities are maintained in their new positions.Note also that we have kept the key light source on the left,which will keep its direction consistent in the reverse-angleshots.

In linear editing two videotapes are typically used: an A-roll anda B-roll. During editing the tapes are switched back and forth asthe questions and answers are assembled. In nonlinear editingthis is not necessary. Everything can be recorded on one tape,hard disk, or in solid state memory. Once the shots are trans-ferred to the computer hard drive of the editing system, you caninstantly access both the questions and answers as needed.

In more elaborate interviews, two cameras, a double lightingsetup, and several crew members may be used. One camerarecords the interviewer’s questions and reactions, and thesecond camera simultaneously records the guest’s answers. Two

mics and an audio mixer would have to be used in this case.Although much more demanding, this approach has manyadvantages for editing. With either setup room tone shouldalso be recorded. This is done by just recording “silence” in theroom for 15 seconds or so before or after the interview. This“silence” will just consist of the normal background sounds inthe interview setting. During editing room tone may be neededto add an appropriate pause in the audio track . Absolutesilence, or no audio at all, would be noticeable, whereas roomtone would naturally blend in.

Like Any Good Scout: Be PreparedMost major news stories come up unexpectedly, and it’s thereporter/videographer who’s prepared to get to the scene of the

news first that has the best chanceof getting the story on the airfirst. These kind of “scoops” canrapidly advance a career.

First, this means having a checklist of essential equipment drawnup so that you won’t forgetanything in the rush to get outthe door. Have batteries charged

and all cameras and equipment ready to transport at a moment’snotice. Things happen very fast in a breaking story, so when youarrive on the scene, you should be able to start recording withina few seconds. While you may not get video of the suddenreappearance of an ancient sea monster (note simulated photoabove), it should mean that you won’t “drop the ball” on animportant story.

Hazards in News and Documentary WorkAlthough we touched on some of the general hazards of newsreporting earlier, we need to note here that seasoned reportersknow that people can go into a kind of “shock fog” duringcrises, and cannot always be counted on to respond rationally.Add to this the fact that a crew will be working under its owndeadline-related pressures, and it becomes obvious that specialprecautions must be observed.Once reporters leave the arena of local news, risks can become

even greater. Lastyear more than 75news people werekilled or “disap-peared” around theworld. On theaverage, one radio,TV, or newspaperreporter is killedsomewhere in the

world each week.

Most of these are killed or imprisoned in countries where thereis fear that a free flow of accurate information will threatenpolitical or religious control.A moving documentary was recently aired showing the atrocitiesbeing committed on the people of Afghanistan by the Taliban,the ultraconservative religious group reportedly behind theSeptember terrorists acts on the East Coast of the U.S.

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Despite repeated denialsby the Taliban, widespreadinstances of torture, rape,amputations, and murderwere documented by SairaShah through the use of ahidden video camera. In acountry where womenwere forced to beg forthemselves and their children because they were prevented fromworking and even from going to school, the reporter clearly riskher life to get the footage. As a result, she influenced worldthinking about the Taliban..)If you are interested in being a foreign correspondent, you

should rent the film,Welcome to Sarajevo, starringStephen Dillane and WoodyHarrelson.The highly-ratedfilm, which is based on arecent true story, makes useof actual news footage tovery dramatically (Note: andvery graphically) show what

war correspondents face.

Non-Broadcast TelevisionAlthough broadcast television is the most visible part of thetelevision business, in terms of personnel, equipment andfacilities, non-broadcast production is actually the largestsegment of this field.Included in the category of non-broadcast television is institu-tional video, which includes corporate, educational, medical, andgovernmental applications, and avocational television, which isassociated with serious personal/professional applications.Although the field of institutional video may not be as visibleor glamorous as over-the-air broadcasting, average salaries areoften higher, job security is better, working hours and condi-tions are more predictable, and there are often more perks.

Institutional VideoInstitutional video has proven itself in many areas.• A management-employee link It can be an effective tool for

supervisors or management in reaching employees withinformation on policies, progress, or problems. This isparticularly important if the institution has branches indiverse areas.

• Instructional video Intoday’s rapidlychanging competitiveworld, the ability tokeep employees up onthe latest techniquesand developments is amajor concern.Instructional videos are one answer.

• Public relations Many institutions regularly create videos toexplain policies, or announce products, researchdevelopments, or major institutional changes.

• Marketing While the mass media may be a cost-effective wayof reaching a general audience, it’s not the best way ofinforming a limited number of people about specializedproducts and services. Point-of-sale videos, often seen in thehome improvement, make-up, clothing, and hardwaredepartments of retail stores, are one example of this type ofmarketing.

Institutional television has been particularly effective in sevenareas:1. Where graphic feedback is necessary Seeing something first

hand is generally more effective than talking about it. This isparticularly true when it comes to feedback on artistic work orathletic performance.

2. Where close-ups are required to convey information The TVcamera can make details and information obvious. This isespecially true in medical television. It’s also possible to getcameras into hazardous and hard-to-reach places.

3. Where subject matter can best be seen and understood byaltering its speed Often, things cannot be clearly seen orunderstood without the use of slow motion or time-lapse(speeded up) photography.

4. Where special effects such as animation can best conveyinformation Animated drawings, flowcharts, and evenanimated characters can often make concepts clear.

5. When it’s necessary to interrelate a variety of diverse elementsTelevision can pull together and interrelate events and objectsso the total effect can be understood. As we noted in thesection on editing, the selection and sequence of visualelements generates meaning and emotional response.

6. Where it’s difficult to transport specific personnel to neededlocations Throughtelevision, experts arereadily accessible toviewers in diverselocations.

7. When the same basicinformation must berepeated to numerousaudiences over timeIt’s more cost effective to use personnel to explaininformation once to TV cameras, and then play thevideotape to numerous groups thereafter.

As an example, let’s say a company spends $15,000 producing asimple, 60-minute production designed to indoctrinate newemployees to thecompany, its policies,and the various healthand retirement planoptions. If 3,000people view the videoover a period of 3 years,the cost would be $5.00per person. This canrepresent a majorsavings in cost and manpower, compared to having personnel

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repeatedly present the information to individuals or smallgroups over this time period.

Presentation FormatsThere are four basic presentation formats.• The lecture format In its worst form the lecturer stands at a

podium and uses an overhead projector or chalkboard.Without the array of attention-holding audio and videoembellishments normally associated with television, thesuccess of this format rests entirely upon the skill of on-camera talent to hold audience attention. The onlyadvantages of lecture format are that it’s easy, fast, andinexpensive.

• The interview format Here a moderator interviews one ormore experts on specific topics. Although it’s the mainstayof documentary programming, savvy producers strive toreduce the talking head component by adding as much B-rollfootage as possible. But watch out. Executives mayvolunteer for interviews, and while they may be effective intheir jobs, they can come across as stilted and eveninarticulate on camera.

• The documentary approach Here, ENG techniques are usedto cover a topic from the perspective of the corporation.Unlike broadcast television, institutional documentaries aretypically shown to many audiences over time.

• The dramatic format Although drama can be the mostengaging way of presenting information, it’s also the mostdemanding, and it presents the greatest risk of failure.Probably the easiest form to pull off is a humorous skitwhere weak acting or production will be easier to overlook.Even so, for dramatic pieces it’s worth the effort to try tofind professional actors. Some will work for little or no payjust for the chance to gain professional credits and experience.

Holding Audience AttentionOne of the findings that consistently emerges from studies oneffective television programming is the need for variation insound, visual information, and presentation style.In commercial television the commercials, themselves, providechange and give viewers regular “intermissions” from programcontent. Since non-broadcast productions don’t have commer-cials to break things up, change and variation must beintroduced in other ways.

Most viewers can’t absorb more than ten minutes of straightinformation at a time. Unless there’s a change in pace, content,or presentation style, attention tends to drift.

Avocational VideoWith professional-quality camcorders and editing equipmentwithin the reach of many people, we are seeing a host ofavocational applications. Here are a few examples:• An insurance agent videotapes the contents of insured

homes for evidence in case of loss.• A psychiatrist uses a camcorder to treat anorexia. To help

dispel the physical illusions they hold about themselves, hetries to get the patients to see themselves as others see them.

• An animal rights group videotapes graphic evidence of theinhumane treatment of animals. The tape ends up in anetwork documentary.

• A camp counselor videotapes the daily experiences of agroup of scouts and sells the videotapes to parents.

• After doing a creative job of videotaping his sister’swedding, a man starts his own business producingvideotapes of weddings.

A law student earns tuition money by taking video depositionsfor law firms.• A young woman videotapes graduation ceremonies and sells

copies to parents.• A college student

videotapes segmentsfrom athletic events atarea schools, and sellsthem to local TVstations.

• A husband and wifeteam travels the worldwith a camcorder andthen sells their videosto video libraries to beused as stock footage.

Here are examples on amore personal level.• A homeowner

videotapes the contentsand personalbelongings in his hometo have as a record, incase of fire, theft, ornatural disaster.

• A dying man records acomplete will onvideotape, talkingpersonally to eachperson named.

• A family member records the embarrassing and dangerousantics of another family member who is regularly under theinfluence of alcohol. Mortified, the person seeks treatment.

• By videotaping herself as if talking to a trusted friend, ayoung woman is able to more fully articulate fears andyearnings. When the tape is played back after a period oftime, she is able to more objectively view her feelings andfears.

• An organization puts together a videotape explaining theadvantages of building a cultural arts center, and presents itto the city council.

• An animal lover videotapes inhumane conditions at a localanimal shelter and shows the tape on a local cable channel.The public is outraged, and action is taken to correct thesituation.

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• Parents interview students about gang-related fears and playthe tape in front of the school board. The school boarddecides to take some action.

Unit Learning ObjectivesOn completion of this unit a student must be able to:• Understand the significance of Current affairs in the

Information era• Execute the process of Studio and Outdoor News gathering

with reasonable efficiency

• Put together a newscast working in teams• Meet deadlines at every stage in the production process

Notes

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UNIT IVPREPARING TO CREATE & PRODUCTION FLOWLESSON 14:

INTRODUCTION TO PROPOSAL MAKING

Program Proposals and TreatmentsOkay, you now know who does what, and you have anoverview of the basic production process. Now let’s move onto the actual process of doing a TV production.Even though you may have a clear idea in your head of whatyou want to get across in a production, unless you can clearlycommunicate that idea to the people who can help you launchyour production, that’s just where your idea will stay—in yourhead.The “people who matter” include the producer and director, theproduction crew, a sponsor or whoever covers the cost of theproduction, and, most importantly, your audience.So, where do you start?

Writing the Program Proposal or TreatmentThe first step in doing a complex production is to write down aclear and succinct summary of your ideas.This written summary is referred to as a treatment in dramaticproductions and a program proposal in non-dramatic produc-tions.A sample program proposal for a local TV station is:

Sample Program Proposal“Underwater Explorations” will be a weekly, 30-minute studioproduction featuring guests supplying their own video or filmfootage oftheir underwa-ter exploitsaround theworld.The proposedhost for theshow is Dr.Steve Adams,who has anestablished track record with WCFX-TV and us for doingmarine specials. Each week he will have a new guest with newexperiences.Given the numerous people within our seacoast broadcast areawho regularly document their diving expeditions, we will haveno trouble finding guests with exciting footage and stories totell. In particular we want to feature in-studio close-ups ofartifacts that have been salvaged during underwater expeditions.Two guests who have documented the discovery of sunkenships are interested in appearing. In addition, we want to featureexperts in marine life from the local university who has dramaticand colorful digital footage of a wide variety of underwater lifeforms.Dave’s Dive Shop and Marty’s Marine Supply have tentativelycommitted as sponsors. Numerous other potential sponsorsalso exist within our broadcast area.

Production costs would be minimal. The production could bedone “live-on-tape” on Wednesday evenings in Studio B withthree cameras - one typically reserved for tabletop close-ups ofexhibits. Dr. Adams indicates he would be willing to host/produce the show for $950 per program. Our initial contractwith Dr. Adams would be for 13 shows.Although the guests would appear without compensation, thepotential sponsors have indicated that they would give theguests gifts in exchange for on-air acknowledgments.The Sunday afternoon broadcast time slot now occupied byWhat In the World, (which concludes April 2nd, seems mostappropriate, although the final decision on this would be up toprogramming.Initially, the show would be done in three blocks:

Block #1 - Introduction of the guest; overview of the day’stopic with a brief look at footage and exhibits. (About 7 min.)Commercial break.Block #2 - Discussion of the topic, primarily VO [voice over]concentrating on underwater footage and in-studio close-ups ofartifacts.Commercial break.

Block #3 - Discussion and conclusion, again primarily VOconcentrating on underwater footage and in-studio close-ups ofartifacts.As commercial support increased we would have the option ofgoing to four blocks separated by three commercial breaks.Dr. Adams has already been contacted by WCFX-TV aboutdoing another special for them. If he hosted “UnderwaterExplorations,” we would obviously prefer him to be underexclusive contract with us for theduration of the series. He hasagreed to wait 30-days for ourdecision on “Underwater Explora-tions.”Often, just the process of puttingit all down on paper allows you tobetter organize and clarify yourideas. This step often revealsweaknesses and gaps so they canbe addressed before it’s too late (or before you are asked aboutsome embarrassing details that you didn’t think of).

Get Agreement On Your ProposalGetting the go-ahead on a proposal also affords everyone a bitof insurance. Once everyone agrees on the treatment orprogram proposal it’s difficult for someone to say later, “thisisn’t what we agreed on.”

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This is especially important in largeproduction facilities and televisionnetworks where a variety of people willbe involved in program development.A simple program proposal may be just acouple of pages, or, in the case of afeature-length dramatic production, atreatment can run 60 or more pages.This is as good a place as any to mentionthe importance of writing. Yes, I know,you’ve heard that since you were in thefourth grade. There may even be somepeople out there who decided to go intoTV (rather than print journalism, forexample) because they thought theymight be able to escape having to reallylearn how to write.

SorryAlthough it’s a visual medium, TV is stillbased on the written word. (Even theInternet is based on the written word.)When you really get down to it, yourability to write and effectively communi-cate your ideas ends up being the mostimportant criterion for success.Unless you want to stick with some verybasic jobs in TV, you have to face thisreality-and the sooner the better.Interestingly, most film producers (thehead honchos, remember?) arrived at their jobs by first beingwriters.

Wouldn’t you rather end up being someone who makes themajor decisions (and is paid accordingly)?Okay, back to treatments and program proposals. Althoughthey are written as an aid in presenting and getting agreementon the focus and direction of the production, they may also beused to interest key people in supporting the productionespecially financial backers.

See that Your Proposal Engages the Audience’sInterest and ImaginationA program proposal or treatment should cover the focus of theproduction, or, in the case of a dramatic production, the basicstory line. Dramatictreatments also include thelocations and talentrequired, and the keyscenes. In non-dramaticprogram proposals thebasic production needs andthe approximate times ofthe segments are included.Anyone reading a program proposal or treatment should beable to get a clear idea of the whole production. If there isdisagreement on the program concept it will be much easier tochange things at this stage rather than after the complete script iswritten.

Writing A TreatmentA treatment consists of a written condensation of a proposedfilm or TV dramatic production. It covers the basic ideas andissues of the production as well as the main characters, loca-tions, and story angles.In part, its purpose is to sell the proposal to financial backersand major stars. Treatments should be attention getting andinteresting to read. They are written in the present tense, andoften read like a short story.Treatments cover the full story sequence. They typically containsome key scenes (script dialogue that is, or will be, in the script).

There is typically one treatment page for every two-script page.Using this rule a treatment for a feature-length (120 page)dramatic production would run about 60 pages. Even so, manytreatments are much shorter than this.Finally, the treatment or program proposal must engage theinterest of readers and go a long way towards convincing themof the probable success of the production.

The Script-The Key Element In ProductionsWith the basic overview of the production process out of theway, we can look at the key element in the production process:the script.

There are semi-scripted shows and fully scripted shows.In the first category are interviews, discussions, ad-lib shows,and many demonstration and variety shows. The scripts forsemi-scripted shows resemble a basic outline, with only theshow segments and their times indicated on the script.Although scripts for a semi-scripted show might be compara-tively easy to write, this type of show puts pressure on thedirector and talent to figurethings out as they go along-and to try to bring thingstogether “on the fly.”Much in contrast, the scriptsfor fully scripted shows listthe complete audio andvideo for every minute. In afully scripted show the overall content, balance, pace and timingcan all be figured out before the production starts. Unpleasantsurprises are minimized. (Notice we didn’t say eliminated).

A concrete news script would be quite different in approach andstructure from the script for a feature story, a soft news piece, amusic video, or a dramatic production. In the latter cases it’soften desirable to not be too concrete-to allow room forpersonal interpretation.Let’s look at two examplesAn instructional video on the operation of a software programwould need to be asconcrete as possible.Given the nature ofcomputers andcomputer programs,information wouldhave to be presented in

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a clear, step-by-step, fashion.Although the material should be presented in a creative,interesting, and possibly even humorous way, the success ofthis type of production would rest on each member of anaudience getting the same clear idea of a specific sequence ofoperational procedures.Success is easy to evaluate in this case. If most of the peoplewho see your video can successfully operate the programafterward, you’re successful; if they can’t, you’re not.

In contrast to this concrete type of production would be afeature piece on jazzercise or new fashions. Given the fact thatthe audience has undoubtedly seen scores of televisionsegments on fashion, the first challenge would be how toapproach the segment in a fresh, creative, attention-getting way.Considering this challenge, actually doing the piece wouldprobably be the easy part.Unlike software programs or stereo components, fashions arenot sold on the basis of technical specifications; they appeallargely to the ego and the emotions.So, in doing the fashion piece we are not as much interested incommunicating facts as we are in generating some excitementabout new fashions; i.e., creating a positive emotional responseto the content.Likewise, a soft news piece on exercise would not emphasizefacts as much as action. It’s approach would be more abstract.Instead of facts, its purpose would be to communicatesomething of the feelings surrounding exercise, and the feelingsthat go along with having a slim, trim, fit body.

Once the intent and focus of the production are established andthe characteristics of the audience are known, the variousprogram elements can be selected and arranged.In scripting content, a logical and linear sequence is, of course,the most natural approach-especially when information must bepresented in a concrete, step-by-step fashion. An examplewould be the instructional computer piece already cited. Often,however, it’s desirable to abandon a structured, linear presenta-tion, which can get pretty predictable and boring.In dramatic productions the techniques of using flashbacks(momentarily cutting back to earlier events) or presentingparallel stories (two or more stories running concurrently) canadd variety and stimulate interest.

But, whatever you do, make sure you present the materials in away that will hold the attention and interest of your audience.You can do this by:• Engaging the audience’s emotions• Presenting your ideas in a fresh,

succinct, clear, and creative way• Making your viewers care about the

subject matter• Using aural and visual varietyRemember, if you lose your audience,the purpose of your whole effortbecomes, at the very least, question-able.

After you think through and visualize the various scenes in yourproduction, make changes if you discover spots that lackelements for holding attention.

Spicing Up InterviewsFor better or worse, interviews are the mainstay of many, if notmost, non-dramatic productions. Because of this, and becauseof the difficulty involved in making most interviews interest-ing, they require special attention.

Although “talking heads” can be pretty boring, the credibilityand authenticity involved in getting information directly froman authority is often better than having a narrator present thesame information.Video and audio variety can be introduced into interviewcentered programming by regularly switching to new speakers innew locations-which is nothing more than adding the visualand aural variety we talked about earlier.Unless the person being interviewed on camera is an unusuallygifted speaker or is recounting a highly dramatic and engagingevent, interviews should be broken up into short segments andintercut with related material during the editing process.Except for rather intense and emotional subject matter, keep inmind that once we see what someone looks like on camera,there may be little advantage in holding the same shot while theperson continues to talk. Staying with the audio track whilecutting in related B-roll footage can increase interest and pace.At the same time, the B-roll footage must not distract fromwhat is being said.

B-roll footage typically consists of shots of people, objects orplaces referred to in the basicinterview footage (the A-roll).These shots are edited intothe basic interview-thus,getting away from talkingheads while adding informa-tion that will help usunderstand what’s being discussed.Whenever you plan an interview you’ll also want to plan for B-roll footage to supplement the points being discussed.Sometimes you won’t know what this will be until after you dothe interview, so keep your production options open.When a script is written, you need to be able to specify exactpoints in the interview (A-roll) to insert the B-roll footage.Since trying to simply describe points in scenes for edits can endup opening the door to errors, not to mention requiring a lotof words, the only way to effectively do this is to use precisetime-code numbers to describe the exact in and out points ofeach video and audio segment.Time-code, sometimes called SMPTE/EBU time-code after the organizationsthat adopted it, refers to the eight digitnumbers that identify the exact hours,minutes, seconds and frames in a video.

By using these numbers, points on videorecordings within at least 1/30th secondcan be specified. This level of accuracy can

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be quite important for a tightly edited show.You can see the time-code numbers in the picture on the left.In this case they are read as 0 hours, 1 minute, 16 seconds, and12 frames. We’ll go more into time-code in the editing sections.Documentary writers who prefer a systematic approach (andhave the luxury of the time) start by getting a transcript of theinterviews typed up on a computer, complete with time-codereferences. This is especially valuable if there are numerous,lengthy interviews that need to be broken up and rearranged ina topical sequence.

Once on computer disk, word or phrase searches can be done toquickly locate key words or topics in the various interviewsegments.Most word processing programs allow for two or morewindows on the screen. Using this approach, the interviewtranscript can besearched andreviewed in onewindow while thescript is written inthe other.The segments canthen be condensed,rearranged, andassembled right onthe computer screen to provide the most logical and interestingflow.If time-code numbers are included with the video segments, itbecomes a simple matter of just writing down the time-code inand out points you want.Whenever it’s necessary to explain or amplify points, or toestablish bridges between interview segments, narration can bewritten. An announcer will generally read this over B-rollfootage.In writing the script you must be alert at each moment to usethe most effective means of getting yourideas across. Sometimes you can best dothis by asking yourself some questions.What technique will best illustrate a necessarypoint: a narrator, a short clip from aninterview, an electronically animated se-quence, a graph, or a still photo?As you pull the elements together, think ofyourself as watching the show and try tovisualize exactly what’s going on at each moment. It’s said thatas they write their music, great composers can hear eachinstrument in their heads. In the same way effective scriptwritersare able to visualize scenes as they write their scripts.

In establishing the pace of the production there should not belong, slow periods or even long periods of fast pacing. Eitherwill tire an audience.Except for short, fast-paced montages, scene segments shouldbe at least two seconds in length. Conversely, only a scene withplenty of action or intensity will be able to hold an audience formore than a minute.

The most important parts of your production are the begin-ning and ending.To capture and hold attention, productions must engage theaudience quickly. To leave an audience with a positive impres-sion, your production must have an effective ending. Inbetween, you have to keep interest from drifting by varyingpace, emotional content, and presentation style.Not an easy assignment.

Scriptwriting GuidelinesCan a contractor build a house or an office building withoutbeing able to understand the architect’s blueprints or plans?Not likely. In the same way, key production personnel mustunderstand the basics of scripts before they can create aproduction from a script.A complete guide to scriptwriting is beyond the scope of thiscyber course; however, when you get through with this module,you should not only know all the important structural elementsof scripts, but you should also have a good start on being ableto write a script. Recall that we said that the most traveled routeto producing is through writing.

“Excuse Me, Mr. Brinkley...”Many years ago, one of my TV production students was eatingin a Miami restaurant when he saw David Brinkley, one of themost experienced and respected network anchorpersons of alltime, eating at a nearby table. * The student boldly went up toMr. Brinkley and introduced himself as an aspiring TVjournalist.“Mr. Brinkley, what advice could you give me to be successful.”Mr. Brinkley reportedly put down his fork, thought about thequestion for a moment, and then said, “Three things: Learn towrite. Learn to write. And learn to write.”

Although you can learn the basics of writing here or in a goodbook, you can only become a good writer by writing.Doing lots of writing.Most successful writers spend years writing before they start“getting it right”-at least right enough to consistently startmaking money from what they do.In a sense, initial failures aren’t failures at all, they’re a prerequi-site for success.

Success, likegenius, to quotethe words ofAlbert Einstein (acertified geniuswho was para-phrasing WilliamShakespeare), is10 percentinspiration and 90 percent perspiration.But first you must know the basics.So here we go.Keep in mind that writing for the electronic media is not thesame as writing for print. Those who write for print enjoy someadvantages that their counterparts in radio and TV don’t have.

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For example, a reader can go back and reread a sentence. If asentence is not understood in a TV production, the meaning islost-or worse, the listener is distracted for some time trying tofigure out what was said.With the written word such things as chapter divisions,paragraphs, subheadings, and italics and boldface type guide thereader. Plus, the spelling of sound-alike words can indicate theirmeaning.Things are different when you are writing for the ear.

Since narration should be delivered in a conversational style, thestandard rules of punctuation sometimes aren’t followed.Ellipses (three dots) are commonly used to designate pauses.Often, complete sentences are not used...just as they aren’t usedin normal conversation. An extra helping of commas is oftenused to provide clues to phrasing.Although such usage is sometimes inconsistent with properwritten form, and your English 101 teacher might not approve,the overriding consideration in writing narration is clarity. (Wetend to lean toward broadcast style in the punctuation andwriting of these modules.)The way we perceive verbal information also complicates things.When we read, we see words in groups or thought patterns.This helps us grasp the meaning. But, when we listen tosomething that is being said, information is delivered one wordat a time.

To make sense out of a sentence we must retain the first wordsin memory while adding all subsequent words to them, untilthe sentence or thought is complete. If the sentence is toocomplex, or takes too long to unfold, meaning is missed orconfused. Of course, a narrator can go a long way towardinsuring understanding through proper phrasing, wordemphasis, etc. This gives the spoken word a major advantageover the written word.

Broadcast StyleVideo scripts are written in what has become known asbroadcast style. With allowance for sentence variety, this meansthat video scripts use short, concise, direct sentences. Unneces-sary words are weeded out.It is not saying “at this point in time” when you mean “now.”It’s not saying “close proximity,” when we know that the word“proximity” by itself means close. (Close closeness?)

The active voice is preferred over the inactive voice, nouns andverbs are preferred over adjectives, and specific words arepreferred over general words.In the words of one source: “Facts must be taut, verbs strongand active; a script should crackle.”Although this is excellent advice, a recent trend in some campsis to eliminate many verbs and to reduce broadcast writing tothe type of sentence fragments often heard in common speech.Even so, it will probably be some time before we see if thiscontroversial trend moves into mainstream acceptance.In broadcast style you need to avoid dependent clauses at thebeginning of sentences. Attribution should come at thebeginning of sentences (“According to the Surgeon General...”)rather than putting attribution at the end of the sentence, which

is common in newspaper writing - “Bla, bla, bla, according tothe Surgeon General.” In broadcast style we want to know fromthe very beginning who’s doing “the saying.”The classic reference on writing clarity and simplicity is a little 70-page book by Strunk and White written in 1959 called Elementsof Style. The first 27 pages are especially relevant to thisdiscussion.

Ten News writing Guidelines1. While making sure you bring the most interesting and

surprising elements of the story to the forefront, don’t giveeverything away right at the beginning. Maintain interest byspreading these “nuggets” throughout the story. Plus, trynot to let the studio lead-in steal all the thunder from thestory.

2. Use active voice: subject, verb, and object.3. Remember that nouns and verbs are stronger than adjectives

and adverbs. Don’t tell viewers what they should be feelingby using adjectives, especially shopworn adjectives, such as“tragic,” “amazing,” stunning,” etc. If the facts in your storydon’t make such things obvious, you might want toreexamine your approach to the story.

4. Avoid jargon; use terms that are well known.5. Include defining details: the make of the car, the type of

trees being cut down, etc.6. Once you get your notes on the story in mind, write (tell!)

the story as if you were trying to catch the interest of afriend. Try following up on the phrases, “Guess what...” or,“This may be hard to believe, but....”

7. After the story is written, try to set it aside for 10 minutes orlonger andconcentrate onsomething else.

Then, with a bit of afresh perspective, goback and review yourstory. Cut out everyunnecessary phrase andword. Make sure thatnothing could be deleted without hurting the story.8. Read the story out loud (not under your breath). Check for

sentences that are too long, for tongue-twisting or awkwardphrases, for double meanings, and for long titles (“The 18-year-old, College Park Central High student...”).

9. Don’t rely on the sound track to tell the story or explain thevideo. The basic idea of the story should be obvious fromthe video. At the same time, the audio and video shouldcomplement and strengthen each other. (See the sectionbelow.)

10.Screen the complete audio and video story (package) as if youwere a doubting-Thomas critic. Have you made statementsthan could be challenged, or would your clearly stated andverified facts silence any rational critic?

Correlate Audio and VideoSince viewers are used to having what they are seeing on the TVscreen relate to what they are hearing-generally in the form of

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dialogue ornarration-the basicguideline ofcorrelating (relating)audio and videoshould be kept inmind. (Note thatthe long ancomplex sentenceyou just read wouldnot be approvedfor broadcast style.) If viewers are seeing one thing and hearingabout another, things can get confusing.

Even though you will want audio and video to relate, watch outfor the “see Dick run” approach where the audio states theobvious. If you can clearly see what’s happening on the screen,this can get downright annoying.Although radio drama had to slip many things into thedialogue to tip off the listeners to what they couldn’t see(“Emma, why are you staring out the window?”), this is hardlythe case in TV where you can clearly see the action-taking place.The trick is to write slightly off the pictures. This means thatwhile you don’t describe the pictures, your words aren’t so farremoved from what is being seen that you split viewer atten-tion. This technique represents a delicate balancing act.

Information OverloadWith more than 100 TV channels available to viewers in someareas and millions of pages of information available on theInternet-to name just two sources of information-one of thebiggest problems we have today is information overload.In TV production the goal is not just to unload more informa-tion on viewers. To be successful we must engage our audienceand clearly communicate selected information in a manner thatwill both enlighten and entertain.We can only absorb a limited amount of information at a time.Keep in mind that the average viewer has internal and externaldistractions, preconceptions, etc., which get in the way of thecommunication process.If a script is packed with too many facts, or the information isnot clearly presented, the viewer will become confused, lost, andfrustrated-and simply tune to another channel.

Lost vs. BoredNot only is the amount of information you want to communi-cate important, but also the rate at which information ispresented.In information centered productions you need to give theviewer a chance to process each idea before moving on to thenext. If you move too rapidly, you’ll lose your audience; tooslowly, and you’ll bore them.The best approach in presenting crucial information in aninstructional production is to first signal the viewer thatsomething important is coming up. Next, present the informa-tion as simply and clearly as possible. Then reinforce the pointthrough repetition, or with an illustration or two.

In summary, here are seven general rules to remember in writingfor television. Some of these apply to instructional produc-tions, some to dramatic productions, some to both.• Assume a conversational tone by using short sentences and

an informal, approachable style.• Engage your audience emotionally, make them care about

both the people and content of your production.• Provide adequate logical structure. Let viewers know where

you are going, which points are key concepts, and when youare going to change the subject.

• After making an important point, expound on it, illustrateit.

• Don’t try to pack too many facts into one program.• Give your audience a chance to digest one concept before

moving on to another.• Pace your presentation according to the ability of your target

audience to grasp the concepts.

Video GrammarSome people argue that, unlike writing, video and film produc-tion don’t have any standardized grammar (i.e., conventions orstructure).Although video has abandoned much of the grammarestablished by early films, even in this MTV era we can still usevarious techniques to add structure to our productions.In dramatic productions slow lap-dissolves (where two videosources momentarily overlap during a transition from one tothe other) often signal a change in time or place.Fade-ins and fade-outs, which apply to both audio and video,can be likened to the beginning and ending of book chapters. Afade-out consists of a two- or three-second transition from afull signal to black and silence. And, of course, a fade-in is theopposite. Fade-ins and fade-outs often signal a major change ordivision in a production, such as a major passage of time. (But“often” is a long way from “always.”)

Traditionally, teleplays (television plays) and screenplays (filmscripts) start with a fade in and close with a fade out.

Script Terms and AbbreviationsA number of terms and abbreviations are used in scriptwriting.First, there are those that describe camera movements.

When the entire camera ismoved toward or away fromthe subject it’s referred to as adolly. A zoom, which is anoptical version of a dolly,achieves somewhat the sameeffect. A script notation mightsay, “camera zooms in forcloseup of John,” or “camerazooms out to show that Johnis not alone.” When a lateralmove is needed, the term is

truck. Note the illustration on the left.

Then there are terms that designate shots.

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Cuts or takes are instant transitions from one video source toanother. Put in grammatical terms, shots can be likened tosentences where each shot is a visual statement.The cover shot and establishing shot are designations for a wideshot (WS) or a long shot (LS). This type of shot gives anaudience a basic orientation to the geography of a scene-who isstanding where, etc.-after which you cut to closer shots. In therelatively low-resolution medium of standard definitiontelevision (SDTV) this type of shot is visually weak, simplybecause important details aren’t easy to see. Film and HDTV(high-definition television) don’t have quite the same problem.Cover or establishing shots should be held only long enoughto orient viewers to the relationship between major sceneelements. Thereafter, they can be momentarily used as remind-ers or updates on scene changes-so called reestablishing shots.

In the video column of television scripts the shorthanddesignation for a cover shot or establishing shot is normally LS,for long shot. Occasionally, the abbreviations XLS, for extremelong shot, or VLS, for very long shot, will be used to indicate anestablishing shot.The shot designations you will find in scripts include:LS-long shot or FS (full shot). With people, this is a shot fromthe top of their heads to their feet. When applied to talent a MSis normally a shot from the waist up. (To save space we’ve useda vertical rather than a horizontal format in this photo.)On a person, a MCU (medium closeup) is a shot croppedbetween the shoulders and the belt line.

A relatively straight-on CU (closeup) is the most desirable forinterviews. Changing facial expressions, which are important tounderstanding a conversation, can easily be seen.XCUs are extreme closeups. On people this type of shot isreserved for dramatic impact. The XCU shot may show just theeyes of an individual. With objects an XCU is often necessary toreveal important detail.A two-shot or three-shot (also 2-S and 3-S) designates a shotof two or three people in one scene.

The term subjective shot indicates that the audience (camera)will see what thecharacter sees. It oftenindicates a handheldcamera shot that movesin a walking or runningmotion while followinga character. Subjectivecamera shots can adddrama and frenzy tochase scenes.Camera angles aresometimes indicated onscripts. Included arebird’s eye view, highangle, eye-level, and lowangle. A canted shot or aDutch angle shot (notephoto on left) is tilted

25 to 45 degrees to one side, causing horizontal lines to run upor down hill.Although a scriptwriter occasionally feels it necessary to indicatecamera shots and angles on a script, this isan area that’s best left to the judgment ofthe director. Even so, in dramatic scripts youmay find the term camera finds to indicatethat the camera moves in on a particularportion of a scene; camera goes with toindicate the camera moves with a person orobject; reverse angle to indicate a near 180-degree shift in camera position; and shot widens to signal azoom or dolly back.In addition, there are a number of other abbreviations used inscriptwriting.

• EXT and INT- are commonly listed in film scripts toindicate exterior and interior settings.

• SOT-sound on tape. This indicates that the voice, music, orbackground sound will be from the audio track ofvideotape.

• SOF-sound on film.• VTR-videotape, videotape recording. (As we will later see,

computer disks and solid-state memory are now replacingvideo and audiotape.)

• VO (voice over) refers to narration heard over a video source.It can also refer to narration heard at a higher level than asource of music or background sound.

• OSV-off-screen voice. The voice indicated on the script isfrom a person who is not visible.

• MIC-microphone (pronounced “mike”)• POV-point of view. Dramatic scripts will often note that a

shot will be seen from the point of view of a particular actor.• OS-over-the-shoulder shot. The picture shows the back of

one person’s head and possibly one shoulder. These are alsodesignated as O/S and X/S shots.

• ANNCR-announcer.• KEY-the electronic overlay of titles and credits over

background video.• SFX or F/X-special effects. These may be audio special effects

(audio FX) or video special effects-effects that alter reality.

Costing-Out A ProductionUnfortunately, the best things in life are not always free. Thisapplies especially to television shows, which, in some cases, costseveral million dollars an hour to produce.

Although you may have a truly great idea for a script-one thatyou are certain will make you famous! -Unless you can raise themoney to get it produced, it will simply remain that-a great idea.So, the first question you will have to grapple with is what it’sgoing to cost to produce your program.Even if you have no interest in producing, per se, the bettergrasp you have on this issue, the better your chances of success.Why waste your time coming up with great ideas if they havelittle chance of being produced?

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And, keep in mind that no production company-at least nonethat expects to stay in business very long-will commit to doinga production without some idea of how much it’s going tocost.The process of finding this out is called costing-out a produc-tion.So, how do you do this?

First, especially for complex productions, expenses can bedivided into categories. It has been traditional to think ofexpenses as falling into two broad areas: above-the-line andbelow-the-line

Above-the-Line/Below-the-LineAlthough the “line” involved can get a bit blurry at times,above-the-line expenses generally relate to the performing andproducing elements:talent, script, music,office services, etc.Below-the-lineelements refer to twobroad areas:• The physical

elements (sets,props, make-up,wardrobe, graphics, transportation, production equipment,studio facilities, and editing), and

• The technical personnel (the stage manager, engineeringpersonnel, video recording operators, audio operators, andgeneral labor)

To accurately cost out a major production it’s necessary to gobeyond the above-the-line and below-the-line designations anddivide production into at least 15 categories.1. Preproduction costs2. Location scouting and related travel expenses3. Studio rental4. Sets and set construction5. On-location site expenses6. Equipment rental7. Videotape, and videotape duplication8. Production crew costs9. Producer, director, writer, creative fees10. On-camera talent costs11. Insurance, shooting permits, contingencies, etc.12. On-line, off-line editing13. Advertising, promotion, and publicity14. Research and follow-up15. Materials, supplies, and miscellaneous expenses

Obviously, many of these categories would be dropped forsmaller productions.With the help of a computer spreadsheet program you can listthese categories and enter projected costs in each area. If youalso enter formulas in the spreadsheet program to automaticallygenerate totals, you will be able to adjust expenses as needed

during production and immediately see the effect on thebottom line

Renting vs. Buying EquipmentYou’ll note that one of the categories covers rental equipment.It’s often more economical to rent equipment rather than buy it.There are several reasons for this.

First, production equipment, especially cameras and recorders,tends to become outdated rather quickly. It’s possible to spend$70,000 on a topnotch CCD camera. If you do, you assumethat you will be able to recoup the cost through several years ofuse.If you were able to pay cash for a $70,000 camera and use it forfive years, the cost would break down to $14,000 a year, plusrepair and maintenance costs.Even though the camera might still be reliable after five or moreyears, compared to the newer models it would be outdated.Parts for repair might even be hard to get.If the equipment were rented, several production facilitieswould probably end up using it. This means that a rentalcompany could write off the initial investment more quickly ontheir taxes, making it possible to more rapidly replace theequipment with newer models.

Second, if equipment is rented, it’s the rental company ratherthan the production facility that’s responsible for repair,maintenance, and updating. If equipment breaks down duringa production, most rental companies will replace it within a fewhours.Next, rental can represent an income tax advantage.When equipment is purchased, it has to be depreciated (writtenoff on income tax) over a number of years. Sometimes thistime span exceeds the practical usefulness of the equipment.This means that the facility may be faced with having to sell theused equipment in order to recoup some of their initialinvestment. Schools often get used equipment in this waybecause donated equipment represents a tax write-off for thecompanies involved.On the other hand, rental expenses can be immediately writtenoff of taxes as part of a production expense. Although rulesgoverning income taxes regularly change, deducting the costs ofrental equipment can represent a quicker, simpler, (and in manycases a greater) tax deduction.

Finally, when equipment is rented there is greater opportunityto obtain equipment that will meet the specific needs of theproduction. Once equipment is purchased, there can be pressureto use it, even though at times other makes and models mightbe better suited to the specific needs of a production.Even for consumer-grade equipment the cost of rental (whichmay be only $50 a day) might make sense if it’s only going to beused for a few days

Approaches to Attributing CostsOnce the cost for a production isfigured out, you may need to justifyit, either in terms of expected resultsor cost effectiveness.

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There are three bases on which to measure cost effectiveness:cost per minute, cost per viewer, and cost vs. measured benefits.

Cost Per MinuteThe cost per minute is relatively easy to determine; you simplydivide the final production cost by the duration of the finishedproduct. For example, if a 30-minute production costs$120,000, the cost per minute would be $4,000.

Cost Per ViewerCost per viewer is also relatively simple to figure out; yousimply divide the total production costs by the actual oranticipated audience.

Cost Per Measured ResultsThe last category, cost per measured results, is the most difficultto determine.For this we must measure production costs against intendedresults. In commercial television we might sell 300,000 packagesof razor blades after airing a 60-second commercial. If ourprofit on 300,000 packages was $100,000 and we spent$1,00,000.00 producing and airing the commercial, we mightquestion whether it was a good investment.

Of course, once produced, most ads are aired more than once.(Sometimes endlessly, it seems!) This means that the cost offuture airings simply centers on buying air time. If the cost ofTV time was $10,000 and we sold 300,000 packages of razorblades each time the commercial aired on multiple TV stationsover a period of weeks and months, we would soon show aprofit. Plus, we could figure it all out on a simple calculator.

Return on InvestmentFiguring the return on our investment is often not this simple.What if we are alsorunning ads innewspapers and onradio, and we have big,colorful razor bladedisplays in stores? Indetermining the effectof advertising onprofits we, of course,can lump all advertisingcosts together. But then it becomes difficult to determine thecost effectiveness of each medium. Which approach is payingoff and which one isn’t?The returns on other types of productions may be even harderto determine.

How do you quantify the return-on-investment of a publicservice announcement (PSA) designed to get viewers to stopsmoking, to “buckle up for safety,” or to preserve clean air andwater.Even if before-and-after surveys are done to measure changesin public awareness on these issues, it can be almost impossibleto factor out the influence of a particular type of public serviceannouncement from the host of other voices that the publicregularly encounters on these issues.Apart from doing in-depth interviews with viewers, we mayhave to rely largely on “the record.” If we find that a series of

60-second TV spots increases razor blade sales by 300,000, wemight safely assume that a 60-second PSA might also havesome influence on smoking, buckling seat belts, and clean airand water. With some of the major preproduction concernscovered, our next step is to become familiar with some of thetools we’ll be using in the production process.

Unit Learning ObjectivesOn completion of this unit a student must be able to:• Understand the preliminary preparation for putting together

a proposal• Conceive any idea and develop it from concept to treatment

• Utilize the inputs received in Unit 2 to finalize final shootingscripts

• Appreciate the significance of pre-planning on paper beforeembarking on the process of production

Notes

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UNIT VITHE PRODUCTION FLOWLESSON 15 - 16:

ELEMENTS OF PRODUCTION

So after so much of toil you still really want to learn TVproduction? Well for those who have decided to stick on all Ican say is that it gets better from here on!

Who Does What and WhyThis is a long list. Are you ready?The person who’s generally in charge of the entire production isthe producer.He or she comes up with the program concept, lays out thebudget for the production, and makes the major decisions. Thisperson is the chief honcho, the team leader, the person whoworks with the writers, decides on the key talent, hires thedirector, and guides the general direction of the production.In smaller productions the producer will also take charge ofmore mundane things. And in small productions the director(to be discussed below) may also handle the producer’sresponsibilities. In this case the combined job title becomes(want to take a guess?) a producer-director.

Some productions may also have an associate producer whosets up schedules for the talent and crew, and who, in general,assists the producer throughout the production.On a major production one of the producer’s first jobs is tohire a writer so a script can be written (the document that tellseveryone what to do, say, etc.). The script is sort of like a writtenplan or blueprint for the production.The key talent for the production will normally be the nextthing considered by a producer. In general, the talent includesactors, reporters, hosts, guests, and off-camera narrators anyonewhose voice is heard or who appears on camera. (With orwithout genuine talent, the talent is referred to as the talent, justin case you were wondering.)Sometimes talent is broken down into three sub-categories:actors (who portray other people in dramatic productions),performers (who appear on camera in non-dramatic roles), andannouncers (who typically don’t appear on camera).

In a large production theproducer will be responsiblefor hiring a director. That’sthe person in charge ofworking out preproduction(before the production)details, coordinating theactivities of the productionstaff and on-camera talent,

working out camera and talent positions, selecting the camerashots during the production, and supervising postproduction(after the production) work. In other words, the director is thefront line commander in charge of taking the script to the veryend of the production process.Assisting a director in the control room is typically a technicaldirector who operates the video switcher. (A rather elaborateversion is shown onthe right.)The technicaldirector, or TD, isalso responsible forcoordinating thetechnical aspects ofthe production. Itneeds to be empha-sized at this pointthat, depending on the production facility, the specific responsi-bilities of production personnel can vary widely.One or more production assistants (PAs) may be hired to helpthe producer and director. Among other things, PAs keep noteson ongoing production needs and changes.

Other people whomay be involved inthe productioninclude the lightingdirector (LD) whodesigns the lightingplan, arranges forthe lightingequipment needed,and sets up and

checks the lighting. As we’ll see, lighting is a key element in theoverall look of a production.On some productions there will be a set designer, who, alongwith the producer and director, will design the set and superviseits construction, painting, andinstallation.Next, there may be a makeupperson, who, with the help ofmakeup, hair spray, or whatever,

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sees that the talent looks their best (or their worst, if the scriptcalls for that).Major dramatic productions have a wardrobe person who’sresponsible for seeing that the actors have clothes that areappropriate to the story and script.The audio director or audio technician arranges for the audiorecording equipment, sets up and checks mics (microphones),

monitors audioquality during theproduction, andthen strikes(another produc-tion-type termmeaning disas-sembles and, ifnecessary, removes)the audio recording

equipment and accessories after the production is over. (Micsstands for microphones, and is pronounced mikes.) Themicrophone boom/grip operator watches rehearsals anddecides on the proper mics and their placement for each scene.During an on-location (non-studio) shoot this person mayneed strong arms to hold the mic boom over the talent for longperiods of time.

The video recorder operator arranges video recording equipmentand accessories, sets up video recordings, performs recordingchecks, and monitors video quality.In dramatic productions the continuity secretary (CS) carefullymakes notes on continuity details as each scene is shot to ensurethat these details remain consistent between takes and scenes.As we will see later, this is a much more important job than youmight think, especially in single-camera, on-location produc-tions. Once production concerns are taken care of, the continuitysecretary is responsible for releasing the actors after each scene orsegment is shot.We’re almost done with our list. Are you still there?

The CG Operator (electronic character generator operator)programs (designs/types in) opening titles, subtitles, andclosing credits into a computer-based device that inserts the textover the picture during the production.Camera operators do more than just operate cameras. Theytypically set up the cameras and ensuretheir technical quality, work with thedirector, lighting director, and audiotechnician in blocking (setting up) andshooting each shot. On a field (out ofthe studio, or on-location) productionthey may also arrange for cameraequipment pickup and delivery.Depending upon the production, theremay be a floor manager or stage managerwho’s responsible for coordinating activities on the set. He orshe may be assisted by one or more floor persons, or stage-hands.

After shooting is completed, the editors use the video record-ings to blend the segments together, and add music and audioeffects to create the final product.The importance of editing to the success of a production is fargreater than most people realize. As we will see, an editor canmake or break a production.This finishes the list of people and what they do. Now for theproduction, itself.

The Three Production PhasesThe production process is commonly broken down intopreproduction, production, and postproduction.

The Preproduction PhaseThere is a saying in TV production:

The most important phase of production is preproduction.The importance of this is often more fully appreciated afterthings get pretty well messed up during a production and theproduction people look back and wish they had adhered to thisaxiom from the start. In preproduction the basic ideas andapproaches of the production are developed and set intomotion. It is in this phase that the production can be set on aproper course, or misdirected (messed up) to such an extentthat no amount of time, talent, or editing expertise can save it.

The Prime DirectiveStar Trek has its prime directive, so does TV production:

Hit the Target AudienceIn order for the program to be successful, the needs, interests,and general background of the target audience (the audienceyour production is designed to reach) must be studied and keptin mind throughout each production phase.In order for your program to have value and a lasting effect, theproduction must in some way affect the audience emotionally.This assumes both a knowledge of the prime directive and thetarget audience, and it ends up being a major key to yoursuccess. We’ll elaborate on all of these concepts in later mod-ules.During preproduction, not only are key talent and productionmembers decided, but all of the major elements are alsoplanned. Since things such as scenic design, lighting, and audioare interrelated, they must be carefully coordinated in a series ofproduction meetings.Once all the basic elements are in place, rehearsals can start.

A simple on-location segment may only involve a quick checkof talent positions so thatcamera moves, audio, andlighting can be checked. Acomplex dramatic produc-tion may require many daysof rehearsals. Thesegenerally start with a tablereading or dry rehearsalwhere the talent, along withkey production personnel,

sit around a table and read through the script. Often, scriptchanges take place at this point.

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Finally, there’s a dress rehearsal. Here, the talent is “dressed” inthe appropriate wardrobe and all production elements are inplace. This is the final opportunity for production personnel tosolve whatever production problems remain.

The Production PhaseThe production phase is where everything comes together (wecan hope) in a kind of final performance.

Productions can either be broadcast live or recorded. With theexception of news shows, sportsremotes, and some special-eventbroadcasts, productions are typicallyrecorded for later broadcast or distribu-tion.Recording the show or segment providesan opportunity to fix problems by eitherstopping the recording and redoing the segment or makingchanges during the postproduction editing phase.

And, Finally, the Postproduction PhaseTasks, such as striking (taking down) sets, dismantling andpacking equipment, handling final financial obligations, andevaluating the effect of the program, are part of thepostproduction phase.

Even though postproduction includes all of these after-the-production jobs, most people only associate postproductionwith editing.As computer-controlled editing techniques and postproductionspecial effects have become more sophisticated, editing has gonefar beyond simply joining together segments in a desired order.As we’ve noted, editing is now a major focus of productioncreativity.Armed with the latest digital effects, the editing phase can addmuch in the way of razzmatazz to a production. In fact, it’spretty easy to become enthralled with the special effects capabili-ties of your equipment. But, there is this...

Confusing the Medium With the MessageAs fun as all the razzmatazz effects might be to play with, allthis high-tech stuff should only be considered a tool for agreater purpose: the effective communication of ideas andinformation. If you think that sounds a bit academic and stuffy,you might want to look at things from a broader timeline.If you think about it, today’s latest high-tech effects will look

pretty lame a few years fromnow. (Ever look at thespecial effects in some earlyfilms?)It’s only the ideas andfeelings that have a chanceof enduring.This medium that you arelearning to control can

either be used to provide audiences with time-wasting, mind-less, drivel...

...or ideas that can make a positive difference in the overallscheme of things. (And, as you may have noticed, there’s often

a definite need in the world for someone to make a positivedifference.)How would you rather have your life and work remembered?

Get Their Attention!The success of a TV show (and, therefore, your own profes-sional success) will depend in large measure on your ability toeffectively capture and hold audience attention. And, once youdo, you’d better have something interesting to communicate, orelse the audience will quickly go elsewhere-either tune to anotherchannel or just mentally tune you out.But, you say, “I don’t want to worry about all that, I just wantto make TV shows that interests me.”That’s great, but who’s going to pay for them?

Reality 101Let’s take a quick look at our Reality 101 course notes.TV productions cost a lot of money, especially today. To citejust one example, in 1966, the budget for each full episode ofStar Trek was $100,000. In 2003, each episode of Enterprise,which is similar in its form, costs about $100,000 per minute toproduce.Before people put up that kind of money they have to believethat there will be some kind of return on their investment.Depending on the type of production, that return may be toeffectively communicate a corporate message, to get viewers tounderstand a series of concepts, or, in the case of commercialtelevision, to generate profits by selling products.

Hit the Target (Audience)As we’ve noted, we use the term target audience to indicate thespecific segment of a potentialaudience we are “aiming at.”No matter what type of produc-tion you plan on doing, you muststart with a clear understanding ofthe needs and interests of yourspecific target audience.Advertisers spend millions ofdollars determining these things.

Depending on the products theywant to sell, advertisers will havecertain demographic preferences. For designer jeans, forexample, the target audience would be fairly affluent teenagers.The same advertisers wouldn’t be interested in sponsoringreruns of Murder, She Wrote, which primarily appeals to anolder audience.By the way, the principles of determining the needs andinterests of your target audience also apply to something assimple as producing a video for your class. If your video isgoing to be evaluated solely by an instructor, you’ll probablytake a different approach than if it’s intended for a graduationparty. In either case meeting the needs of your target audience isthe key to success.Let’s look at just a few of the issues involved.

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Using Audience-Engaging TechniquesWhen you really get down to it, you will find that audiencesreact emotionally to program content.Even a logical, educational presentation evokes-for better orworse-an emotional response. Although people may want tobelieve that they are being totally logical in evaluating a program,it’s their basic emotional reaction that most influences theirevaluation.What types of production content emotionally engages anaudience?

First, we have aninterest in otherpeople, especiallyin “experiencingthe experiences”of other people.We are interestedin people wholead interesting(romantic,dangerous, wretched, or engrossingly spiritual) lives.Part of this involves gaining new insights and being exposed tonew points of view. This includes learning new things.We also like content that reinforces our existing attitudes, andwe tend to react against ideas that run contrary to our beliefs.Production people, therefore, must be careful in presentingideas that blatantly challenge widely held beliefs.The trick is to know how far you can go without alienating anaudience. To cite a rather extreme example, a number of yearsago an East Coast TV station did an exposé on a local policechief. An undercover reporter put a camera in a lunch box andfilmed the police chief clearly taking a bribe.

When the segment was broadcast, there was negative reactionagainst the TV station. It seems that the police chief waspopular with many people in the community and having thetruth presented in this way challenged their long commitmentto this individual. This reaction on the part of many viewerswas justified by cries of entrapment, a liberal media bias againsta law-and-order official, etc.This wasn’t the first time that a messenger was blamed for themessage.The same negative anti-media reaction took place with somepeople when former U.S. President Richard Nixon was forced toresign for engaging in illegal activities while in the White House.You might want to rent the video (feature-length film) All thePresident’s Men to see how this came about. Not only does thefilm represent an important piece of U.S. history presented in adramatic and even exciting way, but it illustrates how twotenacious reporters faced down major opposition and exposedwrongdoing and brought down a presidency.Even though revealing truth is not always greeted withenthusiasm, we know that for a democracy to be successful thenews media have a social responsibility to bring to light trutheven though it might be unpopular with some people.

In fact, if the media were to abandon their “watchdog” role in ademocratic society, the future that democracy would look rather

bleak.Of course, many people like a good scandal-as long as it doesn’tinvolve them or someone they care about. This is why all thosetabloid “scandal sheets” (weekly newspapers at the supermarketcheckout stand) do so well-not to mention the tabloid-type TVshows.Audiences also like to hear about things that are new and thingsthat generate some level of excite-ment.

This is why mystery, sex, fear,violence, and horror do so well at thebox office. It also explains why wesee so many car chases, explosions,and general instances of mayhem inour film and TV programs.Such things stir the adrenaline andinvolve us emotionally. In short,they hold our attention.This, of course, brings up the possibility of exploitation,presenting things that appeal to elements of human naturethat-how shall we say this-aren’t the most positive.Sometimes there is a rather blurry line between honestlypresenting ideas or stories and unduly emphasizing elementssuch as sex and violence just for the sake of grabbing andholding an audience.

Beyond a certain point, audiences will sense they are beingexploited and manipulated, and resent it. And, keep in mind,the content of a production, good or bad, tends to rub off onthe reputations of those who produce it-and even on thesponsors who support it.With this general background on programming elements thatappeal to audiences, in the next section we’ll turn to theproduction sequence.

The Production SequenceTo start with we might as wellthink big.

The following 15 steps cover theproduction steps involved in anelaborate television production.Once you get a feel for the wholeprocess, you can then scale downthings for whatever sizeproduction you have in mind

Identify the Purpose of the Production1. The most important step is the first one: clearly identify

the goals and purposes of the production.If there is no clear agreement on the goal or purpose of aproduction, it will be impossible to evaluate success. (How doyou know if you’ve arrived at your destination, if you didn’tknow where you were going in the first place?)

Is the purpose to instruct, inform, entertain, or possibly togenerate feelings of pride, or social, religious or political need?Possibly the real purpose of the production is to create a desire

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in the audience to take some action. And, let’s be honest, theprimary goal of most broadcasting is simply to hold theinterest of an audience so they will be influenced by thecommercials

Analyze Your Target Audience2. Next, identify and analyze your target audience.

Based on such things as age, sex, socioeconomic status,educational level, etc., program content preferences will differ.These preferences are alsodifferent for different parts ofthe United States (North,South, urban, rural, etc.).Audience characteristics arereferred to as demographics.These regional demographicvariations can in part be seen bydifferences in the local program-ming broadcast in differentparts of the country-andsometimes by the films andnetwork programming thatsome local stations decide not to air. Chief among the contentissues are sex and violence-both of which have been shown tohave a positive relationship to ratings.

Demographics Determine the Acceptability of SomeTypes of ContentGenerally speaking (and, of course, there are many exceptions),when it comes to sexual themes, for example, people who livein Northern urban areas of the United States tend to be moretolerant than people who have a rural background and live inthe South.

Education is also related. Research shows that, generallyspeaking, the more education an audience has, the less opposi-tion there will be to sexual themes. Interestingly, it appears thatthis relationship seems to reverse when it comes to violence.Why are things like this important to know?Here’s an example.Knowing that about 40,000 women die each year of breastcancer in the United States, and that most of these deaths couldbe prevented by early detection, a female program manager of aTV station in the South decided to run a PSA (public serviceannouncement) on doing a breast self-examination.

Even though the PSA ran late at night and seemed rather blandin its approach, there was immediate negative reaction frommembers of the audience who thought that the subject matterwas too personal to be broadcast. Consequently, because ofviewer complaints the PSA had to be canceled.At the same time, PBS (Public Broadcasting) stations have runprogramming with full frontal nudity late at night withoutappreciable reaction. The difference? Demographics. The peoplewho were most apt to complain weren’t watching, and thepeople who were watching were least apt to complain.You may have a compulsion to “just tell it like it is” and not beconcerned if you alienate your audience. (After all, if they can’tface reality, that’s their problem, right?)

Time to review those Reality 101 notes. If you consistentlydisregard audience preferences and predispositions, you willhave a limited future in TV production.But, what if you are not producing programming for broadcastor general distribution?Compared to standard broadcast television, institutionaltelevision, which includes corporate and educational video, hasdifferent needs and expectations. But, here, too, demographiccharacteristics, such as age, sex, and education influence aproduction’s form and content.

In institutional television the producer and scriptwriter alsohave to be fully aware of the audience’s experience, education,needs, and expectations.For example, to underestimate education or experience andinadvertently “talk down to” an audience insults them. Tooverestimate education or experience and talk over everyone’shead is just as bad. Either way you lose.

Check Out Similar Productions3. Check out similar productions done in the past. If you

are going to make mistakes, at least make new ones.Ask yourself some questions. How will your proposedproduction differ from the successful and unsuccessful effortsthat have been done in the past? Why did they work; or, maybemore importantly, why didn’t they work? Of course, sinceproduction styles change rapidly, you need to take into consider-ation differences in time, locations, and audiences.

Determine the Basic Value of Your Production4. Next, determine the overall value of the production to a

sponsor or underwriter. Obviously, underwriters and/oradvertisers want some sort of return on their investment.(Reality 101 rears its head again!)

Although we will cover costing out a production later, here wewant to make sure we can justify production expense in termsof some sort of gain or return on the investment.For this you’ll need to ask yourself some more questions. First,what is the probable size of the audience? In determining thisyou must know whether your show will be a one-shot presen-tation or whether production expenses can be recouped overtime by presenting it to other audiences.

Generally, the larger the audience the more marketable aproduction will be to an underwriter or advertiser. At the sametime, simple numbers don’t tell the whole story.Let’s say an advertiser has a product designed for young peopleathletic shoes or designer jeans, for example. In this case aproduction that draws a large percentage of this age group willbe more valuable than a production that has a larger overallaudience, but a lower percentage of young people.More than one TV series has been canceled, not because it had asmall audience, but because it had the “wrong kind” ofaudience.

Consider Return on InvestmentThe potential value of a production to an advertiser or under-writer has to be balanced with the projected cost of producing

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and presenting the production. If the costs exceed the benefits,you’ve got problems!In commercial television the “return on the investment” isgenerally in the form of increased sales and profits. But, it maytake other forms, such as the expected moral, political, spiritual,or public relations benefit derived from the program.

Develop a Treatment or a Production Proposal5. Next, put it down on paper. There are several steps to

this and they span the interval from the initial proposalto the final shooting script. You’ll recall that earlier wetalked about treatments and program proposals (writtensummaries of what you propose to do).

After the program proposal or treatment is approved, a fullscript is requested. (Remember, we’re talking about a majorproduction here.)It will be at this point that any remaining research on thecontent will be commissioned. For example, if the script callsfor someone watching TV in a 1960s period piece (a productionthat takes place during a specific historic era) we’d need to checkon what television shows were being broadcast at that time.(Would we see an episode of Baywatch on a TV screen during adocumentary on Elvis Presley?)The first version of the script is generally followed by numer-ous revisions.Throughout therewriting process anumber of storyconferences or scriptconferences typicallytake place.

During these sessionssuch things asaudience appeal, pace, problems with special interest groups,etc., are thrashed out and alternative ideas are considered.If it’s an institutional production, the goals of the productionwill be reviewed and questions about the most effective way ofpresenting the ideas will be decided. If the director is on board(step #7) at this time, he or she should be a part of theseconferences.Finally, a script version emerges that is (we can hope) more orless acceptable to everyone. However, even this version willprobably not be final. In many instances scene revisionscontinue right up to the time the scenes are shot.Typically, in a dramatic film production each new script versionis issued on a different colorpaper so that the cast andcrew won’t confuse themwith earlier versions. (“Marga-ret, wake up; you’re going bythe pink pages and we’re onyellow now!!”)

Depending on the produc-tion, a storyboard may bedeveloped. A storyboard consists of drawings of key scenes

with corresponding notes on dialogue, sound effects, music,etc. (Note the illustration on the right.)

Develop A Production Schedule6. Next, you should draw up a tentative schedule. Generally,broadcast or distribution deadlines will dictate the productionschedule (the written timetable listing the time allotted for eachproduction step). Not planning things out carefully might causeyou to miss a critical deadline, which might render the produc-tion worthless.

Select Key Production Personnel7. At about this point remaining above-the-line production

personnel are brought on board. In addition to theproducer and writer, the above-the-line personnelinclude the production manager and director, and, ingeneral, the key creative team members. The below-the-line personnel, who are generally assigned later, includethe technical staff.

Decide On Locations8. Next, if the production isn’t done in the studio, you

need to decide on keylocations. In a majorproduction a location scoutor location manager will behired to find and coordinatethe use of the locationssuggested by the script.

Although it might be much easier to shoot in a TV studio, ithas been shown that audiences like the authenticity of “real”locations, especially in dramatic productions.Cities that encourage TV and film production have filmcommissions that supply photos and videotapes of interesting

shooting locations in theirarea. These commissionsare located in most majorcities, and they will provideinformation on usage feesand the people who needto be contacted.It’s often necessary to makesome changes in the on-

location settings. Rooms may have to be repainted orredecorated, signs changed, etc.

Decide On Talent, Wardrobe and Sets9. Next you will want to make some decisions on talent,

wardrobe (costuming) and sets.Depending upon the type of production, auditions may takeplace at this point as part of the casting process (selecting thepeople for the various roles). Once decisions are made, contractscan be negotiated and signed. If you are lucky enough to be ableto afford well-known actors, they will probably have beendecided on early in the preproduction process.After a set designer is hired, he or she will review the script,possibly do some research, and then discuss initial ideas withthe director. Once there’s agreement, sketches of the sets can be

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made for final approval before actual set construction starts—ifthere is any construction. As we will see, today, many sets existonly in computers. In this case the sketches will be turned overto a computer artist.Once the talent or actors are decided on, the selection ofwardrobes can start. These are suggested by the script andcoordinated with the the look of the sets and locations, andultimately approved by director.Rehearsals, from initial table readings to the final dress rehearsalcan then be scheduled. Even though sets may not be finished atthis point, the talent can start reading through the script withthe director to establish pace, emphasis, and basic blocking(positioning of sets, furniture, cameras, actors, etc.). Once thesets are finished, final blocking and dress rehearsals can getunderway.

Decide on the Remaining Production Personnel10.Make decisions on remaining staff and production needs. At

this point arrangements can be made for key technicalpersonnel, equipment, and facilities. This includes the rentalof both equipment and production facilities. Transportation,catering (food and refreshment trucks), and on-locationaccommodations (for overnight stays) must also bearranged.

If unions are involved, their contracts will cover job descrip-tions and specific crew responsibilities. Working hours,including graduated pay increases for overtime hours, will alsobe spelled out. In addition, unions often set minimumstandards for transportation, and the quality of meals andaccommodations.

Obtain Permits, Insurance and Clearances11.In major cities and in many foreign countries it’s not

possible to just go to the location of your choice, set up yourtripod, and start filming. Except for spot news and shortdocumentary segments, access permits, licenses, securitybonds and insurance policies must be arranged. Manysemipublic interior locations, such as shopping malls, requirefilming permits.

Depending on the nature of the production, liability insuranceand security bonds may be necessary in case an accident is directlyor indirectly attributed to the production.In some locations the controlling agency will limit exteriorproduction to certain areas and to specific hours. If there’s astreet scene and traffic will be affected, it will be necessary toarrange for special police.Included in this category are a wide variety of clearances, whichrange from permission to use prerecorded music to reservingsatellite time to transmit the production back to a studio. Ifclearance cannot be obtained, alternatives must be quicklyexplored.

Are you beginning to see why the list of credits at the end offilms and TV programs is so long?

Select Video Inserts, Still Photos and Graphics

12.At this point arrangements can be made for shooting oracquiring any videotape or film inserts, still photos andgraphics that might be needed.

To reduce production costs, existing stock footage may belocated in film or tape libraries located around the country. Thisgenerally consists of background footage, such as general

exterior scenes of an area, thatwill edited into the produc-tion. If suitable footage isnot available, or does notmeet the needs of theproduction, a second unitmay have to be hired toproduce needed segments.Second unit work is produc-tion done away from the

main location by a separate production crew. It generally doesnot involve the principal on-camera talent.

Moving to Rehearsals and Shooting13.Depending on the type of production, rehearsal may

take place either minutes or days before the actualshooting.

Productions shot live-on-tape (without stopping except formajor problems) must be completely rehearsed before tapingstarts. This includes early walk-through rehearsals, camerarehearsals, and one or more dress rehearsals.Productions shot single-camera, film-style (to be covered later)are taped one scene at a time. In this case, rehearsals can takeplace right before each scene is recorded.

The Editing Phase14.After shooting is completed, the producer, director, and

video recording editor review the footage, and editingdecisions are made. For major productions this hastraditionally been done in two phases.

First, there is off-line editing, using copies of the original tapes.Off-line editing decisions are typically made by editing a time-coded copy of the original footage. More on this later.Using this edited tape and an EDL (edit decision list) as a guide,the production then moves to on-line editing where muchmore sophisticated (and expensive) equipment was used tocreate the edited master, the final edited version of the tape.During this final editing phase all necessary sound sweetening(enhancing), color balancing, and special effects are added.As high-quality nonlinear, digital editing becomes widely used,

the need for an off-lineediting phase may beeliminated, or at leastmade optional. (Just onemore of those thingswe’ll talk about later!)

Because editing is soimportant to the creativeprocess, we are going to

devote several chapters to the subject.

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If all these terms and procedures sound a bit intimidating rightnow, don’t worry about it. We’ll explain them in more detaillater.

Do Postproduction Follow-Up15.Although most of the production crew will be finished

with their work once the production wraps (finishes),there is still much in the way of follow-up work to bedone.

Final bills have to be paid, financial statements totaled, and thesuccess (or failure) of the production determined. Broadcasttelevision has ratings; in institutional television there may betests, evaluations, or simply informal viewer feedback toconsider.The principle of creating an emotional experience in an audienceis critical in all types of television-from lectures to dramaticproductions.

The Quintessential ElementIt would be nice if a TV audience could be captivated solely bythe depth, profundity, and worthiness of our program content.

Unfortunately, quality (however that’s defined) is not oftenrelated to popularity (we know how that’s defined: by ratings).Put simply: nothing much matters in television if we are notable to capture and hold viewer attention.Some people bemoan the lack of “substance’’ on U.S. televisionprogramming; in particular, the lack of the “classical influence.’’The name Shakespeare is even invoked upon occasion. At firstShakespearemight seemlight-years awayfrom what wecommonly seeon commercialtelevision.Not really.Shakespeareprobablyunderstood thenecessity of engaging an audience better than anyone. Fact is, heused all manner of devices to capture and hold his audiences:• murder• sex

• duels• wrestling matches• suicides• ghosts• witches• romance• clowns• music• parades• thunder and lighting and mystery• costumes

• and even eye gougingShakespeare knew something else: the key to good drama is tocreate an emotional experience in an audience. Even thoughsome things have changed in major ways throughout thehistory of film and television, this has not. The principle ofcreating an emotional experience in an audience is important forall types of television-from lectures to dramatic productions.So, how do we create an emotional experience?

First, the good television writer, producer, director and editorhave to understand human nature; they must to some degreebe psychologists.There are, of course, the vicarious emotional experiences we getfrom programming: danger, sex, action, destruction, intrigue,etc.Some of these, such as the hackneyed theme of “helplesswoman in distress,’’ could be considered base and exploitative.Constant car chases (which replaced the horse chases of anearlier era) and gratuitous violence and sex are other examples.But, beyond these there are other, more substantive possibili-ties.

Audience-Engaging PrinciplesAs we’ve suggested, the principles that attract and hold anaudience are as old as the human race. Probably shortly after thefirst cave men andwomen learned tospeak they discoveredthat the best storytell-ers drew upon theseprinciples. First, andforemost, we (andour audiences) havean interest inexperiencing theexperiences of otherpeople. We areparticularly interested in people who lead interesting (i.e.,dangerous, romantic, fast-paced, prestigious, wretched, highly-sexual or engrossingly-spiritual) lives.Part of this involves gaining new insights and being exposed tonew points of view. This includes learning new things.In this context education can be made interesting and, uponoccasion, even exciting. (Maybe there is a Darwinian “survival ofthe species’’ element in all this. Those who are quick to pick upon new ways of coping with their environment are more apt tosurvive!) Whatever the reason, these are the things that attractand hold an audience.

Form and ContentA good script has two dimensions: form and content. Sinceform and content are, when you get right down to it, thequintessential aspects of production, we need to analyze them.The form of a production refers to its basic design, genre andlogical construction. A production can take the form of alecture, panel discussion, drama, variety show, news program,demonstration, or an animated sequence.

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In a production our goal relates to what we want the audienceto experience, feel or gain. Our vision relates to how wepersonally use the tools of the trade to translate the goal into anaudio and visual experience for the viewer (according to thedictates of our own unique personal perspective and view-points).Content, which includes goals and visions, includes theproduction’semotionalattributes.It’s primarilywithin the realmof content (goalsand visions) thatengrossing andeffective produc-tions areseparated fromthose that are mediocre and dull. And it is primarily within theream of content that videographers can make their ownpersonal, creative contributions.

Although there may be some definite rules for the successfuloperation of production equipment, there are no rules forprogram content; maybe guidelines, but no hard-and-fast rules.The bottom line for content is simply, does it do what it’ssupposed to do; or, more specifically, does it work?Sometimes to put great emphasis on razzle-dazzle specialeffects at the expense of content. This amounts to “eye candy”;a fleeting experience that quickly evaporates. In contrast, anoteworthy production, challenges us, informs us, makes usthink, and affects us emotionally-even sticks with us.

Unit Learning ObjectivesOn completion of this unit a student must be able to:• Understand the mechanics of the production process

• Evolve an individual creative expression utilizing the variedtools of production

• Conceive and execute a final project film in any chosen area• Meet deadlines at every stage in the production process

Notes

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UNIT VIIINTRODUCTION TO

SPECIALIZATIONLESSON 17: INTRODUCTION TO SPECIALISATION

13 TV Programme formats

Film viewing

Ad/Corporate films Thanda matlab Cocacola series

Film Viewing TV Series

Looking Beyond with Hugh & Coleen Gantzer (Tourism Series) –K Bikram Singh

Film viewing Documentary

The Art of the impossible – A portrait of V.P. Singh – Juliet Reynolds

Film Viewing Docu-drama

Chakravyu – Dramatic feature on female foeticide – S.Mishra/ Madan S Rajan

BackgroundYou have now been armed with the mechanics of TV Produc-tion both in technical and aesthetic terms. What is left is aninsight into different kinds of programme formats. The bestway that this can be accomplished is to view examples of eachcategory and have a group discussion about it after.Each of you may specific areas and subjects of interest and theentire purpose of this exposure to different styles and genres offilmmaking will help you decide the specific format the groupswill undertake for their final assignment.

Potential linkages with the local cable Network and satellitechannels like, ‘Sadhna’ will hopefully create a multitude ofopportunities to explore a variety of formats from commercialsto documentaries in addition to regular newscasts.So as you can see, ‘the sky’s is the limit!’ All you’ve got to do isreach out. Now go to it tigers! Happy shooting.

Description of Film Viewings

Ad/Corporate Films – ‘Thanda Matlab Coca-colaThis series of ad’s has been taken just because like in so manyother commercials they leave such a lasting impact. Remember,‘washing powder Nirma’? Although it breezes past at speeds of10-60 seconds they are able to communicate and captivatemainly due to the sheer effort that went behind producing it.Another genre in this category of films is the Corporate/Promotional film. Many agencies today have also synthesizedPC based software with the moving image to make someinteresting audio-visuals.

Tourism SeriesLooking beyond with Hugh& Colleen Gantzer, is a travelseries produced for Doordarshan and comprised six episodescovering six destinations. The director of the series, Mr. KBikram Singh has kindly consented to share his experiences afterthe screening. As a filmmaker who has been producing a varietyof films over the past two decades I am sure we can learn a lotfrom his rich experience and wisdom.

DocumentaryThe Art of the Impossible, is a biographical sketch of ex-Prime Minister V.P. Singh. Juliet Reynolds the director is ofEnglish/Irish origin and was married to a master painter, AnilKaranjai who passed on a couple of years ago. The film needsto be viewed for the handling of a complex personality, apainter, poet and politician. Once again, Juliet being a closefriend has agreed to talk to you after the screening.

Docu-Drama‘Chakravyu’, is a documentary shot in dramatic style. It isproduced by, Samanvay”, a voluntary organization located inGopeshwar, Garhwal. I was privileged to be it’s co-director andit truly was a rewarding experience. The entertainment format isperhaps the most effective way of communicating to a muchlarger target audience. Sameer Misra, director of the organizationwill tell us their philosophy of, ‘Education thru entertainment’.Note: It is not an accident that just a sketch is being offeredabove. In fact, if you really are interested I can provide manymore films for viewing either individually or in groups. But forthat the initiative must come from you. Also, after the screeningI anticipate an active participation from the whole class. Don’tworry about asking anything even if you feel it’s stupid. Givethe visiting guests the feeling you know your stuff!

Unit Learning ObjectivesOn completion of this unit a student must be able to:• Appreciate the various formats available in TV Production• Comprehend the mechanics of mounting different kinds of

programmes• Work in groups to produce a film using any one of the

formats explained in the lecture• Enhance production values through application of

appropriate methodologies

Notes

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Practicals,Tests & AssignmentsAs I mentioned earlier, we will be doing practical exercises ofvarious kinds throughout the semester. As this exercise istotally dependent on your input and involvement, withdifferent individuals and groups displaying varied tastes andcapability, I will not specifically lay down the kind of exercises.For example one person may not be able to shoot even thesimplest of exercises while another could mount a showcapable of telecast. I have therefore at this time, restrictedmyself to just giving you an idea of what to expect in terms ofpracticals, tests and assignments. I would urge you to regularlyvisit the site cybercollege as it would provide you a number ofinteractive tests with immediate grades.

At a Time When Almost Anything Goes“How can I presume to evaluate student videos in an era whenit seems that anything goes - when today’s nonconformist mayend up being tomorrow’s video superstar.’’

Evaluating Student VideosFor those of us who teach video production these can bechallenging times.

First, just to keep up with ever-accelerating technological changeswe have to revise our lecture notes almost monthly. (Early on,we found a need to revise these Internet materials on almost aweekly basis.) But, since our audio and video tools are based ontechnology, we’ve grown to expect that.There is another area of change which is more difficult to adjustto, especially for those of us who started out learning the craftof film production at a time when there were right and wrongways of doing things.As we look at music videos and the many reality-based TVshows, it seems that there are no longer any rules that governgood and bad production practices. Almost anything goes.In our classes if we presume to list some “don’t’s’’ for videoproduction at least one student will come back with, “But, I seethat done all the time in music videos.’’ (The six-figure salariesbeing pulled down by many working in music video produc-tion don’t escape the notice of our students either.)

We are also seeing production companies producing commer-cials (for hundreds of thousands of dollars) that emulate someof the worst aspects of home movies: shaky shots, constantzooms, etc.; all the things we hope we never see in class—evenin our students’ first video assignments.Faced with these realities, instructors can only ask: “How can Ipresume to evaluate student videos in an era when there seemto be no rules-when today’s nonconformist may end up beingtomorrow’s video superstar.’’There are at least two ways of confronting this issue. First, isthe authoritarian way.

PRACTICALS

”Good Video Is What I Say It Is!’’Some instructors confront this issue by saying, in effect, “I’vehad a few decades of experience in this business; I’m theteacher; I’m doing the grading; good video is what I say it is;end of discussion!’’

Granted, there is an elegant simplicity in this viewpoint.However, beyond some production basics, I’ve never beencomfortable imposing my views on students, especially in sucha highly subjective area as video. Maybe that shows a basicinsecurity. I would prefer to think it addresses three realities:• Video is a constantly changing art form. What worked

yesterday won’t necessarily work today.• When it comes to video it’s difficult to argue with

commercial success.• In any art form, and especially in film and television, there’s

constant disagreement over that is “good’’ and “bad.’’(Reading pro and con reviews of recently released films willquickly prove that.)

Once students are beyond a basic production course, whichincludes some elements of composition and how to keep animage in focus and well exposed, I will readily admit myhesitation in being the sole judge of what is and what is not“good.’’ This is why in doing video critiques in class I regularlyallow students to “go first.” Not only do I get a differentperspective than my own - which may or may not be valid in myopinion - but it allows me to judge just how perceptivedifferent students are (a talent, incidentally, which is also part oftheir grades).Often there is another issue. Students are normally “too close’’to their work to see it objectively. As a result, when suggestionsare made, by an “over-40” instructor, students can becomedefensive and occasionally even hostile. If most people in a classagree on an issue, it makes this much more difficult.

On a few occasions after classmates made some critical com-ments about a video, the student involved was reduced to tears.The comments were valid in most cases; it was just that thestudents involved was much to close to their work. For thisreason I start out each semester by explaining professionaldetachment and the necessity of separating yourself from whatyou do.First, I do not allow the student involved to make anycomments about their work before showing their video to thegroup. This includes apologizing for anything, or “setting up’’the video in any way. In other words, the video must totallystand on its own.Immediately after the video is shown, I allow no verbalcomments; only individual written evaluations. Each evaluationtakes about eight minutes to complete. (An example of theform used is shown below)

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PRODUCTION ASSIGNMENT CRITIQUE Your name: ____________________________________(will be kept confidential) Assignment completed by: ________________________ Date: ______________ VIDEO QUALITY/TECHNIQUE (poor) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (EXCELLENT) _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ AUDIO QUALITY/TECHNIQUE (poor) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (EXCELLENT) ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ CREATIVITY (poor) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (EXCELLENT) ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ OVERALL RATING (poor) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (EXCELLENT) ________________________________________________________________________________

Note: Be specific as possible in your comments. Keep in mind that a talent that you are expected to develop in this course is an ability to effectively describe (using the proper terms) the strengths and weakness of videos.

I realize that, vocationally, most students will not end up doingthe kind of “hands-on’’ production work we do in class. Manywill be in positions where they need to evaluate the work ofothers. Therefore, I put great emphasis on an ability toobjectively evaluate video productions.

Students are graded on the written evaluations they do. Everymonth I will give a CE (Continous evaluation) exercise basedon the specific unit we are dealing with at the time. (This is onearea of the course where I expect to find a very obviousimprovement among many of you over the course of thesemester.)Vague phrases such as “the audio was bad,’’ or “the videowasn’t clear’’ are not accepted. I require specific comments andsuggestions using proper terminology.Students know that what they say is confidential. Beyondknowing their overall scores, I never allow a student to seecomments by other students. (Occasionally, I will get somerevealing comments: Tanuj had a lot of [unauthorized] help inediting his piece’’; I know that Pankhuri did her piece over fourtimes before she got it the way she wanted,’’ etc.)After the written evaluations are done, I will go around the classand ask for comments on the good and bad points of thevideo and specific things which could have been done toimprove the piece. If it’s a small class, everyone responds; ifnot, I call on specific students.

Since students know that they are being graded on their practicalexercises and theory evaluations, they may be called upon fortheir comments, and so need to stay alert to everything they cancatch in class.After 5 to 10 minutes of student comments, I may summarizethe statements. This is my chance to reiterate what I feel are themost valid comments (and conveniently ignore the others).Once all the numbers on the student evaluations are in thecomputer, I compare my scores with the class averages. If there

is a significant difference, I start asking myself why. Didstudents not see something? (Maybe I didn’t explain theparticular concept too well.) Did they like something that Ididn’t? (Maybe there was a valid concept that I missed or can’tpersonally identify with.) This brings us to an aspect of teachingthat has nothing to do with the principles of effective produc-tion.

What Student Videos Can RevealOver the years I’ve come to appreciate how student videos canreveal inner concerns, fears, frustrations and aspirations.Over the years, I’ve come to appreciate how student videosreveal inner concerns, fears, frustrations and aspirations.Although maybe we should not read too much into this, I’vefound it interesting-frequently even revealing-when: (1) anexcellent student does a video on the fear and frustrations insocial situations; (2) a repressed, solemn female student does avideo on a night in the life of a prostitute; (3) a passive malestudent does a video showing a highly violent a attack onanother student; or (4) a popular student does a video clearlyquestioning the purpose of living. Not only do videos serve asan important form of self-expression, but from a psychologicalstandpoint, they may help students express (repressed?)feelings.In some cases the instructor and peer feedback can be a form of“checks and balances’’ for some of these ideas. At the sametime, since students can occasionally expose their deepest fearsand vulnerabilities in these situations, I know that I have to becareful in my comments-and may have to “guide” classroomreactions.

Being teachers, we like to be able to teach things that can beevaluated in terms of right and wrong, good and bad. This canbe difficult in today’s world of video. Given these realities, weare forced to admit that when you get down to it success (as it’scommonly defined) is whatever works with an audience.

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Generally, that means whatever emotionally engages theaudience.

Five Video Assignments Designed To Meet the GoalsFor This CourseI . Campus Story. The emphasis here is on story. Take any

aspect of campus life (any college campus) and develop a wellthought-out video piece with a clear beginning, middle andend structure.

First, write out (type up) all of your shots in the order you planto tape them. You must hand this in with your videotape. Asan example:• 1. LS - campus, early morning. Students are hurrying to

classes.

• 2. MS - Priya getting out of her car in the CMAC parking lotwith a load of books .

• 3. MS - Nobel noticing, stops, turns, starts walking towardher. (etc.)

Edit in the camera (for this assignment only). Learning theconcept of editing in the camera is an important discipline thatwill save you time later.Sound will be music (your choice) from a CD that you willbring to class and play with your videotape. You will not useany location sound for this first assignment-only music.TIME: Not critical, but between 1 and 3 minutes.

After this assignment, you will be submitting an edited tape,and the audio will edited onto your edited master during theediting process.II. Person at work. Illustrate with video the relationship

between a person (only one person) and a job. This can be avocation or avocation, but not a hobby.

Tell a complete story of the person-job interaction through theuse of establishing shots, closeups, ECUs, etc.When you present your video we should get a clear idea of theperson, exactly what they do, how they do it, maybe a keyperson or two they work with, and something of theirpersonality and feelings toward their job.Sound for this assignment will be a selection of music of yourchoice. You may include SOT (sound-on-tape) segments if youfeel you can confidently handle this at this point in the course.Transfer this music along with any location sound (includinginterview segments) to your edited master during the editingprocess.

TIME: Not critical, but between 2 and 4 minutes.III.Mood piece. Establish a basic mood-tranquility, anxiety,

reverence, anger, patriotism, sensuality, spirituality, orwhatever-entirely through your selection of subject matterand the use of camera angles and lighting techniques.

Music and dialogue may only supplement (but not establish orfully communicate) the mood you select. Without your audiowe should clearly get the idea. Stick to one mood or feeling, anddon’t confuse matters by moving from one mood to another.After seeing your video we should be able to ask 10 people for aone-word description of the mood conveyed and get areasonably consistent answer.

TIME: Probably rather short. Once you feel you have commu-nicated your mood, quit!IV.Mini-drama. Do a short dramatic scene with two or more

actors in which you smoothly and transparently intercut thedialogue from two or more single-camera setups. This is tobe done in single-camera, film style setups.

Write the script yourself, or borrow it from a film or play; itdoesn’t matter.

You will be required to hand in a typed script in proper dramaticscript form before your video will be shown.Keep in mind needed visual variety and the techniques ofsingle-camera film-style production.NOTE: To meet the minimum requirements of this assign-ment you must have at least six, consecutive audio cuts fromone (speaking) person to another. This is a typical dramaticsegment and not a voice-over or one person interviewinganother with a single, shared microphone. The people must bein the same master shot; but from here you will cut to closeupsof the people speaking.Pay particular attention to shifts in audio levels, changes inbackground sound, proper pacing, consistent actor energy levels,etc.

When we hear your video we should not be distracted byunnatural sounding audio transitions. To achieve the desiredresults this assignment also will also require finesse in workingwith actors.V. Public Service Announcement. This is an extra credit

assignment. Create a 30-second PSA (Public ServiceAnnouncement) with an ethical, moral, spiritual, orhumanitarian message.

Time: precisely 0:30. (Not a second more or less!)Have a video (and possibly audio) tag at the end that clearlyidentifies your cause.Credit is not automatic. To receive credit this must be editedwith a non-linear editing system and be a truly effective PSA,one that shows top-notch production techniques.

Notes

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Books for Tv ProductionAldridge, Henry B. and Lucy A. Liggett. Audio/Video Produc-tion: Theory and Practice. Englewwod Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,1990.Armer, Alan A. Directing Television and Film. 2nd ed.Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1990.Barr, Tony. Acting for the Camera. New York: Harper and Row,1982.Bermingham, Alan et. al. The Video Studio. 2nd ed. Newton,MA: Focal Press, 1990.Blum, Richard A. Working Actors: The Craft of Television,Film and Stage Performance. Boston: Focal Press, 1989.

Blumenthal, Howard J. Television Producing and Directing.New York: Barnes & Noble, 1987.Bordwell, David., and Kristin Thompson. Film Art: AnIntroduction. 3rd ed. New York: Mcgraw-Hill, 1990.Broughton, Irv, ed. Producers on Producing.: The Making ofFilm and Television. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1986.Burrows, Thomas D. and others. Television Production:Disciplines and Techniques. 5th ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C.Brown, 1992.

Carlin, Dan, Sr. Music in Film and VideoProductions.Stoneham, MA: FocalPress, 1991.Cartwright, Steve R. Training With Video. White Plains, NY:Knowledge Industry Publications, 1986.Compesi, Ronald J., and Ronald E. Sherriffs, Small FormatTelevision Production. 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990.

Compesi, Ronald J. and Ronald E. Sherriffs. Video FieldProduction and Editing. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1994.Di Zazzo, Ray. Directing Corporate Video. Stoneham, MA:Focal Press, 1993.DiZazzo, Raymond. Corporate Television: A Producer’sHandbook. Boston: Focal Press, 1990.Fielding, Ken. Introduction to Television Production. NewYork: Longman, 1990.

Gayeski, Diane. Corporate and Instructional Video. 2nd ed.Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1991.Hausman, Carl. Institutional Video. Belmont, Calif.,Wadswoeth Publishing Co., 1991.Jarvis, Peter. A Production Handbook: A Guide to the Pitfallsof Programme Making. Newton, MA: 1993.Kallenberger, Richard H. and George D. Cvjetnicanin. Film IntoVideo: A Guide to Merging the Technologies. Newton, MA:Focal Press, 1994.

Kehoe, Vincent J.R. The Technique of the Professional Make-up Artist. Stoneham, MA: Focal Press,1995.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kehoe, Vincent J.R. The Technique of the Professional Make-up Artist for Film, Television, and Stage. Boston: Focal Press,1985.

Kenney, Ritch, and Kevin Groome. Television Camera Opera-tion. Burbank, Calif.: Tellem Publications, 1987.Kuney, Jack. Take One: Television Directors on Directing.Westport, CT: Greenwood/Praeger, 1990.Lewis, Colby, and Tom Green. The TV Director/Interpreter.Rev. ed. New York: Hastings House, 1990.Maier, Robert G. Location Scouting andManagement Hand-book. Newton,MA: Focal Press, 1994.

McQuillin, Lon. Computers in Video Production. White Plains,N.Y.: Knowledge Industry Publications, 1986.Merritt, Douglas. Television Graphics - From Pencil to Pixel.New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1987.Millerson, Gerald. TV Scenic Design Handbook. Boston: FocalPress, 1989.Millerson, Gerald. Video Camera Techniques. 2nd ed. Newton,MA: Focal Press, 1994.

Millerson, Gerald. Video Production Handbook. 2nd ed.Boston: Focal Press, 1992.Olson, Robert. Art Direction for Filmand Video. Newton, MA:FocalPress, 1993.Rabiger, Michael. Directing the Documentary. Boston: FocalPress, 1987.

Rowlands, Avril. Continuity in Film and Video. 2nd ed.Boston: Focal Press, 1989.Rowlands, Avril. The Continuity Handbook: for Single CameraShooting. Newton, MA: Focal Press, 1994.Rowlands, Avril. The Production Assistant in TV and Video.Boston: Focal Press, 1987.Semrau, Penelope, and Barbara A. Boyer. Using InteractiveVideo in Education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon,1994.

Smith, David L. Video Communication. Belmont, Calif.:Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1991.Stokes, Judith Tereno. The Business of Nonbroadcast Televi-sion: Corporate and Institutional Video Budgets, Facilities andApplications. White Plains, NY: Knowledge Industry Publica-tions, 1988.Stokes, Judith Tereno. Microcomputers in TV Studios. WhitePlains, NY: Knowledge Industry Publications, 1986.Vane, Edwin T., and Lynne S. Gross. Programming for TV,Radio, and Cable. Boston: Focal Press, 1994.Watkinson, John. The Art of Digital Video. 2nd ed. Newton,MA: Focal Press, 1993.

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Watkinson, John. The Digital Videotape Recorder. Newton,MA: Focal Press, 1994.Watkinson, John. An Introduction to Digital Video. Newton,MA: Focal Press, 1994.Utz, Peter. Today’s Video: Equipment, Setup, and Production.Englewood Cliffs, 3rd ed, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1999.

Utz, Peter. Studio and Camcorder Television Production, NewYork: Prentice-Hall, 1999.Verna, Tony. Live TV: An Inside Look at Directing andProducing. Boston: Focal Press, 1987.Wershing, Stephen and Paul Singer. Computer Graphics andAnimation for Corporate Video. White Plains, NY: KnowledgeIndustry Publications, 1988.Whittaker, Ron. Television Production. Mountain View, CA:Mayfield Publishing Co., 1993.

Wiegand, Ingrid. Professional Video Production. White Plains,NY: Knowledge Industry Publications, 1985.Wiese, Michael. Home Video: Producing for the Home Market.Boston: Focal Press, 1986.Wiese, Michael. The Independent Film & Videomakers Guide.Rev ed. Boston: Focal Press, 1984.Wilkie, Bernard. The Technique of Special Effects in Television.2nd ed. Boston: Focal Press, 1989.

Wurtzel, Alan and Stephen R. Acker. Television Production. 3rded. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.Zaza, Tony. Widescreen Film and Video Handbook. Newton,MA: Focal Press, 1994.Zettl, Herbert. Sight-Sound-Motion: Applied Media Aesthetics.2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1990.

Zetti, Herbert. Television Production Handbook, 6th ed.Belmont, CA:Wadsworth, 1997.

Notes

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