Subject Index

Page numbers in italics refer to figures or tables.

ABE process 374, 375 ablative pyrolysis 154--6,161 acetaldehyde 460 acetic acid 300-1 acetocell 245 acetosolv 245 acid catalysts

mesoporous 273-8, 279 solid 424--6, 449, 450-1

acid-catalyzed reactions cracking 19 dehydration 51,52,53,54 esterification 418 solid 351-2

acid hydrolysis 48-9, 50, 246, 254, 255 pretreatment 373 in saccharification 49, 349

acid number 403, 408 acidic sulfite pulping 239,241,242,

243,244 acids

dilute and concentrated 349, 373 see also carboxylic acids; fatty

acids acrolein 452, 456-9, 460 activated carbon 211, 292-3,498,

499 aerogels 324 aerosols 151, 163 aging, bio-oils 169 agricultural land 30, 31

agricultural residues 33 fuel analysis 69 storage 41-2

air-equivalence ratio 71-2, 73, 74 vs thermal conductivity 84, 85, 87

air gasification 75-7 air pollutants 329

see also greenhouse gases AI-MCM-41 275,276,277,278,279 ALCELL 245 alcohols

in bio-oils 289 sugar alcohols 57, 59-60, 353 from syngas 125-41 see also butanol; ethanol;

methanol; propanol; sinapyl alcohol

aldehydes 289,300,460 alfalfa 33 algae 368

general composition of different algae 369

macroalgae 203, 214 microalgae 197,203-4,214 renewable jet from 483, 484

algal oil 385, 386, 392, 471 alkali metals, in bio-oils 168 alkali promoters 135, 136

see also caesium promoters; potassium promoters

alkali salts 168, 205 alkaline earth oxides 419, 420--1

512

alkaline extraction 246, 247 alkaline pulping 235-6,237,238,239,

240, 244, 254 alkanes

n-alkanes 196-7 liquid alkanes 355, 461 see also methane

alkoxide 391 alkyl esters 388, 405

cetane numbers 409 and oxidation 407 palmitate 405, 406, 410 stearate 405, 410 see also fatty acid methyl esters

alkyl-imidazolium ionic liquids 313, 314

alumina 108, 109, 110-11, 112-13 in methanol synthesis 131-3 Si/Al ratios 275, 277, 278, 279 sulfided CoMo and NiMo on 171,

290-1 Ambedyst resins 351, 352, 453, 454,

456 ammonia 99, 197 amylopectin 367 amylose 367 anaerobic storage 42 Anderson-Schulz-Flory kinetics 102,

103 angiosperms 28, 224, 225 animal fats 386

cloud points 406 conversion to renewable fuels 478 fatty acid composition and density

in 392-3 fatty acid methyl esters 390 fatty acid profiles in 402-12 fatty acids found in 389 free fatty acid content 426 renewable feedstocks 470, 471 saturated and unsaturated 407,

408, 409 solubility of (m)ethanol in 395-6

animal wastes 68, 202 anisole 297, 298 anthraquinone pulping 236, 239, 240

Subject Index

antielectrostatics 329 aquatic feedstocks 202--4, 214, 368

see also algae arachidic acid 389 Arrhenius equations 398, 399 ASAM 245 ash 29,98

in biodiesel 403, 404 in biomass feedstocks 33 separation 184

aspen 254,310 ASTM standards

biodiesel specifications 402--4, 408 cetane number 409 cold soak filtration 412 renewable jet 483, 484 vs renewable diesel

specifications 480 Augur pyrolysis 161 automation, gasifiers 83-5, 86, 87-8 azeotrope 374

baghouse filtration 90,91 bales 36-7,40,41 barge transportation 39 basic catalysts 279, 448

solid base 419-24,448,450-1 basicity 419 BASIL process 314 batch reactors 505 batchwise polymerization 232 bed inventory 80 bed-slumping 80 ~-~ bond 227, 228, 232

alkali breakage of 236, 237, 238 cleavage in formic acid 254, 256 hydrolysis 242

bimetallic catalysts 137 binders 258 biodegradation 40, 319-20 biodiesel

cetane number 403,404,409-10 cold-flow properties 404---6 definition 382 feedstocks 383-6 net energy ratio 12, 13

Subject Index

oxidative stability 403, 404, 406-E production technologies 496-7 purification 400-2 specifications 402--4, 408 vs renewable diesel feed and

products 479 see also biofuels; renewable diesel

biodiesel production 388,391,394 current processes 417-18, 436, 43' effect of catalyst 394---5 effect of free fatty acids on 426 fatty-acid profiles of

feedstocks 387-8, 389, 390, 392-3, 402-12

mass-transfer limitations 395--400 401

process considerations 428-9 processing technology 400-2 see also heterogeneous catalysts

bioelectricity, from biomass 18 bioethanol see ethanol biofuels

demand for 3, 7 drop-in biofuels 369, 370 forecast for 10 insufficiency of 377-8 second-generation 497 see also biodiesel; bio-oils; liquid

fuels; renewable diesel biological conversion of

biomass 20-2, 31, 126, 146-7 integrated 182

biomass 11-23 carbohydrate-containing 366-8 characterization 29-30, 344 composition 13-14,15, 16

processing effects 31-2,33,34 definition 11, 26 energy crops see energy crops energy density see energy density gasification see gasification harvesting 35-8 hydrothermal processing see

hydrothermal processing product flowchart 47 pyrolysis see pyrolysis

513 Subject Index

oxidative stability 403, 404, 406-8 production technologies 496-7 purification 400-2 specifications 402--4, 408 vs renewable diesel feed and

products 479 see also biofuels; renewable diesel

biodiesel production 388, 391, 394 current processes 417-18,436,437 effect of catalyst 394-5 effect of free fatty acids on 426 fatty-acid profiles of

feedstocks 387-8, 389, 390, 392-3,402-12

mass-transfer limitations 395--400, 401

process considerations 428-9 processing technology 400-2 see also heterogeneous catalysts

bioelectricity, from biomass 18 bioethanol see ethanol biofuels

demand for 3, 7 drop-in biofuels 369, 370 forecast for 10 insufficiency of 377-8 second-generation 497 see also biodiesel; bio-oils; liquid

fuels; renewable diesel biological conversion of

biomass 20-2, 31, 126, 146-7 integrated 182

biomass 11-23 carbohydrate-containing 366-8 characterization 29-30, 344 composition 13-14,15, 16

processing effects 31-2, 33, 34 definition 11, 26 energy crops see energy crops energy density see energy density gasification see gasification harvesting 35-8 hydrothermal processing see

hydrothermal processing product flowchart 47 pyrolysis see pyrolysis

resources 147-8 storage see storage transportation see transportation waste resources 28-9, 68, 202

biomass conversion to fuels overview of pathways 18, 19, 20 via Fischer-Tropsch

synthesis 95-121 see also biological conversion of

biomass; thermal conversion of biomass

biomimetics 312 bio-oils 19, 20, 147, 148, 164-7

applications 174-83 characteristics 165-7, 168-9 chemicals in 178-9, 180 co-processing with conventional

oil 282-3 composition 264, 289, 293 definition 164 energy density 17, 18 environment, health and

safety 167 hydrodeoxygenation 302, 303 from hydrothermal

liquefaction 196-206 from lignin pyrolysis 252, 255 0IC and H/C molar ratios 255 organics yield from different

feedstocks 165 product variations with

temperature 164 properties 166 upgrading see upgrading van Krevelen diagram 253 wood-based 166, 293-301 yield and quality, catalyst effects

on 268-80 see also fast pyrolysis

biopolymerization 231-2, 233,234, 235

biorefinery 179-83 concept 21, 22, 46-62 definition 182 examples 182-3 fast pyrolysis-based 181

514

biorefinery (continued) integrated biological/thermal

processing 182 potential products from 179, 344 see also lignocellulose feedstock

biorefinery biorefining, definition 46 birch 254,255,310 bismuth 440,441,442 black liquor 249,251 bleaching 243, 246, 247 Boeing-led test flights 482, 483, 484,

486-7 Botryococcus braunii 204 bound glycerin 400,401 briquettes 38, 39 brown grease 386 bryophytes 223, 224, 225 bubbling fluid beds 151-3 bulk density 17, 37, 38, 39 bundled forestry residue 36, 40, 42 burning times 176 butanol 126-7,374-5

product yield 136 thermodynamics 127

butter 386, 392 l-butyl-3-methylimidazolium ionic

liquids 315-17 tert-butyl ethers 443--4

Cz oxygenates 133, 137 C3 plants 27, 28 C4 plants 27, 28 caesium promoters 135, 136,446-7 caesium salts 425-6 calcination 421,422 calcium carbonate 196 calcium oxide 98, 420-1, 423 camelina 385, 392, 471

life-cycle assessment 485,488,489, 490, 491

renewable jet from 483, 484 canola 383, 392 carbene mechanism 105, 106, 107 carbohydrates

in algae 369

Subject Index

in biomass 366-8 in bio-oils 289, 301 conversion to liquid fuels 369-77 production 345 see also cellulose; hemicellulose;

lignin--carbohydrate complexes; starch; sugars

carbon activated carbon 211, 292-3, 498,

499 carbon-14 114,115 fibers 258 mesoporous 498, 499 number 115,470 residue test 403, 404 see also H/C molar ratio; O/C

molar ratio carbon conversion percentage 74-5 carbon dioxide

emissions 488 hydrogenation 128-9, 134-5 in methanol synthesis 131-3 reduction 11

carbon monoxide conversion 105,111-12,113,114,

115,117, 118 hydrogenation 127-8, 134, 135,

136, 139, 140 carbonization 149, 150 carboxylic acids 289, 300-1 cars

global demand 4 see also engines

catalyst surface area 270, 271, 272, 273,274 total 269, 270

catalysts biomass conversion to

aromatics 280 in cellulose degradation 57, 59 comparison and coking with model

components 301-2 effect on biodiesel

production 394-5 ethanol synthesis 133-9 in fructose dehydration 54, 55

Subject Index

hydrothermal gasification 210-12 metal and support selection 497-~

metal dispersion effects on 499-500

methanol synthesis 130-3 microporous 268-73,274 poisoning 168 sulfided CoMo and NiMo 171,

290-1,295,296,298,299 supported metal 352-3 tar removal 93 see also acid catalysts; basic

catalysts; cobalt catalysts; heterogeneous catalysts; iron catalysts; noble metal catalysts

catalytic deoxygenation 497-507 catalyst selection 497-500 deactivation 507 different feedstocks 500--4 reactor selection 505-6, 507

catalytic pyrolysis bio-oil upgrading 280-3 effects on bio-oil yield and

quality 268-80 introduction 263-5 overview of process 265-6, 267

catalytic upgrading 170-3 cellulases 373 cellulose 308

in biomass feedstocks 33 catalytic conversion 351-4 cellulose 1/11 347 chemical structure 13, 48, 309,

345, 367, 368 crystallinity index 347-8 degree of polymerization 348 in ethanol production 372-3 general properties 346-7 HMF production from 326, 354 hydrothermal gasification 212-13

350 hydrothermal liquefaction 199,

200 and ionic liquids 327, 329-31 levulinic acid from 49 in lignocelluloses 310

515 Subject Index

hydrothermal gasification 210-12 metal and support selection 497-9 metal dispersion effects

on 499-500 methanol synthesis 130-3 microporous 268-73,274 poisoning 168 sulfided CoMo and NiMo 171,

290-1, 295, 296, 298, 299 supported metal 352-3 tar removal 93 see also acid catalysts; basic

catalysts; cobalt catalysts; heterogeneous catalysts; iron catalysts; noble metal catalysts

catalytic deoxygenation 497-507 catalyst selection 497-500 deactivation 507 different feedstocks 500-4 reactor selection 505-6, 507

catalytic pyrolysis bio-oil upgrading 280-3 effects on bio-oil yield and

quality 268-80 introduction 263-5 overview of process 265-6, 267

catalytic upgrading 170-3 cellulases 373 cellulose 308

in biomass feedstocks 33 catalytic conversion 351-4 cellulose IIII 347 chemical structure 13,48,309,

345, 367, 368 crystallinity index 347-8 degree of polymerization 348 in ethanol production 372-3 general properties 346-7 HMF production from 326,354 hydrothermal gasification 212-13,

350 hydrothermal liquefaction 199,

200 and ionic liquids 327, 329-31 levulinic acid from 49 in lignocelluloses 310

pyrolysis 350 saccharification 49, 348-51 sugar alcohols from 57, 59-60 see a/so hemicellulose;

lignocellulose ceramic ball downflow 162 ceramic filters 250 cerium oxide 450 cetane number 102,403,404,409-10,

477 Chaetomorpha !inurn 203 char 148, 149, 152, 153

effects of 168 removal 163 separation 184

Chemical Process Engineering Research Institute 266, 267, 269

chemical pulping 49, 223 alkaline 235-6, 237, 238, 239, 240,

244,254 bleaching 243, 246, 247 goals of 235 kraft pulping 236, 239, 254,

310-11 organosolv 243, 245, 254 sulfite 239,241,242,243,244,254 technical data 244

chemical upgrading 170-3 chicken fat 386 China, liquid fuels demand 5 chipping 35, 36, 40, 42 chitin 367, 368 Chiarella 204, 214 chloride dioxide bleaching 246, 247 choline chloride 318 chromium chloride 327, 328, 354 circulating fluid bcds 153-4, 161

in catalytic pyrolysis 265 Claus plant 99 Clostridium 374 cloud point 403, 404-5, 406,

476, 477 coal

cofiring with bio-oils 177 energy density 17 higher heating values 69

516

coal (continued) life-cycle assessment 489,490,491 pathway diagrams for 488

cobalt catalysts 99-102, 104, 105, 107, 108-14 Co~o 171,290-1,295,298,299 in ethanol synthesis 137-8 in mixed alcohol synthesis 140

cobalt fractional dispersion 108 cobalt oxides 105, 108-9, 111 cocombustion 177 coconut oil 384, 386, 392 cofiring 18, 177 coking 268, 269, 301-2 cold-filter plugging point 405 cold-flow properties, biodiesel 404-6 cold gas efficiency 73, 74, 75, 83 cold soak filterability 403, 404,

410-12 combined heat and power

systems 177 combustion 147,148, 175-7

technical lignins 250-1 combustion zone 70, 76, 77, 78 comminution 184 Co~o catalysts 171,290-1,295,298,

299 concentrated acids 349, 373 concentrated animal feeding

operations 68 condensation 91

lignin-lignin 242, 243 condensed bonds 227,229,232,256 conifers 224, 225, 225 coniferyl alcohol 14, 15, 224, 225,

226, 229, 232 contact time 105, 107 contaminants, syngas 98, 99 continuous operation, reactor 505-6,

507 continuously-stirred tank

reactor Ill, 113 control systems, gasifiers 83-5, 86,

87-8 conversion levels 100 coordinatively unsaturated sites 295

Subject Index

copper catalysts in ethanol synthesis 135-7, 138 in methanol synthesis 130-3 in mixed-alcohol synthesis 140 Raney copper 454

copper promoters 115, 118,120 copper strip corrosion test 403-4 coppice 28, 36 coprocessing, renewable diesel 476,

477 corn 12,69, 126

dry-matter loss 42 ethanol from 371,372 fatty acid composition 392 harvesting 37 moisture content 41 plant sterols in 411 production costs 37

corrosion 403-4 costs see economics cottonseed 392, 411 p-coumaryl alcohol 14, 15, 224, 225,

226, 229 crude oil

chemicals from 181 co-processing with bio-oils 282-3 composition 289 global demand 3 global reserves 9 production 8 see also petroleum

crystallinity index 347-8 crystallization 405 cubes 17, 38, 39 cyanobacteria 374 cyclones 80, 81, 89

char removal 163

deactivation, catalyst 265, 507 decarboxylation 470, 501 decentralized production 173, 174,

175 dedicated energy crops 26--8 deforestation 418 degradation 40

cellulose 57, 59-60

Subject Index

ionic liquids 319-20 phenolic residue 236, 237

degree of polymerization 348 degree of unsaturation 470 dehydration 52, 53

in aqueous milieu 51, 55 fructose 53, 54, 55, 56 glycerol 456-9 in ionic liquids 53, 55, 56 in organic polar solvents 51,55 in water/methyl isobutyl

ketone 51, ?3, 55 without solvents 56--7

delignification 310-12 in chemical pulping 238,239,246

247 dense-phase gasifiers 70, 79 densification 38-9, 40 density

bio-oils 166, 174 bulk density 17, 37, 38, 39 see also energy density

deoxygenation 470,472 stearic acid 498, 499, 500 yields for different feedstock 475 see also catalytic deoxygenation;

hydrodeoxygenation diacetylglycerol 449 dielectric constant 195 diesel 96, 97, 382

bio-oil emulsions 170 cetane number 409 cold-flow properties 405 cumulative energy for 491 desulfurization 469 greenhouse gas emissions 490 life-cycle assessment 489 pathway diagrams for 488 vs renewable diesel properties 4& see also biodiesel; renewable diese

diesel engines 177, 382, 480-2 test results 482

diglyceride 388 diglycerol 445, 446, 447 dihydroxyacetone 439,440,441,442 dilute acids 349, 373

517 Subject Index

ionic liquids 319-20 phenolic residue 236, 237

degree of polymerization 348 degree of unsaturation 470 dehydration 52, 53

in aqueous milieu 51, 55 fructose 53, 54, 55, 56 glycerol 456--9 in ionic liquids 53, 55, 56 in organic polar solvents 51, 55 in water/methyl isobutyl

ketone 51, 53, 55 without solvents 56--7

delignifica tion 310-12 in chemical pulping 238, 239, 246,

247 dense-phase gasifiers 70, 79 densification 38-9, 40 density

bio-oils 166, 174 bulk density 17, 37, 38, 39 see also energy density

deoxygenation 470, 472 stearic acid 498, 499, 500 yields for different feedstock 475 see also catalytic deoxygenation;

hydrodeoxygenation diacetylglycerol 449 dielectric constant 195 diesel 96, 97, 382

bio-oil emulsions 170 cetane number 409 cold-flow properties 405 cumulative energy for 491 desulfurization 469 greenhouse gas emissions 490 life-cycle assessment 489 pathway diagrams for 488 vs renewable diesel properties 480 see also biodiesel; renewable diesel

diesel engines 177, 382, 480-2 test results 482

diglyceride 388 diglycerol 445, 446, 447 dihydroxyacetone 439,440,441,442 dilute acids 349, 373

dimethylether 135, 136 2-dimethylfuran 325 dimethylsulfoxide 51, 55, 56, 318 direct land-use change 492 dispersing agents 257 dissolution

cel1ulose 327, 330 hemicellulose 332 lignocel1ulosics 321, 322--4

DMSO see dimethylsulfoxide dolomite 421 downdraft gasification 75-7,88,92 drop-in biofuels 369, 370 dry-matter loss 41, 42 dry milling 371 drying

feed drying 184 zone 69, 76, 78

duckweed 203 Dunaliella terciolecta 204 dust control 258-9

economics 185,311 gasoline 382 glycerol 436-7 ionic liquids 318-19 petroleum 5-6

economies of scale 173, 185 Ecorefining process 477, 478, 479,

480-2 eicosapentanoic acid 389 eicosenoic acid 389 electrostatic precipitator 152, 163 emulsifiers 447 emulsions 170 EN standards, biodiesel

specifications 402--4 endwise polymerization 232 energy carrier, bio-oil as 174-5 energy crops 147

available land resources 30-1 for biodiesel production

383-6 dedicated 26-8 energy consumption 32, 34-5 ethanol production 372-3

1 518

energy crops (continued) see also biomass; herbaceous

energy crops; individual crops energy density

biomass 16-18 fuels 1,96 see also heating value

energy efficiency, hydrothermal processes 193--4

energy sector, technicallignins in 250-5, 256, 257

engmes diesel 177, 382, 480-2 and particulate removal 89 performance 480-2

ENI see UOP/ENI Ecorefining process

enol ether 238, 239 enol mechanism 104, 105, 106 entrained flow fast pyrolysis 156 enzymatic hydrolysis 48, 49, 349-50 enzymes 311, 375 equipment selection and

performance 32 erucic acid 383, 389 Escherichia coli 374 esterification 19

free fatty acids 418, 426-8 glycerol 447-52 see also transesterification

ethanol 147 from CO hydrogenation 128, 134,

136,139 from C02 hydrogenation 129 as a liquid fuel 371--4 net energy ratio 12, 13 production/production

capacity 126 solubility in fats and oils 395-6,

397 synthesis 133-9 thermodynamics 127 as transportation fuel 125-6

etherification, glycerol 443-7 ethyl stearate 501,503,505,506 ethyl tertiary-butyl ether 375

Subject Index

ethylene glycol 359, 452, 453 eucalyptus 33, 34, 322 eudicotyledons 224, 225, 225 extended X-ray absorption fine

structure (EXAFS) 112-13, 118, 119,120

FAME see fatty acid methyl esters fast pyrolysis 17, 19, 20, 149-64

applications for products 174 barriers to 185-6 based biorefinery 181 byproducts 163--4 char removal 163 chemicals produced from 178 heat transfer in 158-9 liquids collection 163 principles 150-1 product spectrum from 150 product yields 149 reactors 151-8 summary and status of

reactors 159,160-2 see also bio-oils

fast pyrolysis system components and integration 183--4 main process steps 184

fats see animal fats; lipids fatty acid methyl esters 388, 390, 394,

417-18,496 cetane numbers 409, 410 cloud points 406 examples of 407 melting temperatures 405, 406 saponification 391, 395

fatty acids 20 I, 202 catalytic deoxygenation 497-507 cloud points 406 composition and density of plant

oils and animal fats 392-3 conversion to liquid fuels 19, 20 deoxygenation 472 free fatty acids 386, 387, 391, 402 melting temperatures 405 monoglycerides from 447-8, 449 in plant oils and animal fats 389

Subject Index

profiles of biodiesel feedstocks 387-8, 389, 390, 392-3, 402-12

renewable feedstocks 470, 471 saponification 395 saturated 501 tall-oil 503--4 unsaturated 501,502 see also fatty acid methyl esters

feed drying 184 fermentation 371, 372, 373, 375 fertilizers 32, 34, 485, 491 fescue 27, 33 fillers 258 filter plugging 410 filtration

baghouse 90, 91 cold soak 412 hot-vapor 167,170 liquid 170 ultrafiltration 250

fire retardation 329 first-generation fuels 418 Fischer-Tropsch synthesis 60,

95-121, 460-1, 473, 474 cobalt and iron catalysts 99-100,

101, 102 mechanisms, kinetics, catalyst

structure-function properties 104-5, 106, 107, 108-14, 115, 116-19

product distribution dependence on conditions 102, 103, 104

syngas used in 97-9 Fischer-Tropsch-type

catalysts 137-8 fixed-bed gasifiers see downdraft

gasification; updraft gasification fixed-bed pyrolysis 162 fixed-bed upflow reactor 505, 506 flaming pyrolysis zone see

combustion zone flash point 402, 403 flash pyrolysis 98 fluid beds

bubbling 151-3

519 Subject Index

profiles of biodiesel feedstocks 387-8, 389, 390, 392-3,402-12

renewable feedstocks 470, 471 saponification 395 saturated 501 tall-oil 503---4 unsaturated 501,502 see also fatty acid methyl esters

feed drying 184 fermentation 371,372,373,375 fertilizers 32, 34, 485, 491 fescue 27, 33 fillers 258 filter plugging 410 filtration

baghouse 90, 91 cold soak 412 hot-vapor 167, 170 liquid 170 ultrafiltration 250

fire retardation 329 first-generation fuels 418 Fischer-Tropsch synthesis 60,

95-121,460-1,473,474 cobalt and iron catalysts 99-100,

101, 102 mechanisms, kinetics, catalyst

structure-function properties 104-5, 106, 107, 108-14, JJ5, 116-19

product distribution dependence on conditions 102, 103, 104

syngas used in 97-9 Fischer-Tropsch-type

catalysts 137-8 fixed-bed gasifiers see downdraft

gasification; updraft gasification fixed-bed pyrolysis 162 fixed-bed upflow reactor 505, 506 flaming pyrolysis zone see

combustion zone flash point 402, 403 flash pyrolysis 98 fluid beds

bubbling 151-3

in catalytic pyrolysis 265 circulating 153---4,161,265 gasification 78-81, 82,88, 92 operational systems 160-1

fluid catalytic cracking 172, 265 food additives 447,448 forestry products see woody crops formacell 245 formaldehyde 213,460

phenyl formaldehyde resins 258 formate 116 formic acid 254-5,256,257, 376-7 forwarding 35 fossil fuels

depletion of 365-6 energy density 17 see also coal; crude oil; petroleum

fourier transform infrared analysis 328

free fatty acids (FFAs) 386, 387, 391, 402 esterification 418, 426-8

fructose dehydration 53, 54, 55, 56 hydrolysis 351 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfural

from 370 in lactic acid production 61, 62 uses 357, 358

fuel-cell technology 95,97, 126 fuel gas 147, 148 fuel-supply diversification 11 fuels

additives 449 energy densities 1, 96 moisture content 82-3 particle size 82 utilization 74-5 see also biofuels; fossil fuels;

gasoline; liquid fuels; transport fuels

furandicarboxylic acid 56, 57 furfural 49, 52, 179, 289

2-furfural 377 production 325, 326 see also 5-hydroxymethylfurfural

520

gamma-valerolactone 376-7 gasification 19, 67-93, 147, 148

air 75-7 air-equivalence ratio 74 downdraft 75-7,88, 92 fluidized-bed and transport-

reactor 78-81,82,88,92 fuel moisture content 82-3 fuel particle size 82 gasifier stages 68-71 glycerol 459-62 process control and

automation 83-5, 86, 87-8 producer gas conditioning

88-93 product spectrum from 150 product yields 149 quantifying gasifier

performance 72-5 reaction simplification and air­

equivalence ratio 71-2, 73 solid biomass vs pyrolysis liquid

gasification 175 for synfuels 171, 173 syngas derived from 97-9 technicallignins 251-2 updraft 77-8, 88, 92 see also hydrothermal gasification;

supercritical water gasification gasifier fractional efficiency 84, 85 gasoline 96, 102, 104, 125, 126-7

butanol blends 375 ethanol blend 374 prices 382 see also transport fuels

Gibbs free-energy minimization methods 71

global demand, liquid fuels 2-3, 4, 5 glucaric acid 357 gluconic acid 356 glucose 59,211,212, 325

from cellulose 352 fermentation 372 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfural

from 370 in lactic acid production 61, 62

Subject Index

in starch and cellulose 345-6 utilization 355-7

glucosinolates 383 glyceraldehydes 442 glyceric acid 439, 440, 441, 442 glycerol (glycerin) 60-1, 62, 359, 387,

396-7 catalytic conversion processes 438,

439 catalytic dehydration 456-9 chemical derivatives from 437,

438-9 gasification 459-62 prices 436-7 production of 435-6 reaction profiles 400, 401 selective etherification 443-7 selective hydrogenolysis 452-6,

457 selective oxidation 439-40, 441,

442-3 selective

(trans)esterification 447-52 specification 403, 404

glycolaldehyde 62 gold nanoparticles 356, 441, 442, 443 grape seed oil 392 grass lignin 14 grasses 27, 224, 225, 225

see also switchgrass greases 386, 393, 471 greenhouse gases

life-cycle assessment 484, 485, 488, 490,491-2

reduction II, 31, 206, 372 see also carbon dioxide

gross calorific value see higher heating value

guaiacols 293,297-8,299,301,302, 303

guanidines 420 gymnosperms 28,224,225,227

H-beta zeolites 269 Hie molar ratio 252, 253, 254, 255,

301,302

Subject Index

H-ZSM-5 268-9,280 hardwood lignin 14, 28, 232

structural linkages 334 hardwoods 224,225,226,227,228,

229 common constituent fractions 311

harvesting 35-8 hazardous air pollutants 329 HDO see hydrodeoxygenation heat transfer

in catalytic pyrolysis 265 in fast pyrolysis 158-9

heating rates 196 heating value 29-30

see also higher heating value heavy oils 6, 7, 274 hemicellulose 13, 14, 48, 308

acid hydrolysis 49 in biomass feedstocks 33 chemical structure 309, 367 5-hydroxymethylfurfural

production from 326 and ionic liquids 331-3 in lignocelluloses 310 sugars present in 331,332

n-heptadecane 498,499,501,503, 504, 506, 507

n-heptadecene 498,499,504,507 heptamethylnonane 409 herbaceous energy crops 27-8, 33

common constituent fractions in 312

harvesting 36-8 storage 40-1

heterogeneous catalysts 438 continuous processing 429 free fatty acid esterification 426-8 in glycerol gasification 460-1 in glycerol hydrogenolysis 452,

454, 456 in glycerol oxidation 439-40,441,

442-3 solid acid 424-6, 449, 450-1 solid base 419-24,448,450-1

heteropoly acids 425 hexoses 331, 332, 366

i 521

T Subject Index

H-ZSM-5 268-9, 280 hardwood lignin 14, 28, 232

structural linkages 334 hardwoods 224, 225, 226, 227, 228,

229 common constituent fractions 310

harvesting 35-8 hazardous air pollutants 329 HDO see hydrodeoxygenation heat transfer

in catalytic pyrolysis 265 in fast pyrolysis 158-9

heating rates 196 heating value 29-30

see also higher heating value heavy oils 6, 7, 274 hemicellulose 13, 14, 48, 308

acid hydrolysis 49 in biomass feedstocks 33 chemical structure 309, 367 5-hydroxymethylfurfural

production from 326 and ionic liquids 331-3 in lignocelluloses 310 sugars present in 331, 332

n-heptadecane 498,499, 501, 503, 504, 506, 507

n-heptadecene 498,499,504,507 heptamethylnonane 409 herbaceous energy crops 27-8, 33

common constituent fractions in 312

harvesting 36-8 storage 40-1

heterogeneous catalysts 438 continuous processing 429 free fatty acid esterification 426-8 in glycerol gasification 460-1 in glycerol hydrogenolysis 452,

454, 456 in glycerol oxidation 439-40,441,

442-3 solid acid 424-6,449, 450-1 solid base 419-24, 448, 450-1

heteropoly acids 425 hexoses 331,332,366

hexuronic acids 331 HHV see higher heating value high-pressure liquefaction 20 high-pressure thermal treatment 302 high shear mixing 429 high-temperature SCWG 211-12 high-temperature water 193, 195,

198, 212 higher heating value 29-30

in biomass feedstocks 33, 68, 69 and cold gas efficiency 73, 74

HMF see 5-hydroxymethylfurfural Honeywell Green Jet Fuel 481 hot compressed water 458 hot-vapor filtration 167, 170 hydrodeoxygenation 252, 470

anisole 298 bio-oils and guaiacols 299,302,

303 early studies 289 noble metal catalysts 291-2 other catalysts 292-3 phenol 294-5,296 sulfided CoMo and NiMo

catalysts 290-1 hydrodesulfurization 469 hydrogen 173

chemisorption 110, 111, 112 energy density 96 production 96,97,459,462 see also H/C molar ratio

hydrogen economy 95, 97 hydrogen peroxide bleaching 246,

247 hydrogen sulfide 99, 295, 297 hydrogen temperature-programmed

reduction 105, 108,109,120 hydrogenation 469, 470

carbon dioxide 128-9, 134-5 carbon monoxide 127-8, 134, 135,

136,139,140 hydrogenolysis 469-70

glycerol 452-6, 457 hydrolysis 19, 20

in acidic pulping 242 cellulose 57, 59, 354

522

hydrolysis (continued) fructose and sucrose 351 lipids 201 see also acid hydrolysis; enzymatic

hydrolysis hydroprocessing see hydrotreating hydrotalcites 423--4,448,451 hydrothermal gasification 193--4,

206-15 chemistry 212-14,350 equilibrium gas yields 210 gas-phase reactions and

kinetics 207-8, 210 outlook 214-15 regimes in 208,210-12

hydrothermal liquefaction 193 chemistry 198-205 outlook 205-6 process-variable effects 196-8

hydrothermal processing 19, 20, 192 background 193--5 see also hydrothermal gasification;

hydrothermal liquefaction; moisture content

hydrothermal upgrading 193, 205 hydrotreated renewable diesel see

renewable diesel hydrotreated renewable jet see

renewable jet hydrotreating 171-2

catalyst comparison and coking with model components 301-2

hydrodeoxygenation 290-3 early studies 289

introduction 288-9 outlook 302-3 overview of 469-74 wood-based bio-oil model

components 293-301 hydroxide ion 388, 391, 394-5 5-hydroxymethylfurfural 49, 50-7,

179,370 from cellulose catalysis 326, 354 dehydration in aqueous milieu 51,

55

Subject Index

dehydration in ionic liquids 53,55, 56

dehydration in organic polar solvents 51, 55

dehydration in water/methyl isobutyl ketone 51,53,55

dehydration without solvents 56-7 from fructose 357, 358, 370 as key intermediate 355, 356 production using ionic liquids 325,

326, 327, 330 secondary products from 58

hydroxypyruvic acid 439,440,441

"ideal hydrocarbon" 253 imidazolium ionic liquids 313, 314,

315-17 in cellulose catalysis 354 cellulose dissolution 330 costs 315-17 use on unrefined

lignocellulosics 323, 324, 325 in situ catalytic pyrolysis 264, 281 India, liquid fuels demand 5 indirect land-use change 492 inert gases 152 integral catalytic pyrolysis 161 intermediate pyrolysis 149, 150 intermonolignol bonds 227,228, 229

pathways forming 232, 234 inulin 51 inventory data 485, 489 inverse space velocity 115 investments 185 ion exchange resins 316-17, 351-2,

401,444 ionic liquids 336-7

and cellulose 327, 329-31 classification and

nomenclature 312-15 dehydration in 53, 55, 56 and hemicellulose 331-3 and lignin 333-6 potential uses 318 publications/citations 315 reuse, recycle and stability 318-19

Subject Index

synthesis and purification 315-17 timeline of milestones 314 toxicity and

biodegradation 319-20 and unrefined

lignocellulosics 320-9 see also imidazolium ionic liquids

iridium 137 iron carbides ]]7,118, ]]9, 120 iron catalysts 99-102, 114-19, 140 iron oxide ]]7, 118, 120, 138 irrigation pumps 34 isobutene 444 ­isomerization 52,472, 473 isosorbide 359-60

j-Ieg 81 jatropha 384-5, 386, 392, 418, 471

life-cycle assessment 489, 490, 49, renewable jet from 483, 484

jet fuel 102 see also renewable jet

Keggin cages 425 ketones 289, 300 kinetic models

Fischer-Tropsch synthesis 104, 105-19

hydrothermal gasification 207-8, 210

kraft pulping 236,239,254,310-11 Kyoto Protocol 146

lactic acid 61-2 land

available resources 30-1 cost of 37 restoration of degraded 12

land-use change 492 lanthanum oxide 420, 450 lard 386, 392 lauric acid 389, 506 LCC see lignin--earbohydrate

complexes levulinic acid 49-50, 179, 376-7 librioform fibres 224

523 Subject Index

synthesis and purification 315-17 timeline of milestones 314 toxicity and

biodegradation 319-20 and unrefined

lignocellulosics 320-9 see also imidazolium ionic liquids

iridium 137 iron carbides 117, 118, 119, 120 iron catalysts 99-102, 114-19, 140 iron oxide 117, 118, 120, 138 irrigation pumps 34 isobutene 444 isomerization 52,472,473 isosorbide 359-60

j-leg 81 jatropha 384-5,386,392,418,471

life-cycle assessment 489,490,491 renewable jet from 483,484

jet fuel 102 see also renewable jet

Keggin cages 425 ketones 289, 300 kinetic models

Fischer-Tropsch synthesis 104, 105-19

hydrothermal gasification 207-8, 210

kraft pulping 236,239,254,310-11 Kyoto Protocol 146

lactic acid 61-2 land

available resources 30-1 cost of 37 restoration of degraded 12

land-use change 492 lanthanum oxide 420, 450 lard 386, 392 lauric acid 389, 506 LCC see lignin---earbohydrate

complexes levulinic acid 49-50,179,376-7 librioform fibres 224

life-cycle assessment 484-92 fuel-production pathways and

inventory data 485, 488, 489 impact assessment and

comprehensive assumptions 485, 488, 490

results and sensitivity analysis 490-2

lignin 308 acid hydrolysis and steam

explosion 246, 254 in bio-oils 289 in biomass feedstocks 33 biosynthesis 231-2,233,234,235 bleaching reactions 243, 246, 247 chemical structure 309 composition 14,15,48 covalent bonds with

polysaccharides 229-30 hydrothermal gasification 213 hydrothermal

liquefaction 199-200, 201 and ionic liquids 333-6 in lignocelluloses 310 monomers and intermonolignol

bonds 224-5, 226, 227, 228, 229

occurrence and biological function 223--4

phylogenetic tree 225 physical and chemical

properties 231 precipitation 248, 249 pulping reactions 235--43, 244, 245 structural linkages 333, 334 underutilization 222-3 van Krevelen plot 16 see also delignification; hardwood

lignin; softwood lignin; technical lignins

"lignin-to-lignin process" 254-5 lignin---earbohydrate complexes 229,

230, 232 in acidic pulping 242, 243 in alkaline pulping 236, 237

Lignoboost process 248, 249

524

lignocellulose 13, 14, 16 acid hydrolysis 48-9 composition 48, 308 conversion to liquid fuels 18, 19,

21 dissolution, fractionalization and

recovery 323 economics of biomass

utilization 311 hydrothermal liquefaction 199 introduction to 307-8,309,310-12 and ionic liquids 320-37 levulinic acid from 49 pretreatment 373

lignocellulose feedstock biorefinery 47-9 biomass conversion at 48 conceptual flow diagram 321

lignosulfonates 250, 254, 255 as dispersing agent 257 vanillin from 257, 258

linoleic acid 389, 501, 502 linolenic acid 389 linseed oil 392, 406 lipids 13, 14, 16

in algae 369 hydrothermal liquefaction 201,

202 see also triglycerides

liquefaction high-pressure 20 lignocellulosics 323--4 see also hydrothermal liquefaction

liquid alkanes 355, 461 liquid filtration 170 liquid fuels

carbohydrates conversion to 369-77

global demand 2-3,4, 5 from glycerol 461 from lignocellulose 18, 19,21 potential biomass-based 368-9 see also biodiesel; biofuels; biomass

conversion to fuels; bio-oils; syngas; transport fuels

liquids collection 184

Subject Index

loading, feedstock 194 logging residues 35 low-temperature catalytic

gasification 21 0-11 lower heating value 29-30

macroalgae 203, 214 magnesium oxide 419,420,421,422,

423,450 maize see corn manganese 138, 139 mannitol 57,59 markets, renewable products 183 mass-transfer, biodiesel

production 395--400, 401 maximum gross vehicle weight 39 MCM-41 274-5, 276, 277, 278, 279

esterification 428 glycerol etherification 446 transesterification 423

mechanistic kinetic models 104, 105, 106

melting temperatures, biodiesels 405-6

membrane reactors 428 mesoporous acid catalysts 273-8, 279 mesoporous carbon 498, 499 mesoporous silica 109, 351, 422, 423,

427 mesoxalic acid 439 metal oxides 420--4

vapor synthesis 139 see also individual metal oxides

metals dispersion 499-500 and support selection 497-9 supported 352-3

methanation 208 methane 130, 210

emissions 488 partial oxidation 96 steam reforming 96

methanol 370, 388 energy density 96 product yield 136 removal 401

Subject Index

selectivity 132 solubility in fats and oils 395--6,

397, 428 synthesis 97, 130-3 thermodynamics 127 transesterification 394 yield 131

methoxide ion 388, 391,394, 394-5, 398

methyl heptanoate 294 methyl isobutyl ketone 51,53,55 methyl tertiary-butyl ether 374, 375 2-methyl-tetrahyclrofuran 377 microalgae 197, 203--4, 214 microbial degradation 40 Microcystis viridis 204 micrometer carbon residue

content 273 microporous catalysts 268-73,274 microwave pyrolysis 162 microwave reactor 328 middle distillate 382, 409 Middle East OPEC producers 7,

8,9 milled-wood lignin 254 MILOX 245 mineral ash content 404 miscanthus 27,31,33

energy consumption 34-5 energy density 17 moisture content 40-1

mixed-alcohol synthesis 139--40 moisture content 29, 39, 40-2

bio-oils 166, 169 biomass and fossil fuels 17 fuel 82-3 see also hydrothermal processing

molecular sieves 274-5,276,277,278 374

molybdenum 138-9, 140 CoMo catalysts 171,290-1,295,

298,299 NiMo catalysts 290-1,295,296

monocotyledons 224, 225, 225, 226, 227

monoglycerides 447-9, 450-1

525 Subject Index

selectivity 132 solubility in fats and oils 395-6,

397, 428 synthesis 97, 130-3 thermodynamics 127 transesterification 394 yield 131

methoxide ion 388, 391,394, 394-5, 398

methyl heptanoate 294 methyl isobutyl ketone 51, 53, 55 methyl tertiary-butyl ether 374, 375 2-methyl-tetrahydrofuran 377 microalgae 197, 203--4, 214 microbial degradation 40 Microcystis viridis 204 micrometer carbon residue

content 273 microporous catalysts 268-73, 274 microwave pyrolysis 162 microwave reactor 328 middle distillate 382, 409 Middle East OPEC producers 7,

8, 9 milled-wood lignin 254 MILOX 245 mineral ash content 404 miscanthus 27,31,33

energy consumption 34-5 energy density 17 moisture content 40-1

mixed-alcohol synthesis 139--40 moisture content 29, 39, 40-2

bio-oils 166, 169 biomass and fossil fuels 17 fuel 82-3 see also hydrothermal processing

molecular sieves 274-5,276,277,278, 374

molybdenum 138~9, 140 CoMo catalysts 171,290-1,295,

298,299 NiMo catalysts 290-1,295,296

monocotyledons 224,225,225,226, 227

monoglycerides 447-9, 450-1

monolignols 224-5,226 oxidation 232, 233, 235

monosaccharides 366 Mossbauer spectroscopy 117 moving-bed gasifiers 81,82 moving-bed granular filter 92 moving-bed pyrolysis 162 M41S 422 MSU-S materials 277-8, 279 municipal solid waste 69, 146 mustard seed oil 392 myristic acid 389

Nannochloropsis 197 nationalized oil companies 7 natural gas 3, 8, 206 net energy ratio 12, 13 neutral sulfite pulping 239,241,244 NExBTL technology 497 nickel 138, 139, 210, 211 NIMBY attitudes 185 NiMo catalysts 290-1,295,296 nitrogen

in bio-oils 289 fertilizers 32, 34, 485, 491 partitioning 197-8

nitrous oxide 488, 491 NMR spectroscopy 328, 347, 348 noble metal catalysts 291-2,440,441,

442-3 nonphenolic residues 227, 229

degradation 236 oxidation 232, 233, 235

OIC molar ratio 252, 253, 254, 255, 301,302

oak 322 octane number 102 octane production 61 oil

heavy oils 6, 7, 274 removal 91, 93 see also bio-oils; crude oil;

petroleum; vegetable oils oil palms see palm oil oleic acid 389,501,502

526

olive oil 392, 406, 411 operating costs organic bases 419, 420 organic polar solvents 51,55 Organization for Economic

Cooperation and Development (OECD) 3, 4

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 2, 7,8

organocell 245 organosolv pulping 243, 245, 254 oscillatory flow reactor 429 oxidation

alkyl esters 407 glycerol 439--40, 441, 442-3 methane 96 monolignols 232, 233, 235 temperature-programmed 301,

303 oxidative stability 403, 404, 406-8 oxygen

in bio-oils 196, 288, 289 delignification 246, 247 poisoning 442 see a/so 0IC molar ratio

oxygen-free pyrolysis 252 oxygenate species 116, 374 ozone bleaching 246

palladium 440, 441, 442, 452, 498, 499, 500

palm oil 384,386,392,418 cloud points 406 coprocessing 477 plant sterols in 411

palmitate alkyl esters 405, 406, 410 palmitic acid 389, 428 n-paraffins 473--4, 476 particulate removal, producer

gas 88-91, 92 payback periods 492 peanuts 392, 411 pellets 17, 38, 39 pentoses 331, 332, 366 peroxidases 233, 235 pervaporation 458

Subject Index

petroleum 1-2 energy density /7 hydrotreating 469 increasing price and decreasing

supply 5-6, 7 instability in supply and

production 7-9 in renewable diesel processing

476 see a/so coal; crude oil; gasoline

pH 168 phenolic residue 227, 229

degradation 236, 237 oxidation 232, 233, 235

phenol(s) 179,208,210,213 in bio-oils 289 from mesoporous catalysis 275,

276, 277, 278 from microporous catalysis 273 as model compound 294---5, 296,

297 phenyl alanine 235 phenyl formaldehyde resins 258 phenylpropanoids 224 phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase 27 photosynthesis 366 physical upgrading 167, 170 pine 33, 268, 269, 322 plant oils see vegetable oils plant sterols 411-12 platform chemicals 181, 182,437 platinum 112, 440, 441, 442, 498 polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons 269, 273 polyesters 452 polyethylene glycol 51 polyethylene oxide 422 polyglycerol esters 445, 446, 447 polyglycerols 445, 446, 447 polylactic acid 61-2 polymerization

batchwise and endwise 232 biopolymerization 231-2,233,

234,235 degree of 348

polyose see hemicellulose

Subject Index

polysaccharides 229-30, 366, 367 see a/so cellulose; hemicellulose;

sugars polysulfide pulping 236, 239, 240 poplar 33, 34, 36, 322 potassium promoters //5, 116, //7,

118, /20 in ethanol synthesis 135, 138-9

poultry litter 68, 69 pour point 405, 406 precipitation, lignin 248, 249 pretreatment

acid hydrolysis 373 biomass 50 enzymatic hydrolysis 350 free fatty acids 402 lignocellulose 373 for renewable diesel 475

prices see economics primary air 76, 78, 79, 81 primary ionic liquids 316 producer gas 67

air-equivalence ratio 72, 73 conditioning 88-93 heating value 74 tar concentration 92 thermal conductivity 84, 86 see a/so gasification

propanol 127, /36 propylene glycol 357, 359, 452, 453,

454, 456 proteins

in algae 369 hydrothermal gasification 213

proximate analysis 29, 32, 34 pulping see chemical pulping pulse reoxidation 110,111,112 pyrolysis 19, /47, 148

black liquor 251 cellulose 350 definition 263 flash pyrolysis 98 in hydrothermal gasification

208 oxygen-free 252 product spectrum from 150

527 Subject Index

polysaccharides 229-30, 366, 367 see also cellulose; hemicellulose;

sugars polysulfide pulping 236, 239, 240 poplar 33, 34, 36, 322 potassium promoters 115, 116,117,

118,120 in ethanol synthesis 135, 138-9

poultry litter 68, 69 pour point 405, 406 precipitation, lignin 248, 249 pretreatment

acid hydrolysis 373 biomass 50 enzymatic hydrolysis 350 free fatty acids 402 lignocellulose 373 for renewable diesel 475

prices see economics primary air 76, 78, 79, 81 primary ionic liquids 316 producer gas 67

air-equivalence ratio 72, 73 conditioning 88-93 heating value 74 tar concentration 92 thermal conductivity 84, 86 see also gasification

propanol 127, 136 propylene glycol 357, 359, 452, 453,

454, 456 proteins

in algae 369 hydrothermal gasification 213

proximate analysis 29, 32, 34 pulping see chemical pulping pulse reoxidation 11 0, 111, 112 pyrolysis 19, 147, 148

black liquor 251 cellulose 350 definition 263 flash pyrolysis 98 in hydrothermal gasification

208 oxygen-free 252 product spectrum from 150

technical lignin in formic acid 254-5, 256, 257

zone 69-70, 76, 77, 78 see also ablative pyrolysis; catalytic

pyrolysis; fast pyrolysis pyrolysis oil see bio-oils

radiative-convective entrained flow pyrolysis 162

rail transportation 39 Raney copper 454 Raney nickel 456 rapeseed oil 12, 147, 383,386,392,

393 cloud points 406 coprocessing 477

rate constants, transesterification 398, 399

reactive distillation 429 reactor configuration 184 reactor selection

batch vs semi-batch 505 continuous operation 505-6, 507

reception 184 recycling, ionic liquids 319 redox numbers 231 redox shuttle 235 reducing atmosphere 198 reduction zone 70-1, 76,77, 78 renewable diesel 468, 470, 472-4

commercial production status and perspectives 492~3

cumulative energy for 491 feedstock selection 474-6 greenhouse gas emissions 490 life-cycle assessment 482, 484-5,

488-92 pathway diagrams for 488 process considerations 476-9 product properties and engine

performance 479-82 vs biodiesel feed and products 479 vs diesel fuels properties 480 see also biodiesel

renewable jet 468, 470,472-4 cumulative energy for 491

528

renewable jet (continued) feedstock selection 474-6 greenhouse gas emissions 490 life-cycle assessment 485,488,489,

490-2 product properties and engine

performance 481-2,483,484, 486-7

rhodium catalysts 133-5, 301,460 ribulose-I,5-bisphosphate

carboxylase oxygenase 27 room temperature ionic liquid 312 rotating-cone reactor 157, 158,161 Roundtable on Sustainable

Biofuels 493 rural communities 12 ruthenium 137,211,292,453,454,

456

saccharification cellulose 49, 348-51 simultaneous saccharification and

fermentation process 373--4 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 371, 372,

373 safflower oil 393, 406 saponification 388, 391, 395 Sasol Arge process 102, 103 Sasol Synthol process 103 saturated fats 407, 408, 409 saturated fatty acid esters 50 I saturated fatty acids 501 sawdust 69

energy density 17 hydrothermal gasification 194, 210

SBA-15 423,427,449 Schulz-Flory distribution 137, 138 screw feeding 98 screw pyrolysis 161 SCWG see supercritical water

gasification seasonality 148 second-generation biofuels 497 secondary ionic liquids 316 selective cracking 472,473 semi-batch reactors 505

Subject Index

sesame oil 393 short-rotation woody crops 28 Sibunit 499, 504, 506, 507 silica 109,111,113,137,139

mesoporous 109,351,422,423, 427

SijAI ratios 275, 277, 278, 279 silica sand 269, 271, 273 silicates 422, 423 SimaPro 7.1 485, 488 simultaneous saccharification and

fermentation process 373--4 sinapyl alcohol 14,15,224,225,226,

232 site-time yield 108 skidding 35, 36 slagging 97-8 slow pyrolysis see torrefaction slurry reactors 102, 108 soaps 388, 391, 401-2 soda pulping 236 sodium bicarbonate 199 softwood lignin 14, 15, 28, 232

structural linkages 334 softwoods 224, 226, 227, 228, 229

common constituent fractions 310

soil-improving agents 257 solid acid catalysts 424-6, 449, 450-1 solid acid-catalyzed reaction 351-2 solid adsorbents 40 I solid base catalysts 419-24, 448,

450-1 solvolysis see hydrothermal

processing sorbitan 360 sorbitol 57, 59, 60, 352, 353

uses 357-60 soybean oil 12,383--4,386,393

cloud points 406 coprocessing 477 plant sterols in 411

space-time-yield 57 Spirulina 204 spouted fluid bed 161, 268 spruce 254, 255

Subject Index

starch properties 346 structure 345, 366, 367

steam explosion 246, 254, 255 steam reforming 96, 207, 208, 459,

460 stearate alkyl esters 405,410 stearic acid 201,202,498,499,500,

501,503,506,507 sterol glucosides 404,406,410-12 storage 39--42

bio-oil 184 biodiesel 408 fast pyrolysis system 184

STT reactor 429 subcritical water 50,61, 199,200,

351,458 sucrose 351,357,366 sugar alcohols 57, 59-60, 353 "sugar platform" 21, 22 sugarcane 12,27, 366,371,372 sugars 14

cellulose saccharification 348-51 in hemicellulose 331, 332 production crops 371 total reducing 325 utilization routes 354-60 van Krevelen plot 16 see also cellulose; fructose; glucosl

hemicellulose sulfided CoMo and NiMo

catalysts 171,290-1,295,296,29, 299

sulfite pulping 239,241,242,243, 244, 254

sulfonated mesoporous silicas 351 sulfonation 241

see also lignosulfonates sulfonic acid 427, 428 sulfur content

biodiesel 402-3 bio-oils 289, 295

sulfuric acid 325,377,418,458 sunflower oil 393, 406, 411 supercritical water 50,61, 193,201,

351,458,459

529 Subject Index

starch properties 346 structure 345, 366, 367

steam explosion 246, 254, 255 steam reforming 96, 207, 208, 459,

460 stearate alkyl esters 405, 410 stearic acid 201,202,498,499,500,

501,503,506,507 sterol glucosides 404,406,410-12 storage 39-42

bio-oil 184 biodiesel 408 fast pyrolysis system 184

STT reactor 429 subcritical water 50,61, 199,200,

351,458 sucrose 351,357,366 sugar alcohols 57, 59-60, 353 "sugar platform" 21, 22 sugarcane 12,27,366,371,372 sugars 14

cellulose saccharification 348-51 in hemicellulose 331, 332 production crops 371 total reducing 325 utilization routes 354-60 van Krevelen plot 16 see also cellulose; fructose; glucose;

hemicellulose sulfided CoMo and NiMo

catalysts 171,290-1,295,296,298, 299

sulfite pulping 239, 241,242, 243, 244, 254

sulfonated mesoporous silicas 351 sulfonation 241

see also lignosulfonates sulfonic acid 427, 428 sulfur content

biodiesel 402-3 bio-oils 289, 295

sulfuric acid 325, 377, 418, 458 sunflower oil 393, 406, 411 supercritical water 50,61, 193,201,

351, 458, 459

supercritical water gasification 193, 194,207,208,210 aquatic feedstocks 214 high-temperature 211-12

supported metal-catalyzed reaction 352-3

switchgrass 27,31,33 bulk density 38 energy consumption 34-5 moisture content 40, 41 net energy ratio 12 production costs 37

syngas 19, 60-1, 181 to alcohols 125-41 from biomass gasification 97-9,

171, 173 in hydrothermal gasification 207-8 product distribution 102, 103, 104 ratio 99-100 reaction pathways 96

synthetic natural gas 206 synthetic paraffinic kerosene 470,

472-4, 481, 483, 486-7

tall-oil fatty acids 503-4 tallow 386,393,396,471

cloud points 406 life-cycle assessment 485, 489, 490,

491 tars 89,90, 91, 92, 93 tartronic acid 439 task-specific ionic liquids 318 technical lignins 223

combustion 250-1 conversion to transport

fuels 252-4 gasification 251-2 oxygen-free pyrolysis 252 preparation 248, 249, 250 pyrolysis in formic acid 254-5,

256, 257 temperature

and bio-oils 169 catalytic gasification 210-12 melting, of biodiesels 405-6 room temperature ionic liquid 312

530

temperature (continued) setpoint range 87 and water properties 195

temperature-programmed oxidation 301,303

temperature-programmed reduction 105, 108, 109, 120

terephthalic acid 56, 57 ternary phase diagram 118 tetrahydrofuran 377, 428 thermal conductivity 83, 84, 85, 86,

88 control diagram 87 detectors 83--4, 85, 86, 110

thermal conversion of biomass 20-2, 31, 126, 146-7 integrated 182

"thermochemical platform" 21, 22 thermochemical processes

building blocks 47, 49-62 cellulose saccharification 350-1

thermodynamics, syngas to alcohols 127-30

thermoplastic polymers 179 thermoset polymers 179 throat section 76 titania 111, 112 torrefaction 17, 98, 149, 150 total reducing sugars 325 total surface area, catalyst 269, 270 toxicity, ionic liquids 319-20 tracheid 223--4, 225 transesterification 19, 388, 391, 394,

395-400,417 glycerol 447-52 solid acid catalysts in 424-6, 449 solid base catalysts in 419-24, 448

transport air 79, 81 transport fuels 3, 4, 97, 102

from aquatic feedstock 202-3 bioethanol as 125-6 EU targets 416,436 from integrated biological/thermal

processing 182 from technical lignins 252--4 see also diesel; gasoline; liquid fuels

Subject Index

transport-reactor gasification 78-81 transportation

bio-oil 184 biomass 38-9, 185 costs, biomass 17, 18, 174

transported beds 153--4, 161 triacetylglycerol (triacetin) 424, 449 triacylglycerides 197 trickle-bed reactor 506, 507 trifluoroacetic acid 325, 327 triglycerides 13, 203, 387

conversion to liquid fuels 19, 20 conversion to monoglycerides 447,

448 deoxygenation 50 I, 503 solubility in methanol 428 transesterification see

transesterification triglycerol 445, 446, 447 tristearin 50 I, 503 true liquid crystal-templating 422 tryptophan 197 tungstic acid 454 turbines 177 turnover frequencies 420-1 two-platform concept 60

ultimate analysis 29, 32, 34 ultrafiltration 250 unit yield per acre 385, 386 unrefined lignocellulosics 320-9 unsaturated fats 407, 408, 409 unsaturated fatty acid esters 50 I unsaturated fatty acids 50 I, 502 UOP/ENI Ecorefining process 477,

478, 479, 480-2 UOP Hydrotreated Renewable Jet

process 481,483,484 updraft gasification 77-8, 88, 92 upgrading

chemical and catalytic 170-3 hydrothermal 193,205 hydrotreating for 288-304 main routes 172 physical 167, 170 recent developments 280-2

Subject Index

vacuum pyrolysis 158, 162 value-added chemicals 355,438,452 van Krevelen plot 14, 16, 252,253 vanillin 257, 258 vascular cryptogams 224,225,226,

227 vascular plants 223--4, 225 vegetable oils 182, 383--4

biodiesel production from 436 cloud points 406 conversion to renewable fuels 478 coprocessing 4?7 deoxygenation 472 fatty acid methyl esters 390,

417-18 fatty acid profiles in 402-12 fatty acids, composition and

density 392-3 fatty acids found in 389 free fatty acid content 426 hydrolysis 201 plant sterols in 411,412 renewable feedstocks 470, 471 solubility of (m)ethanol in 395-6,

397 transesterification 417-18,420-1 waste vegetable oil 386 see also individual oils

Venezuela 9 veratryl alcohol 335 vessel elements 224 VGO catalyst 282 viscosity

bio-oils 166, 169 biodiesel 402,403,417

volatile organic compounds 329

waste resources biomass 28-9, 68, 202 municipal solid waste 69, 146 vegetable oil 386

water in bio-oils 272, 273 dehydration in 51, 53,55 high-temperature 193, 195, 198,

212

531 Subject Index

vacuum pyrolysis 158, 162 value-added chemicals 355, 438, 452 van Krevelen plot 14, 16, 252, 253 vanillin 257, 258 vascular cryptogams 224, 225, 226,

227 vascular plants 223-4, 225 vegetable oils 182, 383-4

biodiesel production from 436 cloud points 406 conversion to renewable fuels 478 coprocessing 477 deoxygenation 472 fatty acid methyl esters 390,

417-18 fatty acid profiles in 402-12 fatty acids, composition and

density 392-3 fatty acids found in 389 free fatty acid content 426 hydrolysis 201 plant sterols in 411,412 renewable feedstocks 470, 471 solubility of (m)ethanol in 395-6,

397 transesterification 417-18, 420-1 waste vegetable oil 386 see also individual oils

Venezuela 9 veratryl alcohol 335 vessel elements 224 VGO catalyst 282 viscosity

bio-oi1s 166, 169 biodiesel 402, 403, 417

volatile organic compounds 329

waste resources biomass 28-9,68,202 municipal solid waste 69, 146 vegetable oil 386

water in bio-oils 272, 273 dehydration in 51, 53, 55 high-temperature 193, 195, 198,

212

hot compressed 458 properties of 195 subcritica1 50,61, 199,200,351,

458 supercritica1 50,61, 193,201,351,

458, 459 supported catalysts, effects

on 111-14 washing 401 water/methyl isobutyl ketone 51,

53,55 water parameter "m" 113, 114 water-use efficiency 28, 34 see also moisture content;

supercritical water gasification water-gas shift reaction 71, 99-100.

101, 114, 115 in alcohol formation 129 in hydrothermal gasification 208,

211 wet milling 371 wet scrubbers (wash towers) 89, 90 WGS see water-gas shift reaction wheat straw 17,33,34, 37, 38, 41 Wheatstone bridge 85 willow 33, 34 windrows 35, 36, 42 wood

dissolution, fractionalization and recovery 323

lignin and polysaccharide arrangement in 230

pyrolysis 149, 178 see also hardwoods; lignin;

sawdust; softwoods wood-based bio-oi1 166

model components 293-301 wood-mulch gasifier 74, 84, 98 wood preservatives 329 woody crops 33, 307

bundled forestry residue 36, 40, 42 common constituent fractions 310 dissolution time of

1ignocellulosics 322 energy density 17 harvesting 35-6

532

woody crops (continued) lignin types 254, 255 short-rotation 28 storage 42

X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy 108, 109, 112

X-ray diffraction 347 xylose 377

Y-zeolites 269 yeast 371, 372, 373 yellow grease 386, 393, 471

Subject Index

zeolites 268-9, 270, 272-3, 274, 280 cracking 171, 172-3,281-2 in free fatty acid esterification

427 in glycerol esterification 449 in glycerol etherification 444, 445 H-beta and Y 269

zinc oxide 131-3,136,279,420, 450

zinc sulfate 61,459 zirconia. sulfated 425 ZSM-5 268-9, 280, 281