Sub-objective (i):

”Analyse the link between community conservation and poverty in each case”

Questions, questions...

1. Compared to what? What are the alternatives or counterfactuals? What was the situation before community conservation?

2. How to define and measure poverty? Effect of conservation may depend on such a definition...

3. Focus on local effects only?

Potential benefits of community conservation:

1. Greater overall benefits of current extraction and environmental services

2. Greater long-term sustainability of extractive activities

3. Increased local equality in terms of benefits from extraction and environmental services

Contributing factors:

1. Job creation, business opportunities, multiplier effects

2. Fewer/less volatile resource conflicts3. Reduced leakage of benefits

Approach:

• Effects related to overall benefits, sustainability, and local equality examined (in part) through livelihoods surveys

• Contributing factors examined through more targeted studies of job creation, conflicts, and leakage

Livlihood surveys:

1. Baseline: standard household suveys of income sources and various forms of capital (dependence, diversification, and distribution)

2. Particular focus (detailed examination) of resources targeted for conservation

3. Design surveys so that proximity to resource becomes a key factor

4. Incorporate conflict issues in surveys5. ”Change” variables (before/after) feasible in

some cases?6. Distributional issues a key concern in data

analysis

Job creation/business opportunities/multipliers:

1. Targeted surveys of contractors and small business enterprises

2. Resource extraction, processing, tourism, etc3. Map local business relations4. Determine: extent to which conserved

resource accounts for turnover/profits; seasonal and full-time positions; demand for local inputs (multipliers)

The park

Public contractors-Electricity-Water-Waste-Phone/Internet-Construction/maintenance-Security

Private contractors(tourism)-Hotels/lodges/restaurants-Safari/guiding outfits-Hunting operators-Entertainment

Private contractors(services)-Construction/maintenance-Garages-Security-Waste

Periphery (inputs)-Farmers-Pastoralists-Petrol stations-Garages

Periphery (tourism)-Hotels/lodges/restaurants-Shop owners-Makers of artifacts-Taxi/bus operators

A (tentative) example from PAPIA...

Conflicts:

1. Include questions about conflict experience in livelihoods surveys

2. Develop a typology of conflicts, based on causes

3. In-depth qualitative examination of selected conflicts; focus on causes, strategies, adaptations, interventions, resolution

Underlying source Type of conflict Possible interventions/measures

Evictions/removals

Disaffection due to inadequate compensation of evictees

Ethnic conflict, and conflicts over land access and use, in areas where evictees are resettled

Increased compensation Relocation to uninhabited areas

Exclusion from resources access and use

Boundary conflicts between park and resource users

Conflicts related to illegal extraction of park resources

Sabotage of park infrastructure Open hostilities between park and locals

Negotiation and settlement prior to delineation of boundary

Reasonable joint user agreements Increased security More reasonable user agreements;

increased security Wildlife induced damages (to crops, animals, humans)

Disaffection due to inadequate compensation of damages

Conflicts over loss of human life or injuries

Conflicts over killing of wildlife

Increased compensation Improved control of wild animals;

education in human-wildlife relations All the above; increased security

Insufficient share of park revenues accruing to locals (or insufficient knowledge of such)

Conflicts related to illegal extraction of park resources

Sabotage of park infrastructure Increased local crime Open hostilities between park and locals

Increased investment in local welfare projects; education in terms of actual financial benefits

Increased security

Proliferation of stakeholders, and contact between these

Increased local crime Resource access and use conflicts

Constraining tourist and commercial hunting activities

Increased local participation in commercial activities

Increased security

Another (tentative) example from PAPIA...

local

national

internationalLeakage...

Leakage (continued):

Focus on proxies (in tandem with job creation surveys): 1. Who is/are the owner(s) of the business?2. Where is the owner of the business from?3. Where does the owner of the business live?4. Where is the headquarters of the business?5. Is the business a part of a national or international syndicate?6. What is the size of the business now compared to the size two

years ago and five years ago?7. What percentage of last year’s profits were (a) reinvested

locally, (b) reinvested nationally, (c) reinvested internationally?8. What percentage of last year’s profits were saved (a) in a local

bank, (b) in a national bank, (c) in an international bank?

Beyond the individual case: grounds for comparison...

Contextual factorsPolicy variablesManagement choices

Peformance=>

Contextual factors:Nature of resourceInfrastructureProximity to markets

Policy factors:Management systemLaws/rules that applyFinancial & other support

Management choices:Decision making structureDegree of formalisationNegotiability of agreementsRevenue sharing mechanismsIncentive structures

Primary indicators:Povery levelsSustainability (?)Equality (wealth, power)Vulnerability (div., dep.)

Secondary indicators:Job creation, multipliersConflict levelsLeakageLocal participation

=>

Major challenges:

1. Develop a feasible set of management variables that permits comparison across cases

2. Find enough field time to cover the necessary surveys and performance variables in all separate cases