SUB Hamburg

B/103635

AMERICAN INDIAN LAW:NATIVE NATIONS ANDTHE FEDERAL SYSTEM

CASES AND MATERIALS

Sixth Edition

Carole E. GoldbergJonathan D. Varat Professor of LawUCLA School of Law

Rebecca TsosieProfessor of Law and Willard H. Pedrick Distinguished Research ScholarSandra Day O'Connor College of LawArizona State University

Kevin K. WashburnDean and Professor of LawUniversity of New Mexico School of Law

Elizabeth Rodke WashburnMorris K. Udall and Stewart L. Udall Foundation

f LexisNexis*

TABLE OF CONTENTSChapter 1 HISTORIC AND MODERN CONCEPTIONS OF THE

TRIBAL-FEDERAL RELATIONSHIP 1

A. HISTORIC MODELS OF TRIBAL-FEDERAL RELATIONS 1

1. Introduction 1

2. Treaty Models of the Political Relationship between Indian Tribes and the

Federal Government 4

a. International Self-Determination Model 4

Treaty of Fort Pitt with the Delaware Nation 4

b. Treaty Federalism Model 5

Treaty of Hopewell with the Cherokee Nation 6

Treaty of New Echota with the Cherokee Nation 7

c. Colonial Federalism Model 7

Treaty of Fort Sumner with the Navajo Nation 8

NOTES ON MODELS OF TRIBAL-FEDERAL RELATIONS 8

B. HISTORY OF TRIBAL-FEDERAL RELATIONS 13

1. Introductory Perspectives 13

Cornplanter (Seneca), Speech Delivered to President George

Washington at Fort Stanwix, 1790 13

Tecumseh (Shawnee), Speech Delivered at Vincennes, Indiana,

August 12, 1810 13

2. The Uneven History of Federal Indian Policy: Politics, Assimilation, and

Autonomy 14

a. The Colonial Period (1492-1776) 15

b. The Confederation Period (1776-1789) 17

c. The Trade and Intercourse Act Era (1789-1835) 18

d. The Removal Period (1835-1861) 20

e. The Reservation Policy (1861-1887) 22

f. The Allotment Period and Forced Assimilation (1871-1934) 24

g. The Indian Reorganization Act Period (1934-1940) 30

h. The Termination Era (1940-1962) 33

i. The Self-Determination Era (1962-1980) 35

j . Government-to-Government Relations and Decreases in Federal Indian

Program Funding (1980-present) 39

k. History, Federal Indian Policy, and Statutory Interpretation 43C. ORIGINS OF THE MODELS: FOUNDATIONAL UNITED STATES

SUPREME COURT DECISIONS AND THE TRIBAL RESPONSE 441. Property, Sovereignty, and Claims of Conquest: The Case of Johnson v.

M'Intosh 44

xix

TABLE OF CONTENTSSpeech of Corn Tassel (Cherokee at Hopewell Treaty Negotiations) . 44

Johnson v. M'Intosh 45

NOTES ON JOHNSON v. M'INTOSH 492. Sovereignty Revisited: The Cherokee Cases 53

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia 54NOTES 58Worcester v. Georgia 61

NOTES 71NOTE ON THE RHETORIC OF EXCLUSION 76

D. PROCESSING MODELS OF TRIBAL-FEDERAL RELATIONS ASLEGAL DOCTRINE: NINETEENTH AND EARLY TWENTIETHCENTURY ILLUSTRATIONS 77

1. Treaties Between Nations _. 78Ex Parte Crow Dog 79NOTES 82

2. The Rise of Federal Plenary Power 86

United States v. Kagama 86NOTES ON KAGAMA 89

United States v. Clapox 92NOTES 94Lone Wolfv. Hitchcock 95NOTES ON LONE WOLF 97United States v. Sandoval 100NOTES ON SANDOVAL 103

E. INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW AND INDIGENOUSPEOPLES' RIGHTS 107

1. International Models of Political Self-Governance 108NOTES 109

2. The Institutional Framework for International Human Rights Law . . . . 112NOTES 114

3. Comparative Perspectives on Indigenous Rights 118

Chapter 2 RECURRING ISSUES IN TRIBAL-FEDERAL LEGALRELATIONS 123

A. FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONAL QUESTIONS 1241. What is an Indian Tribe or Nation? 124

a. Tribal vs. Federal Definitions 124b. Definitions of "Tribe" under Federal Statutes 126c. Achieving Federal Recognition 127d. The Politics of Federal Recognition 132

Testimony of Kevin Gover, Professor of Law, Arizona StateUniversity College of Law 133

xx

TABLE OF CONTENTS2. Who is an Indian? 134

a. Traditional Tribal Views of Status and Community Membership . . . 134

b. Federal Definitions 137

P.S. Deloria & Robert Laurence, What's an Indian? A

Conversation About Law School Admissions, Indian Tribal

Sovereignty, and Affirmative Action 140

NOTES ON DEFINING WHO IS AN "INDIAN" 142

3. What Is the Extent of Tribal Territory, or Indian Country? 144a. Indian Nations' Relationships to the Land 144b. Defining "Indian Country" 145

i. Formal and Informal Reservations 146United States v. John 146NOTE 148

ii. Dependent Indian Communities 149

Alaska v. Native Village ofVenetie 150NOTES ON VENETIE AND "DEPENDENT INDIAN

COMMUNITIES" 156iii. Allotted Land Outside Reservations 157iv. Determining the Boundaries of an Indian Reservation 158

Solem v. Bartlett 159NOTES ON DETERMINING CONGRESSIONAL INTENT

TO DIMINISH BOUNDARIES 169B. EQUAL PROTECTION QUESTIONS POSED BY INDIAN

LEGISLATION 174

1. Indian Classifications as Political Rather Than Racial 176Morton v. Mancari 176NOTES ON MORTON v. MANCARI 183

United States v. Antelope 185NOTES ON TREATING INDIAN CLASSIFICATIONS ASPOLITICAL RATHER THAN RACIAL 187

2. Indians as a Constitutional Racial Classification? 190AFGE v. United States 191NOTE ON INDIANS AS A CONSTITUTIONAL RACIAL

CLASSIFICATION 192

3. When Might Equal Protection's "Strict Scrutiny" Invalidate FederalIndian Legislation? 193

Babbitt v. Williams 194Rice v. Cayetano 196NOTES ON TREATING INDIANS AS A SUSPECT RACIALCLASSIFICATION 200

C. CANONS OF CONSTRUCTION FOR INTERPRETING THE TRIBAL-FEDERAL LEGAL RELATIONSHIP 202

xxi

TABLE OF CONTENTSMinnesota v. Mille Lacs Band of Chippewa Indians 203

San Manuel Indian Bingo and Casino v. N.L.R.B 210

NOTES ON INDIAN LAW CANONS OF CONSTRUCTION 218

Chapter 3 TRIBAL SOVEREIGNTY AND ITS EXERCISE 225

A. TRIBAL GOVERNING AUTHORITY 227

1. Inherent Tribal Sovereignty 227

Talton v. Mayes 227

United States v. Wheeler 229

NOTES 234

Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe 236

NOTES ON EXCLUSION AND TRIBAL GOVERNING

AUTHORITY 244

2. Federally Supported Tribal Authority 246

United States v. Mazurie 246

NOTE ON VARIETIES OF CONGRESSIONAL SUPPORT FOR

THE EXERCISE OF TRIBAL AUTHORITY 249

Bugenig v. Hoopa Valley Tribe 250

NOTE ON BUGENIG 255

3. Federal Judicial and Legislative Responses to Inherent Tribal

Sovereignty 255

a. Federal Judicial Plenary Power Purporting to Preempt Tribal

Sovereignty 255

Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe 257

Duro v. Reina 266

NOTES '.'.' 273

Montana v. United States 281

NOTES 286

Strate v. A-l Contractors 288

NOTES 298

Nevada v. Hicks 301

NOTES ON HICKS 323

Plains Commerce Bank v. Long Family Land & Cattle Co., Inc. . 326

NOTE 336

b. Congressional Acknowledgment of Inherent Tribal Sovereignty . . . . 337

United States v. Lara 337

NOTES ON LARA 352B. INTERJURISDICTIONAL RESPECT AND COOPERATION:

EXTRADITION, FULL FAITH AND CREDIT, AND COMITY 355Eberhard v. Eberhard 357Wilson v. Marchington 369

xxii

TABLE OF CONTENTSNOTES ON FULL FAITH & CREDIT AND COMITY 376

C. MODERN TRIBAL GOVERNMENTS 382

1. Tribal Constitutions and Courts 382

a. Emergence of Modern Written Tribal Constitutions 383

b. Types of Tribal Courts 394

2. Tribal Law Provisions on Jurisdiction 400

3. Sources of Law in Tribal Courts 401

NOTES ON CUSTOMARY LAW 403

4. Tribal Restrictions on Tribal Governments 405

a. Tribal Provisions for Federal Approval 405

b. Tribal Bills of Rights 407

Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska v. Bigfire 408

NOTES 412

5. Federal Restrictions on Tribal Governments: The Indian Civil Rights

Act of 1968 412

Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez ; 413

NOTES 421

6. Federal Conceptions of Tribal Taxing and Regulatory Power 425

Kerr-mcgee v. Navajo Tribe 425

Atkinson Trading Company, Inc. v. Shirley 428

NOTES ON TRIBAL TAXING JURISDICTION 434

Brendale v. Confederated Tribes & Bands of the Yakima Indian

Nation 437

NOTES ON TRIBAL REGULATORY POWER 440

D. TRIBAL SOVEREIGN IMMUNITY 443

1. In Federal and State Courts 444

Oklahoma Tax Commission v. Citizen Band Potawatomi Indian

Tribe Of Oklahoma 444Kiowa Tribe of Oklahoma v. Manufacturing Technologies, Inc. . . . AA1

NOTES ON TRIBAL SOVEREIGN IMMUNITY IN FEDERALAND STATE COURTS 451C & L Enterprises, Inc. v. Citizen Band Potawatomi Indian Tribe of

Oklahoma 455NOTES ON WAIVER OF TRIBAL SOVEREIGN IMMUNITY . . 461

2. In Tribal Courts 467Charbonneau v. St. Paul Insurance Company 467NOTE ON SCOPE OF SOVEREIGNIMMUNITY IN TRIBALCOURT . 472

E. TRIBAL POWER TO DEFINE MEMBERSHIP 472

Poodry v. Tonawanda Band of Seneca Indians 475NOTES ON TRIBAL MEMBERSHIP/CITIZENSHIP AND

xxiii

TABLE OF CONTENTSBANISHMENT 482

Chapter 4 FEDERAL & STATE AUTHORITY IN INDIANCOUNTRY 489

A. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT'S PLENARY POWER OVER INDIANSAND INDIAN COUNTRY 491

1. Sources and Scope of the Power 491

United States v. John 494

NOTES 498

Delaware Tribal Business Committee v. Weeks 501

NOTES ON THE BILL OF RIGHTS AND PLENARY POWER . . 503

2. Non-Constitutional Limitations on Legislative Plenary Power: Canons

of Construction, Treaty Abrogation & Political Accountability 505

United States v. Dion 505

NOTES ON TREATY ABROGATION 511

3. Criminal Jurisdiction as an Illustration of the Exercise of Federal Power

Over Indian Affairs 517

a. Introduction 517

b. Federal Criminal Jurisdiction Statutes 519

NOTE ON JUVENILE OFFENDERS AND FEDERAL

JURISDICTION 527

c. Implications of Federal Criminal Jurisdiction Statutes for Tribal

Jurisdiction 528

NOTES ON CONCURRENT TRIBAL JURISDICTION OVER

"MAJOR" CRIMES & DOUBLE JEOPARDY 531

Walker v. Rushing 535NOTES ON CONCURRENT TRIBAL CRIMINALJURISDICTION UNDER PUBLIC LAW 280 AND LIKESTATUTES 537

d. Criminal Jurisdiction, Policing and Extradition 539e. Problems : : 543

4. Federal Civil Jurisdiction 547a. Federal Jurisdiction to Tax and Regulate 547

Squire v. Capoeman 547Lazore v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue 551NOTES ON FEDERAL TAXATION OF TRIBES & TRIBAL

• MEMBERS • 556b. Federal Civil Adjudicative Jurisdiction 558

County ofOneida v. Oneida Indian Nation 558National Farmers Union Insurance Cos. v. Crow Tribe 561Iowa Mutual Insurance Co. v. LaPlante 564

xxiv

TABLE OF CONTENTSNOTES ON FEDERAL CIVIL JURISDICTION INVOLVING

INDIAN COUNTRY 568

5. Federal Executive Power & the Executive Trust Responsibility 579

a. The Bureau of Indian Affairs & the Administration of Federal Indian

Programs 579

United States v. Eberhardt 580

NOTES ON STATUTORY AUTHORITY FOR

ADMINISTRATIVE ACTION 581

b. The Trust Relationship 583

United States v. Mitchell 586

NOTES ON TRUST MISMANAGEMENT CLAIMS 594

United States v. White Mountain Apache Tribe 598

United States v. Navajo Nation 600

NOTE ON CURRENT MISMANAGEMENT CLAIMS 604

Cobell v. Norton 605

NOTE ON FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS IN THE COBELL

LITIGATION 612

Cobell v. Salazar 616

NOTE ON SETTLEMENT OF THE COBELL LITIGATION . . . 618

c. Conflicts of Interest Between Government Departments and the

Prospect of Equitable Relief 618

Nevada v. United States 619

NOTES ON INJUNCTIVE ENFORCEMENT OF THE TRUST . 630

B. STATE AUTHORITY IN INDIAN COUNTRY 634

1. Tribal Expectations 634

Cherokee Council, 1830 --. 634

George W. Harkins (Choctaw), Farewell Letter to the AmericanPeople, 1832 634Treaty With the Creek and Seminole Tribes 634NOTE ON TRIBAL EXPECTATIONS REGARDING STATEAUTHORITY 635

2. Early Approaches to Inherent State Power in Indian Country 636

NOTES 6363. Congressionally Authorized State Power in Indian Country 6424. The Modern Era 646

a. State Adjudicative Jurisdiction 648Williams v. Lee 648NOTES 650Joe v. Marcum 655NOTE ON ENFORCEMENT OF JUDGMENTS IN INDIAN

COUNTRY 659

XXV

TABLE OF CONTENTSTeague v. Bad River Band of Lake Superior Tribe of Chippewa

Indians 660

NOTES 669

b. State Taxing and Regulatory Jurisdiction 671

Washington v. Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation . . 671

NOTES 680

Central Machinery Co. v. Arizona State Tax Commission 688

White Mountain Apache Tribe v. Bracker 691

Cotton Petroleum Corp. v. New Mexico 699

NOTES ON STATE TAXING JURISDICTION 715

New Mexico v. Mescalero Apache Tribe 722

California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians 731

NOTES ON STATE JURISDICTION TO REGULATE 738

Mescalero Apache Tribe v. Jones 740

NOTES 742

Oklahoma Tax Commission v. Chickasaw Nation 747

NOTE 752

Chapter 5 JURISDICTION UNDER SPECIAL STATUTES 755

A. PUBLIC LAW 280 AND RELATED STATUTES 7571. Text and History 757

Carole E. Goldberg, Public Law 280: The Limits of State

Jurisdiction Over Reservation Indians 7582. Acquiring and Exercising State Jurisdiction Under Public Law 280 . . . 766

Bryan v. Itasca County 766

NOTES 7713. Concurrent Tribal and State Jurisdiction under Public Law 280 778

NOTES 7784. Practical Effects and the Future of Public Law 280 781

Carole Goldberg & Duane Champagne, Executive Summary, Final

Report: Law Enforcement andCriminal Justice Under Public Law . 782NOTE ON THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC LAW 280 784

B. ALASKA 7841. The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971 (ANCSA) 786

NOTES ON THE ALASKA NATIVECLAIMS SETTLEMENTACT 787

2. Indian Country and Tribal Government Jurisdiction 7883. Alaska Native Subsistence Rights 790

C. HAWAII 7921. The Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 1921 7932. The Hawaii State Constitution and the 1982 Amendments 795

xxvi

TABLE OF CONTENTS3. Ceded Lands Controversy 796

Hawaii v. Office of Hawaiian Affairs 797

4. Native Hawaiian Political Status and Legal Rights 802

NOTES ON NATIVE HAWAIIAN SOVEREIGNTY 805

D. INDIAN CHILD WELFARE ACT 806

1. Introduction 806

2. Jurisdiction and "Domicile" Under ICWA 808

Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield 808

NOTES 823

3. "Indian Child" Under ICWA 827

In ReA.J.S. 827

NOTES 834

4. "Good Cause" and Transfer of ICWA Cases from State to Tribal

Court 840

Bureau of Indian Affairs Guidelines for State Courts Indian Child

Custody Proceedings 840

NOTES ON TRANSFER OF CASES FROM STATE TO TRIBAL

COURT 842

5. ICWA and the Adoption and Safe Families Act 846

E. INDIAN GAMING REGULATORY ACT 847

1. The Jurisdictional Regime for Tribal Gaming 847

Kevin K. Washburn, Recurring Problems in Indian Gaming 848

Rumsey Indian Rancheria of Wintun Indians v. Wilson 851

Seminole Tribe of Florida v. Florida 860

NOTES 864

2. Business Disputes Related to Gaming 874

Bruce H. Lien Company v. Three Affiliated Tribes 875

NOTES ON TRIBAL GAMING DISPUTES 877

F. FEDERAL INDIAN LIQUOR CONTROL STATUTES 879

Rice v. Rehner 879

NOTES ON FEDERAL INDIAN LIQUOR CONTROL LAWS 884

G. FEDERAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS 886

1. Introduction: Tribal Perspectives on Economic Development and the

Environment 886John Echohawk, We Are Sovereign Peoples 886

2. The Basic Framework of Federal Environmental Law and Policy . . . . 888a. EPA's Indian Policy 889

EPA Policy for the Administration of Environmental Programs

on Indian Reservations 889b. Implications for Application of State Environmental Laws 891

Washington Department of Ecology v. EPA 891

xxvii

TABLE OF CONTENTSNOTES 894

3. Federal Laws Regulating Tribal Activities 895

a. Environmental Review Requirements 896

Davis v. Morton 896

NOTES ON FEDERAL ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEW

REQUIREMENTS 899

b. The Endangered Species Act in Indian Country 903

Secretarial Order #3206 904

NOTES ON TRIBES AND THE ENDANGERED SPECIES

ACT 907

4. Federal Protection for Tribal Environments and Economic Activities

from Non-Indian Economic Development 908

Wisconsin v. Environmental Protection Agency 908

NOTES ON TRIBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROLS

AFFECTING OFF-RESERVATION DEVELOPMENT 914

H. INTERGOVERNMENTAL AGREEMENTS 916

1. Why Enter into Intergovernmental Agreements? 916

National Congress of American Indians & National Conferenceof State Legislatures, Government to Government: Models of

Cooperation Between States and Tribes 917Interlocal Agreement for Deputization and Mutual Law EnforcementAssistance Between the Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indiansand the County of Emmet [Michigan] 919Cigarette Tax Contract Between the Squaxin Island Tribe and the

State of Washington 924NOTES ON TRIBAL-STATE INTERGOVERNMENTALAGREEMENTS 932

2. Authority to Enter Into Tribal-State Agreements 935Pueblo of Santa Ana v. Kelly 937

3. Enforcement Issues 938

Chapter 6 TRIBAL RIGHTS TO LAND & CULTURALRESOURCES 941

A. TRIBAL PROPERTY INTERESTS 943

1. Aboriginal Title 943United States ex rel. Hualpai Indians v. Santa Fe Pacific

Railroad Co 944State of Vermont v. Elliott 949NOTES ON ABORIGINAL TITLE 955

Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States 960Nell Jessup Newton, At the Whim of the Sovereign: Aboriginal Title

xxviii

TABLE OF CONTENTSReconsidered 967

NOTES 973

2. Recognized Title 975

United States v. Shoshone Tribe of Indians 975

United States v. Sioux Nation 978

NOTES ON RECOGNIZED TITLE 989

3. Executive Order Reservations 994

Sioux Tribe v. United States 995

NOTES 999

4. Placing Indian Land in Trust 1003

Carcieri v. Salazar 1006

NOTES ON LAND-INTO-TRUST AND CARCIERI 1020

5. Land Claims 1022

a. The Indian Claims Commission 1022

United States v. Dann 1024

NOTES ON THE DANN CASE AND THE INDIAN CLAIMS

COMMISSION 1028

b. Claims Under the Nonintercourse Act 1034

County ofOneida v. Oneida Indian Nation 1035

City ofSherrill, N.Y. v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York . . . . 1044

NOTES ON THE ONEIDA LITIGATION AND THE

NONINTERCOURSE ACT 1057

6. Allotted Lands 1063

Northern Cheyenne Tribe v. Hollowbreast 1063

Black Hills Institute of Geological Research v. South Dakota School

of Mines and Technology 1068

NOTES ON ALLOTTED LANDS 1070

Hodel v. Irving 1073Babbitt v. Youpee 1081NOTES ON FRACTIONATED ALLOTMENTS 1083

B. CULTURAL RESOURCES 10871. Sacred Sites & Religious Freedom 1087

Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association 1089Employment Division, Department of Human Resources of

Oregon v. Smith 1099

NOTES 11132. Cultural Property 1122

a. Tangible Cultural Property 1122Chilkat Indian Village v. Johnson 1123Chilkat Indian Village, IRA v. Johnson 1125United States v. Corrow 1129

xxix

TABLE OF CONTENTSNOTES ON TANGIBLE CULTURAL PROPERTY 1136

b. Intangible Cultural Property 1138

Rebecca Tsosie, Reclaiming Native Stories: An Essay on Cultural

Appropriation and Cultural Rights 1139

NOTES 1140

3. Protections for Native American Human Remains 1146

a. Exhumation of Human Remains 1148

Charrier v. Bell 1148

NOTES 1152

b. "Repatriation" and "Ownership" of Human Remains Under

NAGPRA 1156

Bonnichsen v. United States 1156

NOTES 1165

Chapter 7 THE OPERATION OF THE RESERVED RIGHTSDOCTRINE: HUNTING, FISHING, AND WATERRIGHTS 1169

A. HUNTING, FISHING, AND FOOD-GATHERING RIGHTS 1171

Aleck Paul (Chippewa), Our Stock of Food & Clothes 1171

1. On-Reservation Rights 1172

Menominee Tribe v. United States 1172

NOTES ON ON-RESERVATION HUNTING & FISHING

RIGHTS 1176

2. Off-Reservation Food-Gathering Rights 1186

United States v. Winans 1189

NOTES ON WINANS & ITS AFTERMATH 1192

Washington v. Washington State Commercial Passenger Fishing

Vessel Association 1197

NOTES ON OFF-RESERVATION FOOD GATHERING

RIGHTS 1209B. COMPETITION FOR CONTROL OF WATER 1219

1. Source, Quantity, and Use of Indian Water Rights 1220Winters v. United States 1220Arizona v. California 1222NOTES ON WINTERS RIGHTS 1224In re General Adjudication of All Rights To Use Water in Gila

River System and Source 1227NOTES ON WINTERS RIGHTS QUANTIFICATION 1235Arizona v. San Carlos Apache Tribe 1248NOTES ON STATE ADJUDICATION OFINDIAN WATERRIGHTS 1259

XXX

TABLE OF CONTENTS3. Water Rights of Allottees and Their Successors 1263

4. Water Rights Settlements as Alternatives to Litigation 1266Robert T. Anderson, Indian Water Rights: Litigation and

Settlements 1267NOTE ON INDIAN WATER SETTLEMENTS 1271

Table of Cases TC-1Index 1-1

XXXI