study unit - standard operating and maintenance procedures

Study Unit

Standard Operating andMaintenance ProceduresReviewed By

William Scannella

All terms mentioned in this text that are known to be trademarks or servicemarks have been appropriately capitalized. Use of a term in this text should notbe regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.

About the Reviewer

William Scannella has more than 25 years of experience in the PC

and information technology industry. He has worked as a help-desk

analyst, desktop support technician, software tester, and systems

analyst. Mr. Scanella has developed print and online documentation

and training for in-house developed and off-the-shelf systems. He

has a master’s degree in technical writing from Miami University

of Ohio.

Copyright © 2011 by Penn Foster, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright maybe reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic ormechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any informationstorage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copy-right owner.

Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to Copyright Permissions, Penn Foster, 925 Oak Street, Scranton,Pennsylvania 18515.

Printed in the United States of America

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Whether you’re a single user who

takes care of just your own comput-

er or a PC support technician who’s

responsible for many computers used

in a business, it’s important for you

to be able to maintain these devices

to provide efficient and error-free

operation.

In this study unit, you’ll learn about two types of maintenance

procedures associated with computer systems and peripherals.

Operating maintenance procedures help you keep a computer

running at peak efficiency, while hardware maintenance

procedures refer to the proper handling, cleaning, and phys-

ical upkeep of the PC and its attached devices.

When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to • Describe the organization of files, directories, and subdirectories

in a well-designed file structure

• List the types of files and directories commonly associatedwith each major operating system

• Explain how to locate and delete unneeded files from eachtype of operating system

• Describe disk fragmentation and discuss the process fordefragmenting the hard disk

• Describe the types of backups and how backups areaccomplished on each operating system

• List the guidelines and concerns involved with the installationof new application software

• Describe the purpose of virtual memory, how virtual memory is used, and how it’s controlled in the various operating systems

• Explain the benefits and procedures for installing operatingsystem updates and patches

v

FILE SYSTEM MAINTENANCE 1

Finding and Deleting Files 5Maintaining Removable Media 8Practical Exercise 1 11

DISK MAINTENANCE 13

Maintaining System Disks 13Making Backups 20Hard-Drive Care 23CD and DVD Drive Care 23Practical Exercise 2 25

SYSTEM MAINTENANCE 27

Optimizing Software Installation 27Tuning the Stand-Alone and Network Operating

Systems 28Testing Network Connectivity 31Maintaining System Control 32Testing Software and Components 33Troubleshooting Logs 34Maintaining System Documentation 34Practical Exercise 3 36

ANSWERS 39

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FILE SYSTEM MAINTENANCELet’s begin by examining the two key elements of a well-

designed file structure, which are good organization and

minimal size. As a PC repair technician, you’ll need to know

how to properly maintain a file system to achieve both ele-

ments. You’ll begin by learning how a file system should be

structured and the advantages gained from this structure.

Next, you’ll see how to identify unnecessary files that are

routinely created from Internet browsers and other programs

running on the PC and how to delete them. These files are

often temporary files that can take up a large amount of

disk space.

Here are some of the basics of a good file structure:

• Limit the root directory to a manageable number of

directories.

• Keep operating-system files out of the root directory and

in default directories suggested by the software supplier.

• Separate different versions of software into different

directories.

• Separate data files into different directories according to

their function.

• Assign different home directories for each user in an

organization.

• Group files with the same security needs together in the

same directory.

Standard Operating and MaintenanceProcedures

It’s easy to let the number of directories contained in the root

directory get out of hand. Software applications sometimes

install software in the root directory by default. Over time,

this can cause confusion. Therefore, it’s better for you to

create directories, within the root directory, specifically for

these files.

Different operating systems use different file structures and

types of files. Figure 1 shows an example of the file structure

for the Windows operating system.

Figure 2 shows the typical file structure for a UNIX operating

system.

Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures2

Main Volume

Applications AccountingMathCAD

AutoCAD

CorelQuattroWordperfect

PresentationCentral

Program Files Net MeetingWeb PublishWindows Messaging

Microsoft OfficeCommon Files

Windows

Utilities

FIGURE 1—Windows File Structure

BIN LIB USR VAR TMP DEV

Root

MNT ETC SBIN HOME PROC

FIGURE 2—UNIX File Structure

Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 3

The explanation for the directories in Figure 2 is as follows:

• bin—For user programs and utilities (binary files)

• lib—For libraries

• usr—For user files and programs

• var—For files in which the content often varies or for

temporary files

• tmp—For temporary files

• dev—For devices

• mnt—For floppy drives and removable media

• etc—For system and configuration files

• sbin—For user programs and utilities (system binary

files)

• home—For user’s home directories

• proc—For system resource tracking

Mac OS X systems use the following folders:

• Applications—For software applications

• Documents—For storing documents

• System—For system files

• Users—For user accounts

• Library—For library files

Normally, operating-system default directories are located

in the root directory. Subdirectories are then created under

each default directory as required. Table 1 shows the location

of default directories for different operating systems.

Leaving the operating system files in the default directories

is a good idea because it’s easier for support personnel to

find the files when they’re troubleshooting a system, because

many software applications expect them to be in a specific

location, and because the program works better when the

files are located where the software expects them.

Most Windows operating systems use a registry to keep track

of installed software. The registry contains configuration infor-

mation and the individual components of the application. This

makes it easier to uninstall or upgrade the software. Table 2 lists

examples of Windows-based software components.


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Finding and Deleting FilesFiles that are unnecessary or unneeded should be deleted

from the computer. These files can accumulate and take up a

large amount of space on your hard drive. These files can be

the temporary files that are created when you install new soft-

ware or the temporary files that are created by applications as

backups. These files aren’t always deleted after installation

is complete or when an application is closed improperly.

XP, Vista, and Windows 7

The Disk Cleanup Utility is accessed in XP, Vista, and

Windows 7 by this series of steps:

1. Click on Start. (In Vista and Windows 7, the Start menu

is now a globe icon in the lower-right portion of the

screen.)

2. Click on All Programs.

3. Click on Accessories.

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4. Click on System Tools.

5. Click on Disk Cleanup (Figure 3).

6. When you’ve made your selections, click the OK button

to proceed. The selected files will be removed from the

hard drive.

UNIX

Using the ls command and one or more options allows you to

view selected files. Options you can use include

• -a—Lists all files

• -C—Formats the listing in columns for easy reading

• -d—Lists directories

• -f—Displays files in an unsorted list

• -F—Identifies the directory contents on the basis of

directory, executable files, and symbolic links


FIGURE 3—The DiskCleanup Utility in Vista andWindows 7 shows you (1)the maximum amount ofspace to be reclaimed, (2) a list of data categories withfiles that can be deleted[with the amount of filespace taken up by each cat-egory on the right], (3) thetotal amount of file space to be gained from the datafiles selected, (4) an optionfor cleaning system filesonly, and (5) an option forviewing the files selected in (2).


• -i—Displays the inode number for each file

• -l—Presents a detailed information listing including

permissions and file size

• -n—Displays UIDs and GIDs of those who have access to

files

• -r—Sorts files in reverse alphabetical order

• -s—Displays the size of files (in kilobytes)

• -t—Displays files on the basis of the date they were last

modified

• -u—Displays files on the basis of the time they were last

modified

Files are deleted in UNIX by using the remove (rm) command.

Files can be found by using the Find command. Options used

with the Find command include

• -atime—For the last accessed time

• -ctime—For the last changed time

• -mtime—For the last modified time

• -name—For the filename

• -print—To print the results of the find

• -size—For the size

• -user—To delete files by ownership

Macintosh OS X

As with any operating system, Macintosh users should delete

unwanted files from the hard drive to assure that it doesn’t

run out of storage space. The current amount of free space is

shown at the bottom of every folder window. You can also see

a complete profile by selecting the hard drive icon and choos-

ing “Get info from the File menu.” The resulting panel shows

several data points, including capacity, usage, and available

space (Figure 4).


To clean up files on a Mac, simply select the desired

file icons with your mouse and drag them to the

Trash folder. You can also delete by highlighting a

file and pressing the Command and Delete keys

simultaneously. To empty the Trash, click on the

Finder menu and select Empty Trash . . . or

Secure Empty Trash. This last option performs

several erasures of the files to remove all traces.

Maintaining Removable MediaAs time passes, every computer user acquires a col-

lection of CDs, DVDs, and other removable storage

media. This collection can include data files such as

text or spreadsheet information, working backups

and archive files, as well as the original disks con-

taining software. These items should be organized

and maintained using some of the same principles

that we’ve discussed for hard drives. Now let’s look

at organizing and safeguarding your removable media.

Tips for Organizing Your Removable Media

In the same manner that you learned to organize

and create a logical hard-drive directory structure,

you should do the same with your removable media.

Good organization is especially important for remov-

able media because, in most cases, it may be a long

time before it’s needed. As time passes, the chances

that you’ll remember where you stored a particular

file will be somewhere from slim to none.

The first step in organizing your library of removable media

is to make a master list. The master list should itemize each

CD, describe its content, and tell where it’s located. The eas-

iest way to create a list is on your computer. This also makes

it easier for you to update the list and print a copy for use

later on.

FiGURE 4—Macintosh OS X Hard DriveInfo Panel


Another step you may want to consider is to arrange your

media by type and category when you store them. This might

be especially useful if you’re responsible for maintaining a

large volume of removable media in a business environment.

In this instance you might store backup files in one section,

utilities in another, application software in a third, and so on.

Although this involves more effort than putting disks into a

box, it’ll pay off by saving you and your clients a great deal of

time when looking for a specific CD.

If you’re storing information on disks or other removable

media, follow these steps to ensure good organization:

1. Store one type of information only or related information

on a CD.

2. Organize the information on each disk in a logical man-

ner using directories and subdirectories as applicable.

3. Label each disk clearly to include a brief description of

its content and the date it was created or last updated.

4. Print the content of each disk to show the files it

contains and store that printout with the disk.

Safeguarding Your Removable Media

While we’re on the subject of maintaining your data and

application software on removable media, we should also

discuss protecting removable media from physical damage.

Whereas your hard drive is somewhat protected by being

located inside the computer chassis, removable media is at

your mercy for proper handling and storage. By following a

few simple do’s and don’ts, you can be confident that your

stored data will be accessible when you need it.

The first rule to protecting your removable storage media

is to prevent it from being exposed to strong, direct sunlight.

Also avoid placing media near other sources of heat such as

on top of the monitor or near heaters. Remember to keep

disks away from magnets or sources of magnetic energy.

One easy and cost-effective way to protect removable media

from damage is to store the media in its original packaging. If

you’re responsible for storing large amounts of data such as

Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures

backups, you may want to consider any of a number of com-

mercially available storage systems, including lockable office

file drawers or cabinets. For storage of disks or other media

that you need to access frequently, you may want to obtain

a simple storage box and locate it conveniently near your

computer.

CDs and DVDs

Although the CD is much more reliable and durable than the

standard floppy disk, proper care must be taken in handling

and storage. Dirt, dust, and scratches on the disk surface

can cause the CD to become unreadable.

Dirt or dust on the surface of the CD is the most common

cause of failure. You can clean a dirty CD using a clean, dry,

lint-free cloth. Using a straight motion, wipe the disk surface

from the center outward (Figure 5). Complete this motion all

around the surface of the disk.

Scratches on the surface of a CD can often be removed by buff-

ing or polishing. For deep scratches, use a commercial plastic

cleaner such as one designed for cleaning plastic lenses. Lighter

scratches can be removed using a plastic polish, which has a

milder abrasive. However, if the CD works with the scratch, it

may be best just to ignore it rather than take any chance of

causing a problem. If you do attempt to remove a scratch, be

sure to wipe in a straight motion as previously described to

remove dirt and dust.

10

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FIGURE 5—Always clean a CD using a straightmotion (from the centeroutward) to ensure thattracks don’t trap any foreign matter.


Practical Exercise 1AUse the Disk Cleanup tool in XP, Vista, or Windows 7 to

delete temporary Internet files and temporary files created

by applications.

1. Close all active windows and programs.

2. Click Start (globe icon) and select in this order: All

Programs, Accessories, System Tools, Disk Cleanup.

3. Confirm that you’re clicked on the correct drive (listed

at the top of Disk Cleanup panel).

4. In the scrolling window under “Files to delete,” click on

Temporary Internet Files and Temporary Files.

5. Click the OK button.

6. Answer the question “Are you sure you want to perma-

nently delete these files?” by clicking on Delete Files.

Practical Exercise 1BFind and delete your temporary files in XP, Vista, or

Windows 7, then empty the Recycle Bin.

1. Close all active windows and programs.

2. Click Start (globe icon) and type *.tmp in the “Search

Programs and Files” field. The resulting list will be dis-

played in the panel above the Search field.

3. Click the file category title to display the individual files.

4. Highlight individual files or type Ctrl + A to select all of

the files.

5. Press the Delete key to move all selected files to the

Recycle Bin.

6. Locate the Recycle Bin on the desktop. Click to highlight

and then right-click.

7. Choose Empty Recycle Bin.

8. A box will appear with the question, “Are you sure you

want to permanently delete these items?” Click Yes.


Self-Check 1

At the end of each section of Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures, you’ll be askedto pause and check your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Self-Check”exercise. Answering these questions will help you review what you’ve studied so far. Pleasecomplete Self-Check 1 now.

1. What utility can be used in XP, Vista, or Windows 7 to find and delete temporary files createdby programs?

__________________________________________________________________________

2. The file extension .pnf is used for which file type?

a. Configuration c. OLE Common Controlb. Microsoft Common Console Document d. Precompiled Setup Information

3. True or False? In most directory structures, the directory that contains the operating systemis hidden in a remote subdirectory for security.

4. You use the Internet frequently. What simple step should you perform on a regular basis tomaintain your computer?

a. Configure your Internet browser to automatically delete all cookies.b. Reset the protocol binding order in the Internet browser to give IPX/IPX communications

priority, because accessing multiple sites can change the binding order.c. Check to make sure that your Internet browser speed is always maintained between 128

Kbps and 20 Mbps.d. Use your Internet browser to delete temporary files.

5. In the UNIX operating system, the _______ directory is used for system and configurationfiles.

Check your answers with those on page 39.


DISK MAINTENANCENow that we’ve looked at the fundamentals associated with

file system management, we’ll explain the procedures you

need to perform to keep a hard drive operating at peak

efficiency.

Maintaining System DisksThere are several other disk maintenance techniques that are

used to maintain a file structure and enhance disk perform-

ance. They include the following:

• Defragmenting disks

• Moving files to spread the load between multiple disks

• Using disk utilities to repair damaged files

• Using RAID techniques to extend the life of disks and

provide disk backup

Defragmenting Disks

When a computer is new, files are written on the hard drive

in contiguous order; that is, they’re placed next to each other

on the disk, with little wasted space between them (Figure 6).

Unused disk spaceFiles arranged contiguously

Hard Disk

FIGURE 6—The files represented here are written contiguously tothe disk (shadowed areasrepresents stored data,white space indicatesempty space).


As a computer is used, files are created and deleted, causing

empty spaces to appear between the files (Figure 7). The empty

spaces cause the disk to become fragmented.

There are two problems that can arise from a fragmented

hard drive. They are:

1. An increase in time needed to find and access files on

the hard drive

2. A greater possibility of a disk failure

Defragmenting a hard disk will reorganize the files and data

on the disk and eliminate the wasted empty spaces between

individual files. There are two ways to defragment a hard drive.

The first involves making a backup of the drive’s contents and

then performing a full restore. The second way, which is easier

than doing a backup and full restore, is to use disk defragment-

ing utility software. Most operating systems come with a utility

that will defragment the hard drive. Hard drives in servers have

greater data fragmentation than that of an individual worksta-

tion, and because of this should have regularly scheduled

defragmentation routines run.

Unused spaceNew file orredistributed data

Hard disk

FIGURE 7—A FragmentedDisk


You may encounter trouble defragmenting (commonly called

defragging) if other programs are open during the process.

If you still have trouble completing a defrag after exiting all

other programs, try running your computer in Safe mode.

This is a mode specifically provided by Windows for trou-

bleshooting purposes. In Safe mode, no other programs are

running in the background but the OS and drivers. Thus,

there isn’t anything to interfere with cleanup procedures.

Putting your computer in Safe mode is relatively simple. Reboot,

and be ready to press the F8 key before the screen appears

that prompts you for your password. (If you’re not sure exactly

when to press F8, tapping the key continuously as the PC

boots should do the trick.) This will take you to the Startup

menu. On the Startup menu screen, use the arrow key to

select Safe mode. Once you’re in Safe mode, you’ll see the

system designating this in each corner of the screen. Defragging

while the PC is in Safe mode shouldn’t present any problems.

When your disk has been defragmented, reboot to bring the

system back to “Normal” mode.

You can access the Disk Defragmenter in the Windows

operating system (Figure 8). Click on Start, then select All

Programs, Accessories, System Tools, and then the Disk

Defragmenter. Next, select the drive you want to defragment

and click OK or Defragment Disk.

In Vista and Windows 7, the defragmenter utility is extensively

automated and designed to run in the background without the

full graphical interface found in XP and previous versions of

Windows.

Some versions of UNIX come with a defragmenting tool. But the

effectiveness of these tools is limited since they don’t rearrange

files. Third-party software is available with full defragmenting

utilities for UNIX.

The Mac OS is designed to limit fragmentation and has no

defragmenting utility included. Even so, third-party software

is available with full defragmenting utilities for the Mac OS.


Relocating Files to Distribute the Load

Files can be distributed across several hard drives to extend

the life of individual drives. This would be especially true for

computers that have multiple users and high disk activity,

such as servers. System activity can be monitored in XP,

Vista, and Windows 7 by using the Computer Management

tool (Figure 9). Right-click My Computer or Computer,

then click Manage and Shared Folders under System Tools

to access the utility.

FIGURE 8—Disk Defragmenter


Using Disk Utilities to Repair Damaged Files

Some operating systems have utilities that allow you to

repair damaged files. Some examples of these tools are

• Disk Utility in Mac OS X

• chkdsk and p_chkdsk in UNIX

• chkdsk in XP, Vista, and Windows 7

The Mac OS X Disk Utility allows users to verify and repair

a disk or volume, repair and verify disk permission, and

restore from a disk image. It’s found in the Utilities folder

in the Applications directory.

The chkdsk utility in UNIX checks files for errors. If it finds any,

it gives you the option to fix it or ignore it. The p_chkdsk utility

in some UNIX versions will check two or more file systems

simultaneously instead of one at a time as chkdsk does.

FIGURE 9—Computer Management Tool


The chkdsk utility runs from within a Command prompt win-

dow in XP, Vista, and Windows 7. You’ll need to access the

prompt window as an administrator (Figure 10).

Chkdsk can find and attempt to repair

• Damage to the root directory or to another directory

• Problems with the directory structure that can cause

chkdsk to be unable to process the full tree

• Indexes

• Security descriptors

• Unallocated disk space

• Files that share the same allocation units

• A file pointer to an allocation unit that doesn’t exist

• Files assigned more allocation units than they require

• Directories without entries

• Damaged directories that can’t be repaired

FIGURE 10—Outputfrom Running Chkdsk


• A full root directory

• Unreadable disk sectors

• Damaged subdirectory entries

• File Allocation Table entry problems, or a damaged File

Allocation Table

• Allocation units that contain partial information, but

have no links to files

• Bad file attributes

Using RAID Techniques

Using a redundant array of inexpensive drives (RAID) is a

technique used by server operating systems for increasing

reliability, storage capacity, and speed. RAID can also be

used to extend the life of hard drives by a process called disk

striping. The load is spread evenly across a set of drives, which

means that each individual drive will experience the same

amount of use, rather than having one drive doing the major-

ity of the work. Table 3 shows the six basic levels of RAID.

There are two ways to employ RAID: hardware RAID and soft-

ware RAID. Hardware RAID is controlled by its own adapter

that has a chip with RAID software. Software RAID is controlled

by the server operating system and is slower than hardware

RAID.


Making BackupsIt’s important to make backups of the files on your hard drive

on a regular basis. Hard drives can fail, files and data can be

lost or corrupted, and database files can lose synchronization.

It’s a good plan to have a strong backup strategy in place.

Automatic backup software is included with most operating

systems. The different types of backups available are listed

in Table 4.

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Backups with XP, Vista, and Windows 7

These three versions of Windows have slightly different

approaches to the backup process. Yet all share the same

goal: keeping your data safe from user error, hardware fail-

ure, and other problems. Each version also allows you to

perform both full and partial backups as well as restore

backed-up information.

XP. Windows XP uses a Wizard-based approach to leading

users through the backup process.

1. Click Start and move the cursor over All Programs.

2. Go to Accessories > System Tools and then click

Backup on the All Programs menu.

3. Click the Advanced Mode link on the first screen of the

Backup and Restore Wizard.

4. In the Backup Utility dialog box, click the Automated

System Recovery Wizard button. The Wizard will lead

you through the process of creating a backup file

(backup.bkf).

Vista. Windows Vista introduced the Backup and Restore

Center, which allows you to manage all backup and restore

features in one place. Depending on your version of Windows

Vista, there are two approaches you can take to backing up

files: (1) automatic backup, which backs up only your files and

data, or (2) complete PC backup, which backs up everything on

your PC, including the operating system and applications.

Windows 7. Windows 7 expands on the Backup and Restore

Center approach by offering more control over the content of

the backup. This utility is reached through the Control Panel

(Figure 11).

1. Click the Start globe, select Control Panel, and then

click on Backup and Restore.

2. You then may need to set up your backup and configure

the external media that will contain the backed-up data.

3. Next, select what you wish to back up. You can let

Windows choose, or you can select individual folders

and drives yourself.

Windows 7 also allows you to set up scheduled backups.


Backups with UNIX

The two utilities in UNIX for backing up data are volcopy and

dump. Volcopy places a binary copy that’s an exact copy of

the disk onto a backup medium. You have to provide specific

information about the length and density of the data to be

backed up. The dump utility is used for full or partial file-by-

file backups, called dumps, and can back up

• All files

• Files that have changed by date

• Files that have changed after the last backup

FIGURE 11—The Backup and Restore Utility


Hard-Drive CareMost of the following hard-drive precautions are related to the

way in which the hard drive operates. You may recall that

when the drive isn’t in use, the read/write heads are held

against the platters or disks in an area not used for data

storage. When the drive is operating, air pressure develops

below the heads and causes them to float as little as 3 to 5

microinches above the surface of the disks. With such a small

space between the heads and the disks, even bumping the PC

slightly can cause the head to contact the disk. Any contact

may, at the very least, result in a loss of data or, even worse,

permanently damage the disk, making that segment unusable.

Another point to remember is that although the hard drive

filters the air entering the drive, very small particles in the

air, such as cigarette smoke, can cause premature disk failure.

High humidity is also an enemy of hard drives. In humid areas

such as a basement, dampness will eventually enter the hard

drive and condense on the heads and disks. Humidity is espe-

cially a problem with laptops or portable systems, which may

be outside for periods of time, perhaps in the cold trunk of a

car. When they’re brought inside, the warmer surroundings

can cause condensation to form.

Remember that hard drives are sealed units that can’t be

cleaned or repaired. The length of time that they provide

trouble-free operation depends largely on their environment

and how they’re treated.

CD and DVD Drive CareCD and DVD drives are very reliable devices. Many of the

problems encountered with CD or DVD drives are usually the

result of a problem with the removable disk itself. If a prob-

lem occurs, you should try other disks in the drive. If other

disks work satisfactorily, the problem is with the first disk.

Inspect the disk and try cleaning it using the procedures

we’ve already discussed. If errors occur on several disks,

the read lens in the drive may need to be cleaned.

Try using a CD-

drive cleaning disk

or CD cleaning kit

to clear up the

problem (Figure 12).

Simply follow the

instructions that

come with the disk.

If errors still occur

after using the

cleaning disk, you

may need to manu-

ally clean the read

lens by removing

the CD drive from

the PC.

Although the design may vary slightly from drive to drive, use

the following general steps to clean the read lens:

1. Remove the drive’s case by either removing four to six

screws or bending out the metal retaining tabs. If tabs

are used, take care when bending out the tabs as they’re

very brittle and may snap off.

2. Locate the read lens, which is directly located under the

caddy that the CD rests in while installed in the drive.

3. Give the lens a few blasts of canned air to remove any

dirt and dust.

4. Reassemble the drive and install it back into the

computer.

5. Test the drive to see if the problem has been resolved. If

the problem still exists, replace the drive.

DVD drives operate on the same principles as a CD. Use the

same general cleaning procedures discussed above to clean a

DVD drive.


FIGURE 12—CD cleaningkits/washers like this oneare relatively inexpensiveand often very effective inkeeping disks clean.


Practical Exercise 2ATo start Disk Fragmenter in Windows XP:

1. Click on Start > All Programs > Accessories > System

Tools > Disk Defragmenter.

2. Click on the icon for drive C:.

3. Click on the Analyze button. The window will show the

progress of your analysis.

4. When the analysis is complete, click the Defragment

button.

5. Observe the progress of the routine, noting the stages of

analysis, defragmentation, and consolidation.

To start Disk Defragmenter in Vista or Windows 7:

1. Click on the Start globe, then All Programs > Access-

ories > System Tools > Disk Defragmenter.

2. Select drive C: in the Select Drive dialog box, then click

on Yes.

3. Click on Start.

4. Click on Show details to see the step-by-step sequence

of defragmentation.

5. Click on the Legend button to see an interpretation of

the color-coded activities.

6. Click on Yes to exit when the process is complete.

Practical Exercise 2BPerform a ScanDisk-type repair in Vista and Windows 7. Note:

These versions don’t have the same ScanDisk interface as in

previous Windows versions.

1. Click on the Start globe and select Computer from the

list on the right.

2. Right-click on the icon for drive C:.

3. Select Properties from the drop-down box.

4. Click on the Tools tab.

5. Click on the Check Now button under “Error Checking.”


6. Click the box for Automatically fix file system errors.

7. Click Start. A message box displays saying that Windows

can’t check the disk while it’s in use and gives you the

option to schedule a Disk Check the next time the com-

puter starts.

9. Click the button to Schedule Disk Check.

10. Restart your computer.

11. Disk Check will run.

26

Self-Check 2

1. Performing a complete backup and then fully restoring a disk is one way to eliminate _______.

2. True or False? Since UNIX has no built-in tools to repair corrupted files and directories, youmust perform a complete system installation in these situations.

3. List three backup options for Windows XP.

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

4. An XP workstation hard drive seems to be laboring to find files, possibly because you addedor deleted hundreds of files without performing any special disk maintenance. To improvethe system’s performance you should

a. do a virus scan. c. defragment the hard drive.b. back up the hard drive. d. clean the hard drive.

5. True or False? A binary image backup enables you to quickly restore selected files from anentire backup.



SYSTEM MAINTENANCELet’s continue by learning about techniques you can use to

enhance the performance of your computer system.

Optimizing Software InstallationAs we discussed earlier, one aspect of software installation is

to plan and set up a well-organized directory structure. The

following are additional guidelines for software installation.

1. Ensure the software is compatible with the operating

system.

2. Check the system requirements of the software to make

sure the computer is capable of running the software.

3. Check to see if there are different installation options,

such as one with or without tutorials, to help you learn

the software.

4. Determine if there are programs that attempt to directly

manage hardware and peripherals.

5. Use the utility provided by the operating system to install

software.

6. Check the vendor’s “bug list” to make sure there aren’t

any known problems that will impact the way you’ll use

the software.

7. Make sure the software is well documented and supported

by the vendor.

8. Determine if running the program requires adjustments

to page or swap files used by the operating system.

9. With Windows-based software, always install the latest

versions of components, including .dll, ocx, .ini, .inf, and

.drv files.

10. Never mix .inf and .drv files between different versions of

Windows. Doing so may negatively impact other software

on the computer and make it inoperable.

11. Always keep service patches up-to-date for all software.


Installing software on a network requires some additional

considerations:

• Make sure there are enough licenses to match the number

of users or that you have software that limits the number

of users to the number of licenses.

• Determine the network load created by software.

• Consider purchasing management software that can auto-

matically update system-wide software when there’s a new

release.

• Determine if the software will be loaded from the server

each time it’s used, or if it will be installed permanently

on the workstations.

• For operating systems that support two or more file sys-

tems, make sure the software is compatible with the file

system used by the operating system.

Tuning the Stand-Alone and NetworkOperating SystemsOnce you’ve installed the operating system, you may find

that it’s not performing as well as you thought it would. Or,

after you use it for a while, you might notice a drop-off in its

performance. Tuning the operating systems of workstations

and servers is an efficient and cost-effective way to improve

system performance. Some of the ways to tune operating sys-

tems are tuning virtual memory, installing operating system

updates and patches, and tuning for optimum network com-

munications.

Tuning Virtual Memory

Virtual memory is disk storage space that’s used when there

isn’t enough RAM for a particular operation or series of oper-

ations. When a computer needs more physical memory than

it has installed, it can take low-priority data from RAM and

place it in virtual memory on the hard drive, thereby freeing

up space in RAM. Low-priority data is swapped back to RAM

28


when it’s needed. Data that moves back and forth between

virtual memory and RAM is called paging or a swap file.

Paged memory is used to extend the real physical memory of

the machine by copying blocks of data from the memory to a

drive. That way, you can run many programs simultaneously

even if they consume more physical memory than your com-

puter has. When a program requires an access of data that is

“paged to disk,” the operating system will read this data into

memory.

Some operating systems allow you to control the swap file by

adjusting its size, resulting in better performance. Macintosh

OS X automatically adjusts virtual memory on your hard drive

based on available installed RAM and the requirements of

running applications. In UNIX, you can use the vmstat utility

to monitor paging or swap files.

In Windows XP, it’s possible to set a mini-

mum and a maximum size for a swap file.

When sizing the swap file, the rule of thumb

is to set the minimum amount equal to the

amount of RAM installed, plus 12 mega-

bytes. The maximum size should allow for

adequate growth to handle times of high

activity. You can monitor RAM and the swap

file size through Windows’ Task Manager or

System Monitor. Under the Performance tab,

click the Change button to access this feature.

In Vista and Windows 7, Windows sets the

initial size of the virtual memory paging file.

The minimum is equal to the amount of

installed RAM, and the maximum is three

times the amount of RAM. These versions of

Windows can automatically manage virtual

memory, but you have the option to increase

the size manually (Figure 13). Here are the

steps:

1. Click the Start globe > Control Panel >

System Settings.

2. In the left pane, click Advanced System Settings.

3. In the Advanced tab under “Performance,” click Settings.

FIGURE 13—You can let Vista or Windows 7 auto-matically mange the paging file or set a custom size.


4. Click the Advanced tab, and then, under Virtual Memory,

click Change.

5. Uncheck the Automatically manage paging file size for

all drives check box.

6. Under Drive [Volume Label], click the drive that contains

the paging file you want to change.

7. Click the Custom size radio button, type a new size in

megabytes in the Initial size (MB) or Maximum size (MB)

box, click Set, and then click OK.

Installing Operating System Updates and Patches

Often, operating system problems aren’t discovered until

after the product has been released and actually used by

people. As a result, vendors create updates and patches

to solve these problems. Some software products, such as

Microsoft’s XP, Vista, and Windows 7 include tools to down-

load these updates and patches. You can also contact the

software vendor by phone or visit their Web site to obtain

their latest updates and patches.

Be aware that some updates and patches can cause problems

after they’re installed. When this occurs, you can use the

System Restore feature in XP, Vista, and Windows 7 to set

the system back to its pre-update or pre-patch condition.

Tuning Network Communications

For networked computers, it’s important to ensure that their

connection to the network is tuned and optimized. Check to

make sure the cables and connectors that form the connection

are in good working condition. Make sure the connector to the

Network Interface Card (NIC) is tight and that the card is

plugged into the fastest expansion slot, such as the PCI slot,

in an Intel-based computer. Make sure you download and

install the latest updates and patches for the NIC.

If your network seems to be running very slowly, consider

changing the order of network protocol bindings. Windows

attempts to communicate with services by using network

protocols in the order specified in Network Connections. To

make network communications faster, you can reorder the


protocols in this list from “most used” to “least used.” Usually,

TCP/IP will be the most used protocol. (If you’re using only

the TCP/IP protocol, you don’t need to make any changes.)

You must be logged on as an administrator to perform these

steps:

1. Open Network Connections by clicking the Start globe >

Control Panel > Network and Internet > Network and

Sharing Center > Manage network connections.

2. Press the ALT key, click the

Advanced menu, and then

click Advanced Settings.

If you’re prompted for an

administrator password or

confirmation, type the infor-

mation accordingly.

3. Click the Adapters and

Bindings tab, and then

under “Connections:,” click

on the connection you wish

to modify (Figure 14).

4. Under “Bindings for <connec-

tion name>,” select the protocol

that you wish to move up or

down in the list. Then click

the up or down arrow button,

and click OK.

Testing NetworkConnectivityThere are times when it may be necessary to check the network

to see if it’s working correctly. TCP/IP-based networks have a

protocol called Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) to do

this. With this protocol, you can poll another network device

with something called the ping utility, to see if it’s working.

Ping can tell if there are network problems or if one network

isn’t communicating with another. All versions of Windows

support ping. It’s also available in UNIX and the Mac OS X.

At the command line, enter the ping command plus the IP

FIGURE 14—Vista and Windows 7 Binding Order Panel


address of the device you want to poll. If you receive an

answer showing the device’s address along with other infor-

mation, it indicates your computer’s connection is working

properly (Figure 15).

Maintaining System ControlIf you’re responsible for maintaining multiple PCs, such as

those in a business environment, it’s important for you to

prevent any unauthorized use of hardware and software.

Otherwise, when you’re called in to fix a problem, you’ll find

it much more difficult if you’re unaware of any software

changes or hardware modifications that have been made.

As users become more competent and familiar with their

systems, there’s a tendency for them to explore new program

features and hardware settings. Unless you’re a glutton for

punishment, you should discourage users from such explo-

ration. One user making a small change can have far-reaching

consequences, especially when his or her computer connects

to a network environment.

Some of the more common experiments users like to perform

on hardware and software are

• Changing printer settings

• Changing fonts

• Compressing files

32

FIGURE 15—ScreenShowing Ping Command and Results IndicatingConnectivity


• Running performance-enhancing utilities

• Changing display attributes

• Changing communication settings

• Changing application default settings

In light of this, however, users must be allowed to make rea-

sonable changes to their computer systems. It’s up to you to

communicate with users what types of changes they may make

and what areas are off limits. When you’re called to fix a prob-

lem, it’s a good idea to always ask users if any changes were

made recently or any activity performed that’s not a normal

part of their day-to-day routine. Obtaining this information

before attempting to fix what you might consider a routine

problem may save you a lot of time.

Testing Software and ComponentsAt the beginning of each day, you should operate all of the

components in the system to test them. One benefit of this is

that it keeps all moving parts lubricated in the mechanical

devices such as printers and scanners. However, and more

importantly, it lets you know if a problem has developed before

you actually need a particular device or system component for

a critical function. In a networked environment, the failure

of one device or component can affect many users.

Another time that you should test equipment is after you’ve

installed new hardware or software, or made any system modi-

fications. Sometimes, installing even the most straightforward

upgrade can cause hardware/software conflicts. For example,

the new version of a program could contain new device drivers.

Therefore, the best rule to follow is that whenever you upgrade,

modify, or install new hardware or software, always test the

system thoroughly. In some cases, you may find that you

need to make some adjustments or configuration changes

before the system operates correctly.

Troubleshooting LogsIf you’re involved in a situation where you’re responsible for

maintaining many computers, you should consider using

troubleshooting logs. Whenever you work on any piece of

equipment, whether it’s a computer or a printer, you should

originate a troubleshooting log for that device. Logs like the

one shown in Table 5 allow you to easily see all of the main-

tenance activity performed on the device. This can help you

with recurring or intermittent problems by showing you what

has already been tried to resolve the problem. In a large busi-

ness where more than one person is apt to work on a PC,

troubleshooting logs are essential to provide effective trou-

bleshooting and to eliminate duplication of effort.

Maintaining System DocumentationWe’ve made reference to the importance of saving your docu-

mentation for all components of your PC, both hardware and

software. Documentation should be stored in a safe place and

organized for quick reference. If you’re maintaining documenta-

tion for a large number of PCs, components, and systems, the

job of organizing the documentation becomes more difficult,

and at the same time, more important.


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Read Me Files

One component of documentation that’s often overlooked

is the Read Me file that often comes with new hardware and

software. The Read Me file is a file that contains updated or

corrected installation and operating information about the

product that’s usually not contained in the printed manual.

It’s imperative that you read this information. If you choose

to ignore the information in the Read Me file, you’re opening

yourself up to problems in installing or using the hardware

or software.

Never delete a Read Me file, even though it doesn’t contain

any information of immediate importance. There’s always the

possibility that you’ll need it in the future. For example, if

you upgrade your system, or in some other way change the

configuration, the Read Me file may help you to resolve any

problems that may result. A good practice is to print a copy

of the Read Me file and keep it with the appropriate docu-

mentation. You might also use the hard copy to highlight

any significant information about your particular setup or

to add important notes or reminders.

Inventory List

Another type of information that can be very useful, particularly

with many pieces of equipment to keep track of, is an inventory

list. On the list, you should record

• Each hardware and software component

• The registration or identification number

• The date the item was purchased

• Any warranty information

• The manufacturer’s help line telephone number

Whenever you discover a problem with a component, such

as an adapter card or a graphic program, you won’t have to

locate and search the documentation for information. You

can simply refer to the list to get the help line telephone

number and other information required for authorization

and access to the technical support you need.


Practical Exercise 3ASearch your hard drive and/or disks that came with hardware

or software products for Read Me files. Open a few of the files

to see what type of information they contain.

Practical Exercise 3BView the virtual memory information in XP, Vista, and

Windows 7.

1. Right-click on the Taskbar.

2. Click Start Task Manager.

3. Click the Performance tab in Windows Task Manager.

4. Note the graphic display of CPU usage and memory.

5. In the lower-left corner under Kernel Memory (MB),

note the amount of memory that’s paged (virtual)

and the amount of memory that’s nonpaged.

36


Self-Check 3

1. What is the purpose of the ping utility?

__________________________________________________________________________

2. True or False? Mac OS X automatically adjusts virtual memory based on available RAM andprogram requirements.

3. A computer uses _______ memory when there’s insufficient RAM for an operation.

4. What is the other name used for paging?

__________________________________________________________________________

5. True or False? In Windows XP, you can optimize the network binding order as a way toimprove network performance.


NOTES


39

An

sw

er

sA

ns

we

rs

Self-Check 1

1. Disk Cleanup

2. d

3. False

4. d

5. etc

Self-Check 2

1. fragmentation

2. False

3. Normal, Incremental, and Daily

4. c

5. False

Self-Check 3

1. The ping utility is used to test network connectivity.

2. True

3. virtual

4. The other name for paging is a swap file.

5. True

study unit - standard operating and maintenance procedures

Documents

disk maintenance

system control

system documentation

system disks

retrieval system

types of files

network operating systems

testing software