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International Journal of Management and Social Sciences Research (IJMSSR) ISSN: 2319-4421 Volume 2, No. 5, May 2013

i-Xplore International Research Journal Consortium www.irjcjournals.org

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Study on Individual, Interpersonal and Organizational Factors

That Influence Occupational Stress among Higher Secondary

Teachers in Madurai District, Tamil Nadu

Dr. S. S. Jeyaraj, Business Studies Lecturer, Department of Commerce and Accounting, International Universal (Junior

College), Jakarta, Indonesia.

Dr. K. Ramamoorthy, Professor and Head (Rtd.,), Department of Commerce, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai,

Tamil Nadu, India.

ABSTRACT

A study on Individual, Interpersonal and Organizational

Factors that influences occupational stress was carried

out among Higher Secondary Teachers in Madurai, Tamil

Nadu State, India. There were three organizational factors

that were measured; individual, interpersonal and

organisational. A total of 305 teachers participated in this

study, 185 were from the Aided Schools and 120 from the

government schools. The prevalence of stress was found

higher in the Higher Secondary Teachers in Aided Schools

with the percentage of 17.70%compared to the

government Higher Secondary Teachers of 15.80%. The

Varimax Rotated Principal component was conducted for

this present study to measure the stress factors among the

teachers. All three factors were significantly associated

with occupational stress of Higher Secondary Teachers,

particularly the following variables affect the performance

of the Aided Higher Secondary Teachers: Teachers cannot

express their ability and competency independently,

Teachers unable to realize the feelings of the colleagues,

The overall school climate and Occupation do not

enhance the teacher’s social status whereas the

performance of the Government Higher Secondary

Teachers was affected by these factors; Teachers cannot

express their ability and competency independently, Lack

of human relations among the teachers, School is

understaffed and There is no enough interaction between

the teachers’ career and other occupation. Management of

Aided Higher Secondary Schools and Government School

should introduce stress prevention programmes to assist in

occupational stress management.

Keywords:

Organizational factors, individual factors, interpersonal

factors, job stress, Social Factors

INTRODUCTION

To a scientist, stress is any action or situation that places

special physical or psychological demands upon a person,

anything that can unbalance his individual equilibrium.

And while the physiological response to such demand is

surprisingly uniform, the forms of stress are innumerable.

Stress may be even but unconscious like the noise of a city

or the daily chore of driving the car. Perhaps the one

incontestable statement that can be made about stress is

that it belongs to everyone, to businessmen and professors,

to mother and their children, to factory workers. Stress is a

part of fabric of life. Nothing can isolate stress from

human beings as is evident from various researches and

studies. Stress can be managed but not simply done away

with. Today, widely accepted ideas about stress are

challenged by new research, and conclusions once firmly

established may be turned completely around. Some stress

is necessary to the well being and a lack can be harmful.

Stress definitely causes some serious ailments. Severe

stress makes people accident-prone.

DEFINITION

The word „stress‟ was first introduced into the fields of

biology and medicine in 1926 by an Australian

endocrinologist, Hans Selye, working in Montreal in

Canada. He first introduced the concept of stress in 1939

and was popularly used in the seventeenth century and

derived from Latin word to mean „Hardship‟ „Strait‟,

„Adversity‟ or „Affliction‟. His concept of stress at that

time was a physiological one and throughout his life the

psychological component of the phenomenon of stress was

not so much ignored by him, as placed in a secondary, and

to some degree, less important place in the total picture of

human stress. Selye in his most recent definition states that

stress is the “non-specific response of the body to any

demand”.

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS

Occupational stress refers to an individual‟s reaction to a

disturbing factor in the environment. It is defined as an

adaptive response to an external situation that results in

physical, psychological, and/or behavioural deviations for

organisational participants.

Occupational stress can manifest itself in both positive and

negative ways. Occupational stress is said to be positive



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when the situation offers an opportunity for one to gain

something. Eustress is the term used to describe positive

stress and is often viewed as a motivator since, in its

absence; the individual lacks that „edge‟ necessary for

peak performance. It is negative when stress is associated

with heart disease, alcoholism, drug abuse, marital

breakdowns, absenteeism, child abuse, and a host of other

social, physical, organisational and emotional

problems.“Occupational stress can be defined as the

harmful physical and emotional response that occurs when

the requirements of the occupation do not match the

capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker.

Occupational stress can lead to poor health and even

injury”.1

According to the article titled „Guidance on Work Related

Stress: Spice of life- or kiss of death” “stress is the

reaction people have to excessive pressures or other types

of demand placed on them”.2

There is a lack of generally accepted definition of what is

meant by occupational stress. Hans Selye the father of

stress management himself wrote that, stress suffers from

the mixed blessing of being too well known and too little

understood. However, the term has commonly been

defined in one of the three ways: (a) as an environmental

stimulus, (b) as an individual‟s psychological or

physiological response to such an environmental force, or

(c) as the interaction between the two.

REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES

Selye (1956)3 “any external event or internal drive which

threatens to upset the organic equilibrium” is stress. He

has defined stress as the non-specific response of the body

to any demand made upon it.

Lazarus (1960)4 maintains that “stress occurs when there

are demands on the person which tax or exceed his

adjustments resources”. According to Caplan, Cobb,

French, Van Harrison and Pinneau (1975)5, stress refers to

“any characteristic of the job environment which is a

threat to the individual. According to Kyriacou (1987),

defines “teacher stress as the experience by a teacher of

unpleasant emotions such as tension, frustration, anger and

depression resulting from aspects of his work as a

teacher.”

Occupational stress is generally seen to have two major

components. Stressors and stress responses are internal or

external stimulus events which cause some sort of

response. Internal stressors include thoughts and feelings,

external stressors include such things as noise, cold and

interactions with other people. Stress response is a

complex reaction to a stressor. It usually has physiological

cognitive and/or behavioural components.

All people experience stress in their lives and it is not

necessarily negative. It has always been a part of every

profession. When appropriate response is made, it

provides the impetus to motivate a person into action.

„Haris Cycle‟ the father of stress research calls the positive

stress Eustress. He calls the negative effect of stress as

distress. However researchers interested in the effect of

stress propose, that excessive stress experience is

associated with the development of number of health

disorders. While trying to understand the subject of

contemporary stress, it is necessary to consider the overall

factors, which to a greater or lesser degree affect our peace

of mind.

Occupational stress can result either from work and origin

related or individual personality related factors.

Occupational stress has been defined in terms, of misfit

between a person‟s skills and abilities, and the demand of

his/her job or misfit between person‟s needs not being

fulfilled by his/her job environment. Cooper and Marshall

(1976)6 are of the view that organisational stress basically

means environmental factors or stressors such as work

load, role conflict, role ambiguity and poor working

conditions associated with a particular job. Regardless of

how one‟s job may compare to another in terms of stress,

it is helpful to recognise that every job has potential.

Cooper and Marshall (1988)7 have identified sources of

occupational stress at work. It may be mentioned here that

although common to all jobs, the sources vary in degree to

which they are found to be casually linked to stress in each

job. The experience of stress can be divided into three

constituents; the emotional response, the physical

response; and the behavioural response.

SCHOOL TEACHERS STRESS

The education system provides scope for understanding

several major socio-economic changes affecting the

society that include global economic integration, national

economic reforms, changing demographic pattern,

increased schools, enrolment, reduced drop-out rate, social

norms favouring women and weaker sections, increasing

environmental consciousness, changing family finances,

demands of labour market and so on. In many countries

college teacher‟s job is often considered as one of the most

stressful occupation. However, higher secondary teachers‟

occupational stress is a much talked of phenomenon.

Based on a review of international research, it is

concluded that teacher occupational stress is a real

phenomenon and that high levels are reliably associated

with a range of casual factors, including those intrinsic to

teaching, individual vulnerability and systematic

influences. Limitations with the current research base of

teacher occupational stress are identified. The higher

secondary teacher is to go on periodic self-decreased

vacations in the form of absenteeism. School teachers are



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no exception to this. The individuals entering into teaching

field are professionals. They enter into professions and

then they professionalise themselves and so they find

themselves at loggerheads. Symptoms of stress take a long

time to erupt. Once it erupts, it not only affects the

individual concerned but also the co-workers through

strained interpersonal relations and ultimately affects the

students‟ education which forms the very core for the

success of education department. Hence occupational

stress situations and their perceived impact on higher

secondary school teachers are taken up for the present

study. The researcher has made an attempt to study the

occupational stress among higher secondary school

teachers of Madurai district.

OBJECTIVES

1. To identify the factors of occupational stress among

the higher secondary teachers of government and

Aided schools and

2. To offer suitable suggestions to reduce occupational

stress among the higher secondary school teachers.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The present study is confined to the analysis of

occupational stress factors among higher secondary school

teachers and does not include the partly aided, Adi-

dravidar welfare, Kallar reclamation and unaided higher

secondary school teachers.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Primary data were collected from the higher secondary

school teachers including head masters using structured

interview schedule method. Secondary data were collected

from the educational office records, files, websites, books,

journals and annual reports.

SAMPLING DESIGN

Higher Secondary Schools in segments of Madurai District

consists of ten major schools. Of the ten major schools,

two schools were taken for the present study like

Government and aided higher secondary schools. Both the

schools consist of fourteen major subjects with two

different cadres of head master and teachers of position for

the teachers. The total strength of the teachers consists of

1271 at the time of study period (2007). Of the two cadres

only two kinds of higher secondary school teachers were

considered like aided and government teachers.

COLLECTION OF DATA A sample of 305 teachers was taken to meets the sample

adequacy, for conducting factor analysis number of

sample teachers for the study were selected from the total

population. For the purpose of the study (305 Teachers)

30% per cent of the samples were selected. This study is

based on the analysis of primary data collected from 305

teachers consisting of 185 aided higher secondary school

teachers and 120 government higher secondary school

teachers. Sample teachers were selected by using simple

random sampling from three segments by using lottery

method because of easy accessibility and affordability.

This present study is limited to a particular teachers those

who are handling the classes in higher secondary levels in

both schools and none of the teachers those who are

handling classes in below higher secondary level and

unaided higher secondary school teachers.

ANALYSIS OF DATA

The collected data were scrutinized, edited and tabulated.

The Varimax Rotated Principal component was conducted

for this present study to measure the occupational stress

factors among the teachers of Higher Secondary Schools.

SOURCES OF STRESS

For this study focuses on occupational stress, the sources

relating to the occupational stress have been discussed

below, Organisational Stressors, Group Stressors and

Individual Stressors. In common, there are a total of five

categories associated with occupational stress.[8] Factors

unique to the job, concerns with the ability of the

employee coping with the specific hours worked, expected

productive rate, the physical environment as well as the

expectancy of the work desired by management. Role in

the organization is associated with the hierarchical

ranking of that particular employee within the

organization. Upper management is entitled to oversee the

overall functioning of the organization. This cause‟s

potential distress as the employee must be able to perform

simultaneous tasks. Career development includes

security of their occupation; promotion levels, etc. are all

sources of stress, as this business market in terms of

technology of economic dominance is ever-changing.

Interpersonal work relationships pertain the workplace is a

communication and interactive based industry. These

relationships can be problematic or positive which

includes harassment, discrimination, biased opinions,

hearsay, and other derogatory remarks. Finally, the last

category of workplace stress is the organizational climate

or structure includes communication, management style,

and participation among groups of employees is variables

to be considered. These individual categories demonstrate

that stress can occur specifically when a conflict arises

from the job demands of the employee and the employee

itself. If not handled properly, the stress can

become distress (medicine).

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PREVALENCE OF STRESS

Stress is a prevalent and costly problem in today's

workplace. About one-third of workers report high levels

of stress. One-quarter of employees views their jobs as the

number one stressor in their lives. [9] Three-quarters of

employees believe the worker has more on-the-job stress

than a generation ago. [10] Evidence also suggests that

stress is the major cause of turnover in organizations. With

continued stress at the workplace, workers will develop

psychological and physiological dysfunctions and

decreased motivation in excelling in their position. [11]

I ORGANISATIONAL STRESSORS

In organisations, frequent causes of stress are task

demands, role demands, interpersonal demands,

organisational structure, organisational leadership, and the

organisations life cycle.

(A) Task Demands

Task demands are factors related to a person‟s occupation.

These include the design of the individual‟s occupation,

working conditions and the physical work layout.

Assembly lines can put pressure when their speed is

perceived as excessive. The more interdependent a

person‟s task is and the tasks of others, the more potential

stress there is. The occupation where temperature, noise or

other working conditions are dangerous or undesirable can

increase anxiety. So, too can working in an overcrowded

room or in a visible location where interruptions are

constant.12

(B) Role Demands Role demand includes role conflict, role ambiguity, role

erosion, role overload, role in the organisation, role

incompatibility, and role isolation.13

(i) Role Conflict

Role conflict is defined as the degree of incongruity of

expectations concerning one‟s occupational

responsibilities. Often employees have different groups of

people in the organisation who have widely varying

expectations of them, and they cannot meet all these

expectations. This inconsistency of expectations

associated with a role is called role conflict. Two types of

role conflicts are „sent role conflict‟ may be defined as the

simultaneous occurrence of two, or more sets of pressures

such that compliance with one would make more difficult

compliance with the other. The other type of role conflict

is the „person role conflict‟ which derives from a clash

between sent pressures and internal forces‟.

(ii) Role Erosion

Role erosion refers to a role becoming less important that

is used to be or somebody else getting the credit for doing

what needs to be done in one‟s own role. It is experienced

when a role occupant feels that some functions, which one

would like to perform, are being performed by some other

persons. In organisations that are dynamic, new

appointments may result in one person losing his/her

importance in the organisation and such a loss of self or

ego may result in stress to the individuals.

(iii) Role Overload

Work overload can be defined in simple term as being in a

situation where one is pushed to do more than what time

or ability permits. The nature of work load may be

quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative work load is a

condition of having too many job demands. Quantitative

work under load is a condition when individuals are

required to do considerably less than they are able, given

the time available. Qualitative work overload is a

condition where in job duties appear to exceed an

individual‟s abilities. It is a condition in which each

separate task is far below the individual‟s ability such that

the tasks are completed with boring ease.

(iv) Role in incompatibility

There is a fit of needs and values of the person with

environmental supplies and opportunities to meet these

needs and values. There is also the fit between demands of

the environment and the abilities of the person to meet

those demands. Lack of adequate co-ordination between

the individual and the environment which results in stress.

Such incompatibility calls for adequate adjustments of the

individual to his job environment and vice versa, which

are often not the case and the individual consequently

experiences strain.

(C) Organisational Structure

It defines the level of differentiation, the degree of rules

and regulations where the decisions are made. Excessive

rules and lack of participation in decision-making that

affect an employee are examples of structural variables

that might be potential stressors.

(D) Organisational Leadership

Organisational leadership defines the managerial style of

the organisation‟s senior executives. Some Chief

Educational Officers create a culture characterised by

tension, fear and anxiety. They establish unrealistic

pressures to perform in the short run, impose excessively

tight controls and routinely fine employees who fail to

measure up.

(E) Organisation’s Life Cycle

Organisations, like human beings pass through a life cycle.

The life cycle of an organisation comprises eight stages- i)

Birth ii) growth (iii) Policy (iv) Procedure (v) Theory (vi)

religion, (vii) virtual and (viii) last rites. In this cycle, the

organisation, which is born, begins to grow. Policies are

developed to guide decisions and these are carried out

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through procedures. These procedures are refined and

made more efficient with theories about efficiency. Each

stage in the life cycle poses its own challenges and

problems, while the early stages are existing and, the latter

ones create anxiety and tension.

II INTERPERSONAL DEMANDS

Interpersonal demands are pressures created by other

employees. A poor relationship with colleagues,

supervisors and subordinates at work has been identified

as an important source of stress. Interpersonal related

stressors include factors such as conflict, poor

communications, unpleasant relationship and lack of social

support from colleagues. Poor interpersonal relationship

can cause considerable stress, especially among employees

with high social needs.

Inter personal relationship involves basically three types of

relationship namely, superior- subordinate relations, peer

group relations, and customer relations.

(i) Superior- Subordinate Relations

In hierarchical organizations, relations between superiors

and subordinates are complex. There is of course the

natural desire to relate to one another as concerned human

beings showing consideration, support, even affection or

as team-mates harmonising effects towards a common

goal, and sharing the benefits or frustrations of the

outcomes of mutual effort. Nevertheless, both superior and

subordinates, are involved in a struggle for survival within

the organisational system. Career progression anxieties

dominate the „consideration-support-teamwork-job

satisfaction‟ system in most organizations. Office politics,

power struggle, fulfilled or disappointed ambitions shape

the superior – subordinate relations more profoundly than

does human welfare or supportive elements. The absence

of positive interpersonal bond between an employee and

his superior will create distress due to lack of

predictability and trust. Superiors who are unwilling or

unable to provide adequate support and approval tend to

create stress in their subordinates.

(ii) Peer Group Relations All individuals have a need for affiliation, and tend to

place value upon human companionship and opportunities

for obtaining personal reassurance from others. The need

for affiliation tends to motivate people to seek out personal

approval to conform to the wishes and expectations of the

workers and to demonstrate a strong and sincere interest in

the feeling of others. However, it is seldom that two

people at the same level in the hierarchy get along well.

This may be due to reasons like task ambiguity – as to

who should perform the particular task, or due to

differences in work orientation. There is also the

underlying dynamic of competition – for job resources of

all kinds, including financial, material, time with superior

and personnel. When poor relations exist among peers, it

leads to low trust, low supportiveness, and low interest in

listening to and trying to deal with problems that confront

the organisational members and result in stress for the

individual.

(iii) Relationship with Customers

Relationship with clients is another source of stress

especially in service organisations. In many occupations

the ability of the profession to respond to clients needs is

limited by bureaucratic regulations and in co-operative

clients. That the client is only partially under one‟s control

leads to a feeling of helplessness. This combined with

strong feelings of personal responsibility for failure and

infrequent feedback makes service provides easy targets of

job stress. The relationship with the customers also often

becomes strained because of customer frustrations.

GROUP STRESSORS

(i) Lack of Group Cohesiveness

Starting with the historically famous Hawthorne studies, it

has become very clear that cohesiveness is very important

to employees, particularly at the lower levels of

organisations. If an employee is denied the opportunity for

this cohesiveness because of the task design, the

supervisor does things to prohibit or limit it, or the other

members of the group shut the person out, this can be very

much stress producing.

(i) Lack of Social Support

Employees are greatly affected by the support of one or

more members of a cohesive group. By sharing their

problems and joys with others, they may be much better

off. If this type of social support is lacking for an

individual, it can be very stressful.14

(ii) Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict

Interpersonal conflict arises because of differences in

perceptions, temperaments, personalities, value system,

socio-cultural factors and role ambiguities. Intergroup

conflict occurs on account of task interdependence, task

ambiguity, goal incompatibility, competitive reward

systems, and the like. Whatever be the cause, conflict, if

not resolved, will lead to stress.

III INDIVIDUAL STRESSORS

(i) Individual Differences: Type A Behaviour

Pattern

Type A behaviour pattern is a personality type identified

by two Cardiologists Rosenman and Friedman (1974) who

observed that their coronary heart disease patients shared a

characteristic pattern of behaviour and emotional reaction

which they labelled as type A behaviour pattern. This

pattern is characterised by the presence of aggressiveness,



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impatience, restlessness, hyper alertness, explosiveness of

speech, tenseness of facial muscle and feelings of being

under pressure of time and under challenge of

responsibility, competitiveness and a sense of time

urgency.

The contrast type B behaviour pattern originally defined as

the relative absence of the behaviours described above is

increasingly perceived as an alternative style of

responding to or coping with environmental challenges.

Type B personalities feel less pressure, keep a steadier

pace rather than working against the clock. They are more

likely to try and extend deadlines or accept a lower

standard of work from themselves in the short run.

However this does not mean that they are necessarily

apathetic, lazy or lacking ambition.

The clearest finding of research on type A personalities is

that they are much prone to heart diseases. The Western

Collaborative Group study (Rosenman et al., 1975)15

found that 77 per cent of those who suffered heart attacks

were closely identified as type A personalities in the

earlier test scores. Further, type A had twice the rate of

coronary disease, were five times as likely to die from

heart disease as compared to those classified as type Bs. In

short type A people are much more likely to put

themselves in highly stressful situations and to push

themselves the hardest in those situations.

(ii) Hot Reactors

Another way to distinguish individual‟s responses to

stressors suggested by Eliot and Breo (1984)16 focuses on

physiological processes rather than behaviour patterns.

Hot reacting is extreme cardiovascular reaction to

standardised stress tests and it indicates how people hardle

stress physiologically in everyday life. Some people

experience alarm and vigilance so strongly that when they

are under stress their bodies produce large amounts of

stress chemical, which in turn cause great changes in the

cardiovascular system including remarkable rises in blood

pressure.

Research has indicated that 20 per cent of healthy people

who feel stressed are hot reactors (Eliot and Breo, 1984).

The frightening aspect of this finding is that people are not

aware of this automatic physiological response to stress.

Type A behaviour pattern is observable and therefore

potentially changeable. Hot reacting may be a subtle killer.

Because type B people do have coronary heart disease and

heart attacks, it seems reasonable to suppose that some

type B individuals may be hot reactors, and type A people

may not be. The obvious high-risk condition is a

combination of a type A personality and a hot reacting

physiology.17

(iii) Hardiness

Hardiness is another psychological characteristic that

moderates the reaction of people to potentially stressful

conditions or events. Three dimensions constitute the

general concept of hardiness namely, commitment,

challenge and control. The commitment dimension reflects

a sense of meaningfulness about one‟s life both in terms of

having distinguishable personal life goals with feelings of

self involvement and having a sense of community control

represents the belief that one can influence or be

responsible for one‟s experiences and life events.

Therefore the possibility for manipulating or counteracting

adverse circumstances exists. The challenge dimension

consists of the idea that change, in the form of life events

is a positive phenomenon with the potential for personal

growth for the individuals. A hardy individual possesses a

strong sense of all three dimensions, which act together to

help buffer the debilitating effects of stress. [18][19][20]

In the study involving Illinois Bell executives during the

break-up of A T & T, it was found that those who rated

high on hardiness remained healthier than others did. All

the employees experienced essentially the same traumatic

events during the changeover. Those who rated high in

hardiness seemed to take the break-up in stride, and even

felt exhilarated by the opportunities. They reported half as

many physical or emotional difficulties as those who rated

low in hardiness did. Shepperd and Kashani (1991)21

found that commitment and control components of

hardiness moderated the reporting of somatic complaints,

and psychological symptoms. Numerous other studies

have also found support for the moderating effect of

hardiness.

(iv) Locus of Control

Locus of control is defined as internal when individuals

tend to attribute environmental events to them and as

external when individuals attribute, such events to things

outside their power. Internals believe reward to be

contingent on factors beyond their personal control.

Locus of control influences relations between stress and

health outcomes. Studies have shown that internal locus of

control as compared with external locus improves health

because it is associated with preventive behaviour, efforts

to improve functioning and greater resistance to

psychological dysfunctions.22

(v) Cognitive Complexity:

Cognitive complexity is concerned with the amount and

kinds of information people use in making discussions.

Cognitively complex individuals are multidimensional.

They see situations from different perspectives

simultaneously. They are able to keep several variables in

mind, cope with conflicting information, and discuss

complex relationships. They think in terms of systems and

contingencies, while remaining flexible and sensitive to

changing conditions. These characteristics are often used

to describe highly effective managers. Unfortunately these

very attributes may be dangerous to executive health.



98

There is a growing amount of evidence that an executive

with this style of decision making faces greater risk, than

others, of heart attacks and other circulatory diseases.

When compared with less multidimensional executives,

the more multidimensional showed higher levels of

physiological strain when challenged in work situations.

They also showed elevation in blood pressure, heart rate

and physiological arousal that were at times 83 per cent

higher than the increase for other executives (Streufert,

1983).23

(vi) Self- Esteem

Individuals who have positive images of themselves and

their abilities are less likely to experience work as

stressful. Moreover people with high self-esteem have

more confidence in themselves that they can deal

successfully with stress. Two research findings confirm

the moderating effect of self-esteem. The first study

suggests that the critical difference between those who

survived being prisoners of war and those who did not

survive was self-esteem. Those who had high levels of

self-esteem were better able to cope with the strain and

deprivation of being held captive. Secondly, physicians

doing research on coronary heart disease risk factors have

discovered that the higher a person‟s self-esteem, the less

likely he is to be heart attack prone (Kasl and Gobb,

1970).24

(vii) Self Efficacy

Self Efficacy is defined as a person‟s beliefs about

whether one can successfully perform a task. It involves

both effort and ability. Employees in organisations have

explicit beliefs and expectations about their performance.

Self-efficacy concept can also be applied to groups.

Collective efficacy may be defined as each individual‟s

assessment of their group‟s collective ability to perform

job related risks.

As a moderator, individuals who do not believe that they

will be able to carry out their job responsibilities (low

levels of self-efficacy) would view organisational stressors

as being more threatening and show more negative

reactions than those who are more confident (high levels

of self-efficacy). It is also possible that collective efficacy

would provide the same moderating effect as individual

efficacy, although this would be more likely for employees

whose jobs require considerable interaction with the work

group. Studies by Beehr and Newman (1978)25 Sarason

(1975)26 Bandura (1986)27 and Jex and Gudanowski

(1992)28 have provided support for the moderating effect

of self-efficacy.

(viii) Extraversion

Extraverts show a heightened sensitivity to variations in

social support. Under conditions of high social support,

they report less distress than do introverts do. Thus

extraversion or introversion as a moderator of stress acts in

combination with social support (Parkes, 1986).29 Need for

affiliation, which is a measure conceptually linked to

extraversion, interacts with social support to predict mood

disturbance in response to stress.

(ix) Neuroticism

Neuroticism also called negative affectivity is a stable and

pervasive personality dimension and is a state

characterised by emotional instability, anxiety and low self

respect in individuals. High negative affective individuals

report more stress and physical complaints, even in the

absence of objective stressors or health problems (Costa

and Mc Crae, 1980, 30 Watson and Clark 1984; 31 Delongis

et al., 1982).32 state that individuals with high neuroticism

scores respond less adaptability to demanding

circumstances and are more vulnerable to emotional

distress than those with low scores. They also are capable

of experiencing a great deal of stress and discomfort even

in relatively benign contexts. Their high levels of distress

will likely persist in the face of dramatically altered

working conditions (Watson al., 1987).33

(x) Age

Age and experience are negatively related to stress. There

are at least two explanations for this relation. One is

selective withdrawal and other is adaptation. Withdrawal,

the idea that voluntary turnover is more probable among

people who experience more stress, that certain

characteristics dispose some people to experience more

stress and that people are differentially likely to quit

according to those characteristics. As a result, people who

remain with the organisation longer are those with more

stress resistant traits. Adaptation assumes that people

eventually develop coping mechanics to deal with stress.

Past experience in the form of familiarity with the

situation, past exposure to the stressor conditions, and/or

practice or training in response to deal with the situation

can operate to affect the level of subjectively experienced

stress from a given situation or to modify reactions to

those stressors.

(xi) Gender

Men and women experience stress differently with respect

to threat appraisal and symptoms. Women experience

stressors unique to their gender such as sex discrimination,

harassment and considerable work problems that results in

pay inequity. Further, women tend to report higher rates of

psychological distress while men are more prone to

physical illnesses as evident in the higher incidences or

coronary heart diseases in males.



99

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS FACTORS FOR THE VARIMAX ROTATED PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF

ADIDED HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS [FACTOR ANALYSIS]

Table 1

Individual Factors of Aided Higher Secondary School Teachers

Sl.No Statements Loadings Eigen Value % of Variance

1 Work is neither interested and nor prestigious. 0.885 20.886 19.339

2 No training was given to handle the new occupation. 0.760 15.915 14.736

3 Present occupation does not give enough time to spare with

family members.

0.662 4.757 4.405

4 Occupation, demands more training and expertise. 0.828 3.994 3.698

5 The available information relating to my present occupation

and its outcomes are vague and insufficient.

0.558 3.921 3.630

6 Institutional responsibilities interference with extra

organization career.

0.785 3.370 3.121

7 I have given more importance in this institution than others. 0.841 3.284 3.041

8 No free time to get refreshment. 0.857 3.086 2.857

9 Frequent Transfers give me great trouble. 0.815 2.987 2.765

Source: Primary data

Table 1shows that various individual factors item

loadings, eigen values and percentage of total variance

explained by each factor. The selected individual factor

consists of nine items and explained 19.339 percent of the

total variance dominant all other factors. „Work is neither

interest and nor prestigious‟ was at the highest level or at

the first position among them explains the maximum

variance in the most important individual factors, which

causes occupational stress under aided higher secondary

school teachers. The factor of „Teachers doing my work

with full responsibility‟ was at the second position with

per cent of the total variance is 14.736, „Present

occupation does not give enough time to spent with family

members‟ was at the third position with the per cent

variance is 4.405, „Occupation, demands more training

and expertise‟ was at the fourth position with the per cent

variance is 3.698 and „Frequent Transfers give me great

trouble‟ was at the ninth and least position among the total

factors with the per cent variance is 2.765.

Table 2

Interpersonal Factors Of Aided Higher Secondary School Teachers


1 Unable to realize the feelings of the colleagues. 0.885 20.886 19.339

2 When one initiates for discussion or help there is not

response from other staff.

0.748 6.047 5.559

3 Colleagues feel that he/she has been given more

responsibility.

0.663 4.733 4.382

4 The mistakes of other teachers are shifted to the

shoulders and teachers who are free from defects.

0.768 3.086 2.857


Table 2 shows that various interpersonal factors item


explained by each factor. Under the social factors that

contribute stress level, the isolation of my job is

prominent. It consists of five factors, of which factor 1

describes maximum variance 19.34 per cent and is the

important factor that causes the occupational stress among

the total teachers of government schools. Factor 1 is

„There is no enough interaction between my career and

other occupation‟ and followed by 7.993 per cent, 5.553

per cent and 2.026 per cent respectively.



100

Table 3

Organisational Factors Of Aided Higher Secondary School Teachers


1 The overall school climate. 0.643 20.886 19.339

2 Heavy and continuous noise in the premises. 0.876 15.915 14.736

3 My higher authorities do not give due significance to my

positions and work.

0.615 6.047 5.599

4 Co-operation is frequently sought in solving the

administrative or departmental problems higher.

0.788 4.733 4.382

5 The school is under staffed. 0.729 2.111 1.955


Table 3 shows that various organisationa factors item


explained by each factor. Under the social factors that

contribute stress level, the isolation of my job is

prominent. It consists of five factors, of which factor 1

describes maximum variance 19.34 per cent and is the

important factor that causes the occupational stress among

the total teachers of government schools. Factor 1 is

„There is no enough interaction between my career and

other occupation‟ and followed by 7.993 per cent, 5.553

per cent and 2.026 per cent respectively.

Table 4

Social Factors of Aided Higher Secondary School Teachers


1 Occupation has enhances my social status. 0.488 20.886 19.339

2 The interaction in my career with other occupation is

appreciable or not.

0.519 15.915 14.736

3 The career demands more consultation with others and

other occupation.

0.404 5.516 5.107

4 Sometimes it becomes complicated problem for me to

make adjustment among political / group pressures and

formal rules and instructions.

0.768 2.772 2.567


Table 4 shows that various social factors item loadings,

eigen values and percentage of total variance explained by

each factor. Under the social factors that contribute stress

level, the isolation of my job is prominent. It consists of

five factors, of which factor 1 describes maximum

variance 19.34 per cent and is the important factor that

causes the occupational stress among the total teachers of

government schools. Factor 1 is „There is no enough

interaction between my career and other occupation‟ and

followed by 7.993 per cent, 5.553 per cent and 2.026 per

cent respectively.

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS FACORS FOR THE VARIMAX ROTATED PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF

GOVERNMENT HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS [FACTOR ANALYSIS]

Table 5

Individual Factors of Government Higher Secondary School Teachers


1 Teachers cannot express their ability and competency

independently.

0.819 21.418 19.832

2 The work load of the teacher is too heavy. 0.667 8.633 7.993

3 Opportunity of promotion in my occupation. 0.659 6.008 5.563

4 Teachers like to do some other work in the salary. 0.635 5.226 4.839

5 Many problems in working in rural areas. 0.716 3.285 3.042

6 Present Occupation gives me all facilities but not status. 0.740 2.875 2.662

7 Time limit to cover the syllabus and conduct tests are not

enough, create a sense of urgency.

0.694 2.912 2.697




101

Table 5 shows that various individual factors item


explained by each factor. The selected individual factor

consists of seven items and explained 19.832 percent total

variance dominates other all factors. „Teachers cannot

express their ability and competency independently.‟ was

at the highest level or at the first position among them

explains the maximum variance in the most important

individual factors, which causes occupational stress under

Government higher secondary school teachers. „The work

load of the teacher is too heavy‟. was at the second

position with per cent of the total variance is 7.993,

„Opportunity of promotion in my occupation‟, with the per

cent variance is 5.563, and „Teachers like to do some other

work in the salary‟, with the per cent variance is 4.839

dominate third and forth position respectively and „Time

limit to cover the syllabus and conduct tests are not

enough, create a sense of urgency‟, was at the seventh and

least position among the total factors with the per cent

variance is 2.697.

Table 6

Interpersonal Factors of Government Higher Secondary School Teachers


1 Lack of human relations among the teachers. 0.698 8.633 7.993

2 All the staff feels that they are over burdened in the

occupation.

0.667 8.633 7.993

3 My suggestions regarding the training programmes of

the teachers are given due significance.

0.787 4.979 4.610

4 There exists sufficient mutual co operation and team

spirit among the teachers of this department.

0.699 2.676 2.477












cent respectively.

Table 7

Organisational Factors of Government Higher Secondary School Teachers

Sl.No Statements Loadings Eigen Value % of

Variance

1 School is understaffed. . 0.757 21.418 19.832

2 Fairly old building creates mild panic all the time. 0.804 5.872 5.437

3 Hard water in the school causes throat problems. 0.600 3.285 3.042










interaction between myy career and other occupation‟ and


cent respectively.



102

Table 8

Social Factors of Government Higher Secondary School Teachers

Sl.No Statements Loadings Eigen Value % of

Variance

1 There is no enough interaction between my career and

other occupation.

0.659 21.418 19.832

2 Sometimes it becomes complicated problem for me to

make adjustment among political/ group pressures and

formal rules and instructions.

0.687 8.633 7.993

3 This occupation has enhanced my social status. 0.714 6.008 5.553

4 Interaction in my career with other occupation is

appreciable or not.

0.484 4.979 4.610

5 The career demands more consultation with others and

other occupation.

0.478 2.189 2.026












cent respectively.

FINDINGS OF THE PRESENT STUDY

I AIDED HIGHER SECONDARY TEACHERS 1. The factor of “work is neither interested and nor

prestigious” was at the highest level or at the first position

among the nine factors towards individual and personal

characteristics of Aided Higher Secondary School

Teachers with 0.885 loading value and % of variance is

19.339 and followed by “frequent transfer gives me great

trouble” is the last position.

2. The factor of “teachers unable to realize the feelings of

the colleagues” was at the highest position with 0.885 is

the loading value and 19.339 is % of variance and “The

mistakes of other teachers are shifted to the shoulders and

teachers who are free from defects” was the last position

among the four factors toward interpersonal characteristics

of Aided Higher Secondary School Teachers.

3. The factor of “the overall school climate” was at the

first position and “The school is under staffed” was

occupied least position with 0.643 is the loading factor and

% of variance is 19.339, among the five factors towards

organizational among the teachers of Aided Higher

Secondary School.

II GOVERNMENT HIGHER SECONDARY

TEACHERS

1. Of the total individual factors of Government Higher

Secondary School Teachers, “Teachers cannot express

their ability and competency independently” was at the

highest level or at the first position with loading value

0.819 and % of variance is 19.832 and the last position

occupied by “Time limit to cover the syllabus and conduct

tests are not enough, create a sense of urgency” with

loading value 0.694 and % of variance is 2.697

respectively.

2. The factor of “Lack of human relations among the

teachers” was at the highest position with loading value

0.698 and% of variance is 7.993 and “There exist

sufficient mutual co operation and team spirit among the

teachers of this department” was the last position among

the four factors toward interpersonal characteristics of

Government Higher Secondary School Teachers with

loading value 0.699 and % of variance is 2.477.

3. The factor of “School is understaffed” was at the first

position with loading factor is 0.757 and % of variance is

19.832 and “Hard water in the school causes throat

problems.” was occupied least position among the three

factors towards organizational among the teachers of

Government Higher Secondary School.

4. Of the five social related factors, “There is no enough

interaction between my career and other occupation.”

which was at top level with loading factor is 0.659 and %

of variance is 19.832 and “The career demands more

consultation with others and other occupation.” was last

position among the teachers Government Higher

Secondary School.

EFFECTS

Physical symptoms that may occur because of

occupational stress includes fatigue, headache, upset

stomach, muscular aches and pains, chronic mild

illness, sleep disturbances, and eating disorders.

Psychological and behavioral problems that may develop

include anxiety, irritability, alcohol and drug use, feeling

powerless and low morale.[34] The spectrum of effects

caused by occupational stress includes absenteeism, poor

decision making, lack of creativity, accidents,

organizational breakdown or even sabotage.[35] If exposure

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_disturbance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eating_disorder

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety



103

to stressors in the workplace is prolonged, then chronic

health problems can occur including stroke. An

examination was of physical and psychological effects of

workplace stress was conducted with a sample of 552

female blue collar employees of a microelectronics

facility. It was found that job-related conflicts were

associated with depressive symptoms, severe headaches,

fatigue, rashes, and other multiple symptoms. [36] Studies

among the Japanese population specifically showed a

more than 2-fold increase in the risk of total stroke among

men with job strain (combination of high job demand and

low job control).[37] Along with the risk of stroke

comes high blood pressure and immune

system dysfunction. Prolonged occupational stress can

lead to occupational burnout.

CONCLUSION

A combination of organizational change and stress

management is often the most useful approach for

preventing stress at work environment. Both Government

and Aided Management and teachers can employ

strategies at institutional and individual levels. Generally,

institutional level strategies include job procedure

modification and employee assistance programs (EPA).

Individual level strategies include taking vacation, getting

a realistic job preview to understand the normal workload

and schedules of the job will also help people to identify

whether or not the job fit them. How to Change the

Organization to prevent occupational tress [38]

Ensure that the workload is in line with teachers'

capabilities and resources.

Design occupations to provide meaning, stimulation,

and opportunities for teachers to use their skills.

Clearly define teachers' roles and responsibilities.

To reduce occupational stress, government and

Aided school management may monitor the

workload given out to the teachers. Also while they

are being trained they should let employees

understand and be notified of stress awareness.[39]

Give teachers opportunities to participate in school

decisions and actions affecting their profession.

Improve communications and reduce uncertainty

about career development and future employment

prospects.

Provide opportunities for social interaction among

teachers.

Establish work schedules that are compatible with

demands and responsibilities outside the job.

Combat workplace discrimination (based on race,

gender, national origin, religion or language).

Seek for solutions outside such as getting a

consultant to suggest a fresh approach to persistent

problems.[40]

Introducing a participative leadership style to involve as

many colleagues as possible to resolve stress-producing

problems.

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