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The IliadStudy Guide by Course Hero

What's Inside

j Book Basics 1 .................................................................................................

d In Context 1 .....................................................................................................

a Author Biography 2 .....................................................................................

h Characters 3 ..................................................................................................

k Plot Summary 7 .............................................................................................

c Book Summaries 12 ....................................................................................

g Quotes 30 ........................................................................................................

l Symbols 32 .....................................................................................................

m Themes 33 ......................................................................................................

b Glossary 34 .....................................................................................................

e Suggested Reading 35 ..............................................................................

j Book BasicsAUTHORHomer

YEAR WRITTENc. 750–650 BCE

GENREWar Literature

PERSPECTIVE AND NARRATORThe Iliad is narrated from a third-person omniscient point of

view.

ABOUT THE TITLEIliad is Greek for "poem about Ilium," which is an alternate

name for the city of Troy, the setting of the Trojan War.

d In Context

Trojan War

Based on its prominence in Homer's work, the Trojan War was

a central and defining event of Greek prehistory. It is believed

to have been fought in the 13th or 12th century BCE. The

continued interest in it in Homer's time, approximately 400

years later, is significant. Greek city-states were fiercely

independent and perpetually at war with one another, yet

Homer describes the Achaean (Greek) army in Book 2 of The

Iliad as originating from more than 150 different locations from

all over mainland Greece and the Peloponnese. While this

number of different groups may be poetic exaggeration, an

alliance between any large number of them would have been

remarkable. It is impossible to infer any historical details of the

war from the poem. However, archeological evidence found in

the ancient city believed to be Troy supports its destruction in

war around 1250 BCE.

Troy is believed to have been located in northwestern Asia

Minor, near the mouth of the Hellespont, now called the

Dardanelles, in modern-day Turkey. As such, the Trojans were

a separate people divided from Greece by the Aegean Sea.

However, Greek culture had spread through much of western

Asia Minor by Homer's time. He depicts them as worshipping

the same gods and living by the same values as the Greeks

they are fighting.

As depicted in The Iliad, the Trojan War was caused by Paris's

seduction and theft of Helen from Agamemnon. Scholars,

however, speculate that the conflict may have had more to do

The Iliad Study Guide Author Biography 2

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with a dispute over trade routes and the strategic location of

Troy at the Hellespont.

Poetic Techniques

The structure of Homer's epics comes from the long tradition

of oral poetry. Like The Iliad, these poems are not memorized

word for word. Instead, poets improvise from a base narrative

structure. They rely upon formulas that they can combine in a

wide variety of ways. The poet knows the characters and major

points of the story and has a large collection of formulaic

descriptions for a range of characters, events, and situations.

The poet composes the exact words during the performance,

varying the words based on context and individual style.

This repetition of passages and familiar phrases might seem

boring, but a master like Homer creatively varies and combines

these formulaic elements in a spectacular range of ways.

Repetition also helps listeners quickly recognize and mentally

organize elements of the poem to better understand the story.

Additionally, oral poets composed in a meter (called

hexameter) in which a poetic line consists of six sections, or

"feet." Each foot has one of two constructions. It may have one

long syllable followed by two short syllables (a dactyl), or it

may be constructed of two long syllables (a spondee). Strict

rules govern which elements can go where. Hexameter is

associated with epic poetry. Its rhythm is distinctive and

recognizable. Composing spontaneously within the restrictions

of such a complex system makes the work of oral poets that

much more impressive.

Influence

To the ancient Greeks The Iliad and The Odyssey were

historical accounts of heroic events. Their characters set an

example for Greeks of how to live life honorably, and their

messages remained influential through Roman times and

beyond. Greek scholars started to write about Homer by the

late 6th century BCE. The Roman poet Virgil emulated Homer's

meter, epic similes, plot structure, and many other elements of

Homer's epics more than half a millennia later. More than a

thousand years after Homer, Dante included characters from

both Homeric epics in his Divine Comedy. The Iliad and The

Odyssey are some of the oldest-surviving compositions in any

language, yet they are far from obsolete. Both works continue

to be taught, analyzed, adapted, and debated today.

Other oral traditions produced ancient epic poems as well. The

Indian poet Vyasa may have authored Mahabharata around

400 BCE, and another Hindu poet, Valmiki, authored Ramayana

approximately 500 BCE. Both contain similar heroic tropes and

metaphors of war, such as red flowers blooming on the body of

a wounded warrior.

a Author BiographyNot much is known about Homer except that he is the poet to

whom ancient Greeks attributed the epic poems The Iliad and

its sequel, The Odyssey. Most of what is understood about

Homer is inferred from the poems themselves. From the

language used, scholars believe he lived in around the early 9th

or late 8th century BCE in Ionia, a region in what is now Turkey.

Based on his description of a poet/singer in The Odyssey,

which many take as describing himself, Homer is often

depicted as blind.

Features such as repetition and formulaic descriptions in the

poems indicate that Homer belonged to an oral poetry

tradition. These stories were passed down through

memorization and were sung by a poet for an audience.

Traditionally, these stories were likely of a length that could be

performed from beginning to end in the course of an evening.

Homer's innovation seems to have been to stitch a number of

such stories together into a complex epic. Such a poem could

only have been performed over the course of many days.

At the time of the most likely development of The Iliad, around

the 8th century BCE, the Greek alphabet was coming into

increased use. The earliest written version of The Iliad was

recorded using this alphabet and contains elements of the

earliest form of Greek writing. This new technique of writing

undoubtedly played a part in the development and preservation

of such a long and complex work. Whether Homer was purely

an oral poet who dictated The Iliad to a literate assistant or

someone who was experienced in the oral tradition but

composed in writing continues to be debated.

The Iliad Study Guide Characters 3


h Characters

Achilles

Achilles is the leader of the Myrmidons who fight on the side of

the Achaeans (a collective term for the Greeks and their allies)

against Troy. He is the son of Thetis, a sea goddess, and

Peleus, a mortal. He is a pure warrior concerned with honor

and glory—fierce and merciless in battle. His rage is born when

Agamemnon replaces the loss of one of his prizes of war by

seizing one of Achilles's prizes. Until Agamemnon apologizes,

Achilles and his men will not fight for the Achaeans. He actually

asks the gods to ensure Agamemnon and his forces, his own

allies, experience defeat without him, resulting in much

bloodshed. His sense of honor doesn't allow for any

compromise, but the loss of a friend and the appeals of an

enemy bring out his humanity in the end.

Hector

Whereas Achilles is a warrior and nothing else, Hector is more

multifaceted. He is also a brave and fierce warrior, but as a

prince of Troy, he is fighting for his city and family as much as

for honor and glory. His interactions with his wife and son, as

well as his brothers, demonstrate a strong sense of

responsibility for protecting his city and the people in his

family. Unfortunately, his duty to Troy gets overridden by his

pride, leading him to foolishly face Achilles in a fight he cannot

win.

Agamemnon

Agamemnon, a powerful and proud man, is the top commander

of the Achaean army. He feels entitled to take whatever prizes

and honors he wants without apology. When he tries this with

Achilles, he incurs the great hero's rage, with dire

consequences for the whole army. Even after he realizes the

costs of his actions, he offers only reparations, not apologies.

He is a good fighter, but his leadership style is harsh, and he

shows no mercy to enemies. He has been promised victory at

Troy, but he repeatedly has to be talked out of fleeing when

the battle goes against the Achaeans. Agamemnon is often

called "Atrides," meaning "son of Atreus" (as is his brother

Menelaus).

Priam

King Priam presides over the city of Troy and daily life while his

many sons fight off the attackers. He shows compassion and

understanding to Helen although she brought ten years of war

upon his city, and he reasons with his wife, Hecuba, in her

distress. Unlike the warriors, he is not ruled by pride. He

humbles himself to appeal to Achilles personally for the return

of his son's body, an act that finally brings out Achilles's human

side.

Thetis

Achilles's sea-goddess mother, Thetis, protects and advocates

for him throughout the poem. She carries his angry wishes to

Zeus and persuades him to grant them, setting up the many

defeats that the Achaeans suffer through most of the poem.

She also makes sure her son is protected, replacing his lost

armor with a new set forged by a god. She is tortured

throughout the poem by the knowledge that her son is fated to

die.

Paris

Paris (also called Alexander in some translations) committed a

daring act in stealing Helen away from Menelaus, but he is

more a lover than a fighter at heart. He can be roused to

honorable combat, but he is not terribly effective at it and often

prefers to stay in his rooms with Helen. In contrast to Helen,

who deeply regrets the consequences of her actions, Paris

doesn't seem to feel much responsibility for the ten years of

war he has brought upon his city. However, his status as a

prince and the favor of the goddess Aphrodite make him one

of the heroes of Troy. (After the end of The Iliad, he is the one

who kills Achilles.)

Patroclus

Although Achilles is his king and commander, Patroclus is older

and wiser. They were raised together, making them nearly



brothers. Patroclus is much more compassionate than Achilles,

and he feels the suffering of their fellow Achaeans. When he

tries to temper the effects of his friend's immovable rage, he

succeeds only in bringing about his own tragic death. Patroclus

seems to attract great loyalty and love from others. The bond

between Achilles and Patroclus is very close—as close as self

and shadow. Likewise, Briseis laments the death of Patroclus

nearly on the scale of a bereaved wife (Book 19).



Character Map

Father

HectorWarrior and protector

of Troy

Mother

Enemies

Enemies

Enemies

Father

Brothers

ThetisGoddess of the sea

PatroclusMyrmidon warrior

AchillesGreat Achaean warrior

AgamemnonCommander of Achaean army

Greatfriends

Adversaries

ParisPrince of Troy

PriamKing of Troy

Main Character

Other Major Character

Minor Character



Full Character List

Character Description

Achilles

Achilles is the greatest hero on theAchaean (Greek) side of the Trojan War,and he refuses to fight after beinginsulted.

Hector Hector is the son of King Priam of Troyand the greatest hero on the Trojan side.

AgamemnonAgamemnon is the king of Mycenae andleader of the Achaeans; he insultsAchilles's pride.

Priam Priam is the king of Troy and father ofHector, Paris, and others.

Thetis Thetis is a goddess of the sea and themother of Achilles.

ParisParis is the prince of Troy who stoleHelen from Menelaus, starting the TrojanWar.

PatroclusPatroclus is Achilles's closest friend andcomrade- in-arms.

AeneasAeneas is a commander in the Trojanarmy, who is protected by his mother, thegoddess Aphrodite.

Andromache Andromache is Hector's wife.

ApolloApollo, also known by the epithet"Phoebus," is the god of archers andmedicine, who supports the Trojans.

AstyanaxAstyanax, whom Hector callsScamandrius, is the son of Hector andAndromache.

AthenaAthena, also known by the epithet"Pallas," is the goddess of war andhandicrafts, who supports the Achaeans.

Briseis Briseis is Achilles's prize who is takenfrom him by Agamemnon.

ChryseisChryseis is the daughter of Chryses, apriest of Apollo, who was taken as a prizeby Agamemnon.

Diomedes

Diomedes, also called "Tydides," meaning"son of Tydeus," is an Achaean fighterknown for his war cry who wounds twogods.

Glaucus Glaucus is a leader of the Lycians whoare allies of the Trojans.

Great Ajax

Ajax, son of Telamon (who should not beconfused with Little Ajax, son of Oileus),is nearly a giant and the second-bestfighter in the Achaean army.

Hecuba Hecuba is King Priam's wife and Hector'smother.

HelenHelen is the former wife of KingMenelaus, who was stolen by PrinceParis of Troy.

HeraHera is the queen of the gods and wife ofZeus, who passionately hates theTrojans.

MenelausMenelaus, like his brother Agamemnon, isan Achaean king and son of Atreus, aswell as the former husband of Helen.

NestorNestor is the oldest commander in theAchaean army, who often provides wiseadvice and tells long stories.

Odysseus Odysseus, the king of Ithaca, is a wilycaptain in the Achaean army.

PandarusPandarus is a Trojan archer who hitsMenelaus with an arrow, igniting theAchaeans to renew the fight.

PhoenixPhoenix is one of the Achaeancommanders and is known for havingraised Achilles.

PolydamasPolydamas is a commander in the Trojanarmy whose advice Hector fatefullydoesn't take.

The Iliad Study Guide Plot Summary 7


Poseidon Poseidon, who is the brother of Zeus, isthe god of the sea.

SarpedonSarpedon is Zeus's son and thecommander of the Trojan allies fromLycia whom he cannot save.

ThersitesThersites is a common foot soldier whoacts with insubordination in arguing withAgamemnon.

ZeusZeus is the king of the gods, who agreesto punish the Achaeans for the insult toAchilles's honor.

k Plot SummaryThe Iliad opens with an expression of rage and frustration. The

Trojan War has been raging for nine long years, with the

Achaeans (Greeks) unable to break through the walls of Troy.

King Agamemnon, who leads the Achaeans, has been forced

to give up a valued prize, a woman he captured. This is no

ordinary woman, but the daughter of a priest of Apollo; refusal

to return her to her father brought on the wrath of Apollo in the

form of a plague on the Greeks. Arrogant and high-handed,

Agamemnon repairs his loss of honor by taking a prize from

Achilles, a woman named Briseis whom Achilles values greatly.

Achilles (who is at the beginning of the story as arrogant and

high-handed as Agamemnon) resents the offense to his honor

but is prevented by the goddess Athena from coming to blows

with Agamemnon. Instead, he turns away and refuses to fight

in the siege of Troy. To show Agamemnon who's more

important, he asks the gods to allow the Trojans to defeat his

own army—the Achaeans—until he returns to the fight. To bring

this about, Achilles's mother, who is a goddess, secures the

help of Zeus, the king of the gods.

The Achaean and Trojan armies march out onto the field to

fight. But Paris, the Trojan prince who started the war by

stealing the wife of Menelaus (brother of Agamemnon),

proposes that it be settled by single combat between him and

Menelaus. Menelaus agrees and a duel ensues. Just as

Menelaus is about to defeat Paris, the goddess Aphrodite

carries him back to Troy, and the battle recommences.

Athena helps the Achaean hero Diomedes in battle, enabling

him to wound Aphrodite and Ares (Book 5), two of the gods

helping Troy. Hector, a prince of Troy and the greatest Trojan

warrior, briefly returns to the city to organize an appeal to the

gods and fetch Paris back to the battlefield. The gods end the

fighting for the day with a duel between Hector and Great Ajax,

the second-strongest Achaean hero after Achilles. Ajax has

the advantage but cannot kill Hector.

Both sides take a day off from fighting to bury their dead. The

Achaeans take the opportunity to build a wall around their

ships. When the fighting resumes the next day, Zeus forbids

the other gods to interfere. He will control the war from now

on. With Zeus's help, the Trojans push toward the Achaean

ships. Agamemnon leads a brief rally for the Achaeans, but

Hector pushes them all the way back to their new wall.

Alarmed by the Trojan advance, Agamemnon offers Achilles

many prizes, including the return of Briseis, to return to the

battle. However, he offers no apology, and Achilles is not

appeased.

Unable to sleep, the Achaean captains Odysseus and

Diomedes make a daring night raid on the Trojan army, killing a

number of Trojan allies. In the morning Agamemnon initially

pushes the Trojans all the way back to the city. Zeus then

turns the tide, causing most of the Achaean captains to be

wounded. Many Achaeans fight valiantly, but Zeus empowers

the Trojan fighters to break through the wall and threaten the

Achaean ships. When Zeus takes his eye off the war for a bit,

the sea-god Poseidon inspires the Achaeans to kill and wound

many Trojans, holding them off the ships.

Hera devises a plan to distract Zeus. She seduces him after

bribing the god Sleep to put him to sleep afterward. With

Poseidon's help the Achaeans drive the Trojans back outside

their wall. However, Zeus soon awakens and takes control

again. He directs his son Apollo to strike fear into the

Achaeans with Zeus's terrifying shield. As the Trojans reach

the ships, Achilles's closest friend, Patroclus, begs him to

return and save the Achaeans. Achilles is still too angry, but he

lets Patroclus use his armor and chariot to make the Trojans

think he has returned.

In Achilles's armor and chariot, Patroclus turns the tide of the

battle, pushing the Trojans all the way back to their own city

walls. However, he gets carried away and goes up against

Hector, who kills him. Hector strips Achilles's armor from

Patroclus but is driven back before he can claim the body. In a

fit of pride, Hector fatefully puts on Achilles's armor. Great

Ajax, Menelaus, and others hold off Hector and his troops.



However, they cannot get Patroclus's body back to their camp

until Achilles, having heard of his comrade's death, appears on

the Achaean wall. The goddess Athena makes him glorious and

terrifying. He frightens the Trojans enough for the Achaeans to

retrieve Patroclus's body.

Now Achilles no longer cares about his quarrel with

Agamemnon. All of his anger is focused on killing Hector. The

next morning, his goddess mother brings him new armor

(including the marvelous shield, the description of which is

detailed in Book 18) made by the god of fire, and Zeus tells the

gods they may intervene in the war. Achilles rages against the

Trojans, slaughtering huge numbers. No mortal can stand

against him. He sends the entire Trojan army retreating back to

the city. Ashamed that he has led the Trojan army to defeat,

Hector waits for Achilles outside the gates of Troy.

Despite his previous boasts, Hector loses his nerve and runs as

Achilles approaches. After Achilles has chased him around the

city three times, Athena tricks Hector into stopping. Achilles's

divine armor protects him, but Hector is betrayed by the armor

he is wearing, Achilles's old armor. Achilles kills Hector through

a weak spot in the armor he knows so well. In his anger

Achilles abuses Hector's body and drags it behind his chariot.

Over the next couple of days, Achilles and the Achaeans hold a

funeral for Patroclus and compete in games in his honor. But

Hector's family and the Trojans have no such comfort. Finally,

Zeus decrees that Achilles must give Hector's body back. The

god Hermes guides Priam, Hector's father, into the Achaean

camp to appeal to Achilles. Achilles is moved by Priam's words

and allows the Trojans time to bury Hector.



Plot Diagram

Falling ActionRising Action

Resolution

Climax

12

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Introduction

Introduction

1. Apollo inflicts a plague on the Achaean army.

Rising Action

2. Agamemnon takes Briseis from Achilles.

3. Zeus agrees to punish the Achaeans for Achilles.

4. Mortals and gods fight and are wounded in battle.

5. Zeus forbids the other gods to interfere in the war.

6. With Zeus's help, Hector breaks through to Achaean ships.

7. Hector kills Patroclus in battle.

8. Achilles and the gods return to the fighting.

Climax

9. Achilles kills Hector in single combat.

Falling Action

10. Priam begs Achilles for Hector's body.

11. Achilles returns Hector's body to Priam.

Resolution

12. Hector is buried in Troy.



Timeline of Events

After nine years of war

Achilles refuses to fight because Agamemnon has taken

his prize, Briseis.

Twelve days later

Thetis appeals to Zeus to punish the Achaeans on

Achilles's behalf, and Zeus agrees.

The next day

A truce is called but is soon broken, and war resumes;

Paris and Hector both fight duels.

Two days later

Zeus takes control, driving back the Achaeans; Hector's

rampage kills many before night falls.

That night

Odysseus and Diomedes raid the Trojan army camped

outside the city.

In the morning

After Agamemnon's hour of glory, the Trojans advance

and wound many Achaean heroes.

As the day continues

After Hector and the Trojans reach the ships, Patroclus

enters the battle and is killed.

The next day

With new armor from the gods, Achilles returns to the

war and kills Hector.

Twelve nights later

After Priam's personal appeal to bury his son, Achilles

returns Hector's body.

On the 11th day



After a period of mourning, Hector's body is burned and

his bones are buried.

The Iliad Study Guide Book Summaries 12


c Book Summaries

Book 1

Summary

In the tenth year of the Trojan War, Achilles, the greatest

fighter for the Achaeans (the Greeks and their allies), is

enraged. King Agamemnon, who leads the Achaeans, has

brought an illness upon the army by refusing to give up a

woman, Chryseis, whom he seized as a prize in a recent battle.

Chryseis is the daughter of a priest of the god Apollo. When

Agamemnon refuses to give her back in exchange for a

ransom, her father calls on the god, and Apollo sends a plague.

When Achilles calls on Agamemnon to give up Chryseis in

return for future compensation, Agamemnon seems to view

the idea of future compensation as unlikely for a warrior who

lives moment by moment and demands immediate restoration

of his pride by claiming Briseis, the woman Achilles has taken

as a prize. Only the intervention of Athena stops Achilles from

killing Agamemnon at that moment, and he vows Agamemnon

will beg for his skills one day. Achilles refuses to fight and

appeals to his mother, the goddess Thetis, to avenge his pride.

Thetis secures the pledge of Zeus, king of the gods, that the

Achaeans will lose the war until the insult to Achilles's honor

has been repaired.

Analysis

As stated in its iconic first line, The Iliad is about the

consequences of Achilles's rage. Why is he angry? It's all about

pride and honor. Honor is a sacred concept in the ancient

world. The Greek word for honor also means price or value,

closely connecting honor with riches and prizes. Thus,

Agamemnon's loss of a highly valued prize is also a significant

loss of honor. However, it seems there would also be honor in

giving up something of value to protect his army. But

Agamemnon's pride gets in the way of his considering it, even

for the promise of valuable future prizes.

Agamemnon will only accept the immediate replacement of

Chryseis with an equal prize. He zeroes in on Achilles who

stands up to him. Each man insults the other's honor and pride:

Achilles calls Agamemnon greedy and a coward, and

Agamemnon disdains Achilles's battle skills. Nestor's

unsuccessful appeal for peace between them is an attempt to

soothe each man's honor. When Agamemnon takes Briseis, not

only is Achilles dishonored, but also his mother Thetis by

extension. Agamemnon has not only insulted his greatest

warrior but he has also insulted the gods, bringing to boil all the

ingredients that advance the plot. Many later readers of The

Iliad would also have been aware that Agamemnon also has

the blood of his daughter Iphegenia on his hands because he

sacrificed her life to gain the winds in the sails of his stranded

ships on their way to Troy prior to the events of The Iliad. They

might also have known that Agamemnon was murdered by his

wife after his return from the war partly in vengeance for the

murder of their daughter. Although these stories are not part of

The Iliad, they add to the modern reader's understanding of the

character of Agamemnon and the arrogance that led him to

risk all in serving his pride and achieving his ends.

Throughout the poem the gods pull the strings of the human

world. The conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon has

obvious roots in human nature, but it would not have developed

without the plague sent by Apollo. Hera, the queen of the gods,

also contributes by prompting Achilles to seek the cause of the

plague. To the ancient Greeks, both internal motivations and

events beyond human control could be explained as the work

of the gods. Achilles is only prevented from killing Agamemnon

by the goddess Athena, emphasizing the power of his rage as

beyond human control.

Recognizing features of the improvisational oral performance

tradition in which The Iliad was developed helps make sense of

the poem. Recurring characters and objects are often referred

to with epithets (characterizing words or phrases). Each

character or object can be described a number of ways.

Achilles is often described as "swift runner," "dear to Zeus,"

and "godlike." Apollo is usually referred to by his role as an

archer, and the Achaean ships are often "black," "swift," or

"beaked." In a performance, the poet chooses the description

that fits the number of syllables needed to fill out the poetic

line. The repetition of descriptions also helps listeners quickly

identify recurring characters and objects. Some epithets are

used for multiple people or things, such as the application of

"lord of the war cry" to Menelaus, Diomedes, and occasionally

others.



Book 2

Summary

To fulfill his promise to Thetis, Zeus sends Agamemnon a

dream that he will defeat Troy, leading him to believe all the

gods support him. Agamemnon gathers the troops, and in an

act of trickery tests their will to fight by encouraging them to

sail for home. Soldiers rush for the ships, but Odysseus and

Nestor both berate and inspire the troops, recalling the signs

that foretold their victory. Agamemnon commands the army to

prepare for battle, and he makes sacrifices to Zeus.

Seeing the Achaean army organizing, the Trojans muster as

well. The poet celebrates the origin, commander, and strengths

and talents of each group in both armies. Achilles and his

Myrmidons are catalogued but, true to Achilles's vow, will be

sitting out the upcoming battle.

Analysis

Homer starts both his epics—The Iliad and The Odyssey—in

medias res, meaning "in the middle of things." It is revealed in

Book 2 that the Achaeans and Trojans have already been

fighting for nine long years. Homer only refers to the cause of

the war in passing. He assumes that his listeners know the

whole backstory: Zeus (wisely not wanting to do it himself)

appointed Prince Paris of Troy to judge which of the

goddesses—Hera, Athena, or Aphrodite—was most beautiful.

Paris picked Aphrodite because she promised him the love of

the most beautiful mortal woman in the world. Unfortunately,

that was Helen, the wife of Agamemnon's brother, Menelaus.

When Helen ran away with Paris, the Achaeans gathered allies

and attacked Troy. So Paris's choice has brought down the

hatred of the powerful goddesses Hera and Athena upon his

city of Troy.

Homer's distinctive epic similes—extended comparisons

between elements of the story and scenes from nature and

everyday life—first appear in Book 2. In this section the

Achaean army is compared to swarming bees and flies, a

wildfire, and circling flocks of birds. Although these images

evoke life outside of the war that dominates the poem, many

contain suggestions of the aggression, violence, or destruction

of war. The bees are "dark hordes," "seething over spring

blooms"—an image more threatening than peaceful. Only the

simile comparing captains splitting the army into groups to

"seasoned goatherds" with their flocks is relatively organized

and peaceful. The overall effect is a sense that war and

conflict are integral parts of life.

As at the beginning of the poem, Homer invokes the help of the

Muses in Book 2 to list and describe the commanders of the

Achaean army and where they come from. The Muses are

goddesses of the arts and literature. This lends the human

poet superhuman knowledge of what ancient Greeks regarded

as historical events. This long catalog of places and

backgrounds may be boring to modern readers, but Greek

listeners would have been thrilled to hear their city or area

celebrated in the entertainment of the day.

The repetition of passages is another feature of oral poetry,

from simple phrases up to long chunks of the poem. At the

beginning of Book 2, Zeus dictates his message for

Agamemnon in a personified dream. The dream repeats it

nearly verbatim to Agamemnon. Agamemnon then relays the

whole dream in exactly the same words to his troops.

Descriptions of the ritual of sacrifice in other sections of the

poem often repeat part or all of the description in Book 2.

These repetitions highlight and reinforce important ideas for

listeners (who cannot go back and reread if they didn't

understand something the first time). They also give the poet

time to think ahead to the next section to be performed.

Book 3

Summary

Paris boldly strides in the front rank of the Trojan forces, but

he hides when he sees Menelaus, Helen's abandoned husband,

in the approaching Achaean army. Hector denounces Paris for

being more beautiful than brave, and Paris doesn't argue.

However, his pride is hurt. He proposes settling the conflict

over Helen in single combat with Menelaus. Hector accepts the

challenge, and the goddess Iris summons Helen to watch.

Joining Priam on the walls, she identifies and describes the

Achaean champions—Agamemnon, Odysseus, Great Ajax, and

Idomeneus.

Priam offers sacrifices to bind the agreement, but cannot bear

to stay and watch Paris be killed. Neither Paris nor Menelaus



wound each other with spear throws, and Menelaus's sword

breaks on Paris's helmet. Menelaus gets the upper hand and

attempts to strangle Paris with his helmet strap. At this turn of

events, Aphrodite intervenes and saves Paris, spiriting him

away to his bedroom. She then brings a resistant Helen to him.

After Helen mocks Paris's cowardice, they make love. Unable

to find Paris, Agamemnon declares Menelaus the winner and

demands Helen's return.

Analysis

After meeting the major Achaean players in the first two books,

the audience is introduced to the main Trojan characters in

Book 3. Helen is depicted as a sympathetic character. She

deeply regrets the cost of the conflict being fought over her,

maligning herself and wishing she had died before running

away with Paris. She wonders if her brothers aren't in the

Achaean army because they are ashamed of her. (Tragically,

as Greek audiences knew, they are actually dead.) After her

past history with Aphrodite, Helen recognizes and resists

Aphrodite's urging to join Paris in his bedroom. She doesn't

seem to like Paris much at that moment, criticizing him for

cowardice. However, Aphrodite has the power to bend Helen

to her will and make her continue to love Paris. This situation

echoes the condition of Dido in relation to Aeneas in the later

epic The Aeneid. Viewing divine intervention as an explanation

for human mysteries, readers recognize Helen's feelings for

Paris as deeply conflicted—she both loves and despises him.

Unlike Helen, Paris doesn't seem to feel much shame or

responsibility for his role in starting the war. Instead, Hector is

the one who wishes Paris had died before bringing doom upon

their city. Here Paris is motivated more by pleasure and self-

preservation than by honor. It takes Hector calling him "a curse

to your father, your city and all your people,/... rank disgrace to

yourself!" to prompt him to the honorable idea of a duel. But his

enthusiasm for combat wanes quickly. He is not in the least

upset to end up back in his bedroom with Helen, leaving the

army to continue fighting while he enjoys the spoils. It's not

surprising the Trojan army hates Paris "like death, black death."

Past the age of fighting for glory and honor, Priam is the

character most connected with his humanity. The other Trojan

elders, not without reason, want to send Helen back to save

their city. However, Priam does not blame Helen and treats her

compassionately despite all of the trouble she has brought on

Troy.

Book 4

Summary

On Olympus, the gods argue over the war. Zeus suggests that

the peace hold and Helen go home with Menelaus, both

because Troy is his favorite city and to mock Hera's and

Athena's passion for the death of Trojans. Hera protests she

wouldn't object if Zeus destroyed all her favorite cities, so he

shouldn't protest the destruction of Troy. Zeus yields and

sends Athena to provoke Troy to break the truce.

Disguised as a soldier, Athena urges Pandarus, a Trojan

archer, to kill Menelaus. His arrow hits Menelaus in the belt and

draws blood, but Athena doesn't actually want Menelaus dead

and prevents a mortal wound. However, the truce is broken.

Agamemnon uses praise and scorn to rouse his troops, and

the Achaean army surges in violent waves to the attack. As

gods drive them on, warriors on both sides die in droves.

Analysis

As Book 4 begins, the gods are arguing about mortals as usual.

Unlike in most modern religions, the Greek gods embody all of

the same passions and flaws as humans. They also freely

interact with humans to persuade them into action through

reason and emotions. The difference is they cannot die. This

makes their conflicts seem somewhat trivial, even comical, in

contrast to the death and destruction happening down on

earth. Because they face no consequences, they take more

pleasure in the conflict than the mortals, for whom it is a deadly

serious business. With a truce declared, there is a real chance

that the war can be ended peacefully, but Hera and Athena

keep it going to avenge their own injured pride.

War erupts in the second half of Book 4. Although he alludes to

the death of foot soldiers, Homer primarily focuses on

individual clashes between champions and other notable

fighters. His descriptions of the deadly wounds fighters inflict

on one another are brutal but also based on a consistent

formula. Spears, arrows, swords, and rocks crush, stab, slash,

and rip a rotating list of body parts, with the occasional

embellishment of an organ or other internal element. Homer

rearranges these basic elements with different specific details

to create an almost endless variety of battle deaths.



Stripping armor from fallen enemies or taking possession of

their horses is an important element of battle. These are

valuable prizes, and claiming them both increases the winner's

honor and dishonors the dead fighter. Seizing this honor is

important enough that fighters make themselves vulnerable in

the middle of battle to do so, sometimes with fatal

consequences. After the first battle death described in the

poem, another fighter immediately attempts to strip the gear

off the body of the dead man and is killed because he exposes

his side in the process.

Neither side is portrayed as better than the other in the

poem—fighters from both sides die the same tragic deaths.

This is illustrated poignantly at the end of Book 4 with an

image of two dead fighters from opposite sides lying next to

each other as men from both sides of the conflict die around

them.

Book 5

Summary

Athena empowers Diomedes, who is one of the best fighters in

the Achaean army, and he sweeps through the Trojan troops.

The archer Pandarus shoots him in the shoulder, but Diomedes

appeals to Athena. She willingly renews his strength and gives

him the power to see the gods on the field, telling him not to

fight most of them—but go ahead and spear Aphrodite!

Aeneas and Pandarus go after Diomedes to turn the tide, but

Athena guides Diomedes's spear to kill the archer, and he

crushes Aeneas's hip with a boulder. Aeneas's death is

imminent, but Aphrodite appears to carry him away.

Remembering Athena's directive, Diomedes stalks the goddess

and slashes her wrist. Aphrodite screams, drops Aeneas, and

flees to her mother. Luckily, Apollo takes over, bringing Aeneas

to be healed and later returning him to battle. Apollo also

brings Ares back to fight for the Trojans because an Achaean

just wounded his sister.

As the fighting continues, heroes on each side take vengeance

for the deaths of their men. Diomedes warns the Achaeans to

avoid Hector—Ares is helping him. After a number of clashes,

the Achaeans start to fall back. Alarmed, Hera and Athena gear

up for war and secure Zeus's permission to deal Ares a

"stunning blow." Hera shames the Achaeans, recalling that

Achilles never let the Trojans out of their gates. Athena helps

Diomedes spear Ares in the stomach. The god of war flees to

Olympus, and Hera and Athena follow, having accomplished

their goal.

Analysis

Book 5 is primarily Diomedes's aristeia, an extended passage

in an epic celebrating a hero's "best work," although the

exploits of others and actions of the gods are interspersed

through it. This is the first aristeia of many in the poem and the

longest and bloodiest except for Achilles's in Books 20–22.

Typical of an aristeia, Diomedes is inspired and empowered by

a god (Athena), his glorious armor is highlighted, and he

triumphs despite being wounded. Many epic similes describe

the hero. In several similes typical of battle scenes, Diomedes

sweeps through the Trojans like raging water and attacks like

a "claw mad" lion.

The concerns of the gods again seem petty compared to the

seriousness of battle for the mortals. The gods have little

regard for the consequences of their actions for humans,

unless they are protecting a favored individual. Mainly, they

seem concerned with opposing the other gods. Neither

Aphrodite nor Ares handle their wounds well, both running

home and whining about it to a parent as soon as they are hurt.

The contrast with Diomedes's reaction after he is wounded is

striking.

When not focusing on Diomedes, Homer alternates the killings

pretty evenly between the two sides of the conflict. This

rotating perspective keeps the action from becoming

monotonous and builds the suspenseful ebb and flow of battle.

The poet frequently gives the background of the fighter who is

about to die, emphasizing the loss to his army and homeland.

Vengeance killings form another pattern in the poem, such as

Aeneas killing two Achaean captains after his comrade

Deicoon is killed by Agamemnon.

Taunts are a frequent and important element in battle.

Comrades challenge each other's bravery and honor to get in

the battle mood. Sarpedon does this by telling Hector his

Lycians are doing more than Hector's Trojans to defend Troy.

In battle, fighters also taunt their opponents to dishearten

them, such as when Heracles's son reminds Sarpedon that his

father successfully sacked Troy. Even the gods get in on the

taunts—Hera shames the Achaeans by saying Achilles never



let the Trojans out of their gates.

Book 6

Summary

As the Achaeans drive the Trojans back toward their gates,

Menelaus catches a Trojan charioteer. The Trojan begs to be

ransomed, and Menelaus is moved to grant the request. But

Agamemnon wants "all Ilium blotted out"—no one will be

spared. Together they kill the begging Trojan.

On the advice of his brother Helenus, a seer, Hector returns to

Troy to ask the queen to make an offering to Athena.

Meanwhile, Diomedes and Glaucus (a Trojan ally) meet on the

battlefield. Diomedes wonders who Glaucus is because he's

never noticed him before. Glaucus recites his lineage, and they

discover their forefathers once exchanged friendship gifts. The

two fighters also declare friendship and exchange armor.

Inside Troy, Hector rouses Paris to join the fighting and then he

visits his wife, Andromache, and baby son, Astyanax.

Andromache fears for Hector, wanting him to withdraw from

the fighting, but his honor will not let him—he would "die of

shame." The horsehair on his helmet frightens his son when he

moves to hug him. He removes it and throws the boy into the

air, and the family shares a moment of laughter. As Hector

returns to battle, Andromache grieves as if he were already

dead.

Analysis

Two scenes illustrate brutality and humanity in war: Menelaus

is inclined to show mercy to the captured Trojan charioteer,

but Agamemnon calls for the complete destruction of

Troy—"all Ilium blotted out,/no tears for their lives, no markers

for their graves!" He would not spare even the "baby boy still in

his mother's belly," a statement that does not bode well for the

future of Hector's baby son, Astyanax. This is a brutal new

phase of war.

However, Glaucus and Diomedes manage to find a human

connection in the middle of the war. In this case their

connection is based on a pledge of guest-friendship made by

their forefathers through the exchange of gifts. Guest-

friendship was considered sacred and, as demonstrated here,

can be passed down through generations. (Among other

offenses, Paris violated the guest-host relationship with

Menelaus by running away with Helen.) The peaceful honor of

guest-friendship triumphing over the honor and glory to be

gained in battle is a hopeful sign for humanity.

The scene with Diomedes and Glaucus also contains a

profound epic simile in which Glaucus compares the lives of

mortals to generations of leaves that die and bud again in the

spring. It is the cycle of life, a hopeful image, but with a dark

shadow. He and Diomedes are the old leaves who are due to

die and be blown away and forgotten: Glaucus brings up this

simile in response to Diomedes's request to know his lineage.

Homer doesn't just celebrate honor and glory in The Iliad, he

also explores their costs. In this section, Andromache fears the

consequences of Hector's courage and begs him to take a

more defensive approach to the war. Although he is also

tortured by the thought of terrible consequences—to his family,

the city he loves, and especially his wife—if he should lose, his

sense of honor will not allow him to take a less glorious path.

When he prays for his son, he wishes him to be glorious rather

than for him to survive. In the values of the ancient world, life

without honor is not worth living.

Book 7

Summary

The return of Hector and Paris reinvigorates the Trojan troops.

Alarmed, Athena rushes back toward the battle, but Apollo

proposes they end the fighting for the day with a duel. Athena

sends a telepathic message to the seer Helenus: Hector

should challenge the strongest Achaean to fight. Prompted by

wise old Nestor, Achaean heroes volunteer, and Great Ajax is

selected by drawing lots.

Hector is intimidated by the giant, but he doesn't waver. He

attacks boldly, but each blow is blocked by Ajax's huge shield.

Ajax's return blows come very close to wounding Hector

seriously, and he finally knocks him over with a great rock.

Because night is coming on, they agree to end the duel,

exchanging goodwill gifts.

Neither side is eager to resume fighting the next day. A Trojan



adviser suggests returning Helen, but Paris will not give her up.

However, he does offer the treasure he took with her, plus

more. Sensing weakness, the Achaeans reject Paris's treasure

but agree on a day for burial of the battle dead. They also take

the opportunity to build a wall with a trench in front of it around

their ships. Sea-god Poseidon objects to the wall, but Zeus

chides him, saying he can wash it away as soon as they leave.

Analysis

Homer builds parallels throughout The Iliad in which an event in

one group is mirrored in a scene of another group. (See the

conflicts in Book 1, first between mortals and then between the

gods.) In Book 7, the desires and actions of Achaeans and

Trojans mirror each other in many ways. In the duel Hector

attacks with a weapon; then Ajax counterattacks with the

same weapon, usually doing a bit more damage. After the duel

both sides go home and eat, and both wish to bury their dead.

Homer references the grief of the Trojans as they burn their

dead to describe the grief of the Achaeans. In so doing, Homer

lays the foundation of compassion that finally finds its way to

Achilles when Priam petitions him for the body of his slain son,

Hector. Common cause and the recognition of it binds enemies

to the same principles of honor.

Burial rituals were extremely important to the ancient Greeks.

As Patroclus's ghost points out in Book 23, they believed that a

person's spirit could not enter the world of the dead until they

were properly buried. In The Iliad, bodies are usually burned on

pyres. The remaining bones are either interred in a decorative

jar or box, or are buried in an earth tomb mounded over the

site of the fire.

Like many of the gods's reactions, Poseidon's anger at the end

of the chapter is petty—he mostly seems worried that the

Achaeans's wall is going to take away from the glory of the wall

he built around Troy. But it's also a reminder of an important

principle: The gods should always be respected because they

can wipe away human works at a whim.

Book 8

Summary

On Olympus, Zeus has had enough. He forbids the other gods

from interfering in the war and goes off to the mountains of Ida

near Troy to take charge. He weighs the fate of the two armies

on his scales, and the Achaeans lose. Zeus drives them back

with thunderbolts. Even bold Diomedes retreats. Hector and

the Trojans advance, vowing to break down the Achaeans's

new wall and burn their ships. The Achaeans are in danger of

being wiped out. Hera rants at Poseidon, but neither wants to

defy Zeus.

Agamemnon rallies the Achaeans and prays to Zeus to allow

his men to live. Zeus sends a sign of assent. Achaean fighters

kill some Trojans, but Zeus then spurs on Hector, who pushes

Achaean fighters back against their own walls. Furious, Hera

and Athena head for battle again despite Zeus's warning. He

sends Iris to warn them off, telling them Hector will rampage

until Achilles returns to battle.

Down on earth, night ends the fighting. Feeling victory is

imminent, Hector has his army camp on the plain to ensure the

Achaeans can't sail away. They watch fires blaze like stars.

Analysis

Until this point in the story Zeus has largely stayed out of the

war, mostly overseeing the squabbles of the other gods and

sending the occasional dream. Now he takes direct control,

changing the dynamics considerably. Before, the gods fighting

for each side tended to balance each other out, not giving

either army too much of an advantage. But then Zeus sets his

will against the Achaeans. Not even the bravery of Diomedes

can save them from disaster. He slightly counteracts his own

will by giving the Achaeans a bit of a rally to answer

Agamemnon's prayer. But he makes it clear to Hera that the

Achaeans will continue to lose until Achilles stops sulking and

fights.

This section contains a number of significant symbolic objects.

The Achaean ships represent home and escape to their army,

so Hector's intention to burn them is a direct threat to their

survival. Without any means of escape they would be trapped

and slaughtered—and this is exactly what Hector wants to do.

Zeus's scales symbolically weigh the fates of the two armies,

and they tip against the Achaeans. Rather than determining

fate, the scales seem to be an official indicator of what has



already been decided. Zeus's promise to Thetis means the

Achaeans must lose until Achilles relents. However, the scales

provide a sense of fairness and balance that makes Zeus's

intervention more detached than the meddling of the other

gods.

Zeus's rebuke of Hera portends an important future event—at

some point Achilles's comrade Patroclus will die. He also says

Hector will not stop fighting until then. Because Hector is

unlikely to ever stop fighting to defend his city, this likely

means his death as well.

Book 9

Summary

There is panic in the Achaean camp. Agamemnon fears they

must sail home, but Diomedes argues against such cowardice.

He still has faith in Zeus's promise of their victory. Nestor

calms everyone and says it's time to approach Achilles.

Agamemnon offers great treasure—the return of Briseis, future

plunder, one of his daughters, and seven cities—to Achilles if

he will fight again and acknowledge his authority. Three

captains deliver his proposal: Great Ajax, Odysseus, and old

Phoenix, who raised Achilles.

Odysseus appeals to Achilles's responsibility to help his fellow

Achaeans. Achilles refuses the treasure and threatens to sail

home. He doesn't want Agamemnon's payoff, "not if his gifts

outnumbered all the grains of sand/and dust in the earth"—he

wants to preserve his pride. Phoenix asks Achilles to forgive,

telling a story of an angry prince who lost the honor of rich

gifts because he waited too long to relent. However, Achilles

doesn't want honor that way; Zeus has promised him honor

enough if he stays. Ajax urges him to earn the love of his

comrades and puts Achilles's loss in perspective. Achilles

responds more warmly to Ajax, but he still will not fight until

Hector burns the ships.

When Odysseus and Ajax deliver Achilles's message, the

Achaeans are stunned. Finally, Diomedes says not to mind

Achilles. They will sleep and Agamemnon will lead them bravely

in the morning.

Analysis

In Agamemnon's and Achilles's second interaction in the poem,

this time through intermediaries, issues of pride and honor are

again central. The turn that the war has taken forces

Agamemnon to bend his pride enough to admit fault, but only

as much as he has to. He claims "mad, blind I was," deflecting

responsibility onto a disordered state of mind rather than a

choice he made. And he is not exactly humbled. The wealth of

prizes he offers to honor Achilles is contingent on Achilles

submitting himself to Agamemnon as the greater king.

Achilles bends his pride even less. Even though Odysseus

wisely leaves out Agamemnon's demand for Achilles to bow to

him, Achilles apparently notices the lack of an apology. He

doesn't trust Agamemnon to make good on his offer of rich

prizes, and he doesn't want them anyway. He seems to have

given up on prizes as a means of achieving honor, saying the

only honor he needs is the fate that Zeus has decreed for him,

the honor of a glorious death. Because he doesn't have long to

live, prizes would be of little practical use; something of an

echo of Agamemnon's refusal to take stock in future glories

and prizes. A warrior's enjoyment of them is very brief.

Achilles's positive response to Ajax's appeal shows he values

the respect of his comrades (although he doesn't seem too

bothered that they're dying without him). But he just can't

forgive the insult to his pride. Up to this point Achilles's anger

has seemed fairly justified. However, he starts to lose the

audience's sympathy when he turns down an extravagant (if

not humble) offer of compensation and stubbornly holds onto

his pride and anger. Achilles, more than other fighters, is

described as and acts godlike. The pettiness of his reaction

calls to mind the grudges of gods such as Hera and Poseidon.

The many speeches in Book 9 are demonstrations of the skill

of oratory, or effective public speaking. The Greeks considered

it to be as valuable as skill in battle. Phoenix references these

two values when he says he raised Achilles to be "a man of

words and a man of action." Odysseus's speech is the most

formally structured, making a series of different appeals to try

to change Achilles's mind. Each speech demonstrates some

facet of oratorical skill.



Book 10

Summary

Agamemnon and Menelaus can't sleep with the Trojans

camped so near, so they rouse the other commanders for a

council. When Nestor proposes someone use the remaining

darkness to learn the Trojans's plans, Diomedes quickly

volunteers and selects Odysseus to go with him. Outfitted with

others' armor and weapons and backed up by the goddess

Athena, they sneak toward the Trojan camp.

In the Trojan camp, Hector has a similar idea and calls for a

volunteer. A man named Dolon says he will scout all the way to

Agamemnon's ship if Hector gives him Achilles's chariot and

horses as a reward. Sadly he has no chance. Diomedes and

Odysseus see him coming from a mile away and easily capture

him. Dolon tells them of a group of newly arrived Thracian allies

exposed on one edge of the Trojan camp. Odysseus has told

him he will live, but instead Diomedes kills him.

Diomedes and Odysseus sneak into the sleeping Thracian

camp and slaughter the Thracian king and a dozen of his men.

Before the god Apollo can wake some opposition, they drive

off in the king's chariot with his team of magnificent white

horses.

Analysis

Book 10 takes a break from the simple if chaotic head-on

battles described in the rest of the poem. Instead, it examines

the murkier realm of spying and psychological warfare. It may

be a necessary part of war, but it contains little in the way of

honor, casting Diomedes and Odysseus in a different light than

the rest of the poem.

Odysseus is described as crafty and cunning throughout the

poem. (Odysseus appears even more treacherous in Virgil's

characterization of him in The Aeneid.) In Book 10, he crosses

into brutal dishonesty when he falsely assures Dolon he will not

be killed. (Dolon would have been better off asking his captors

to swear to Zeus than having Hector do so for a prize that

hadn't been taken yet.) The same Diomedes who recognized

an enemy's claim to guest-friendship during the heat of battle

now kills a defenseless man and wonders what the

"worst/most brazen thing he can do" might be.

The loss of a relatively small number of fighters and one

chariot will not significantly weaken the Trojan army. However,

an attack at a vulnerable time and the loss of a valuable prize

would demoralize the Trojans. It also gives the Achaeans a

psychological boost at a time when they are losing badly.

The thematic, narrative, and linguistic differences between

Book 10 and other books in the poem have sparked debate

about its authorship since ancient times. Was it composed by

Homer to show a different aspect of war or added by a later

contributor? Regardless of the answer, it provides an exciting

interlude from the chaos of battle and a bit of a change in the

tide of the war for the Achaeans, who are currently suffering

crushing losses.

Book 11

Summary

In the morning the armies clash, wreaking destruction on both

sides. Then Achaean fighters begin to gain ground.

Agamemnon kills many enemies and drives the Trojan army

back to the gates of Troy. Allowing Agamemnon his hour of

glory, Zeus sends Hector a message to charge once

Agamemnon is wounded and retreats. At the signal Hector

advances, pushing back the Achaeans until Diomedes nearly

knocks him unconscious with a spear to the helmet. He

retreats back to his forces.

In quick succession most of the best Achaean fighters are

wounded and forced to retreat. Paris shoots Diomedes in the

foot with an arrow, leaving Odysseus vulnerable. He is also

wounded and is about to be overwhelmed when Great Ajax

arrives and beats back the Trojans. Hector, who is battling in

another area, rushes to block Ajax's advance but avoids

fighting him directly. Zeus forces Ajax to retreat, but he

nonetheless holds the Trojans back until others come to

support him.

Watching the battle from his ship, Achilles sends Patroclus to

identify the wounded fighter Nestor is bringing in. Nestor

wonders why Achilles cares about wounded Achaeans now

after so many have died for his pride. He suggests Patroclus

convince Achilles to return to battle, or at least let Patroclus,



wearing his armor, lead his troops and intimidate the Trojans.

They have little hope of holding off the Trojans otherwise.

Analysis

Book 11 begins with Agamemnon's aristeia, or "best work" in

the poem, a passage in which he dominates the fighting and

cannot be opposed. The traditional arming sequence is

extended to focus on a detailed description of Agamemnon's

arms and armor. They are gloriously decorated: precious

materials emphasize his richness, and the Gorgon on his shield,

which also appears on Athena's shield, symbolizes the support

of the gods. For a time, he turns the tide of battle against the

Trojans despite Zeus's plan for the Achaeans to be driven

back.

Zeus is still the only god allowed to intervene, and he mostly

works from afar to intimidate the Achaeans and nudge Hector

this way or that. The goddess Strife (or Hate in some

translations) appears as an extension of his will and a

manifestation of the brutality of war. Homer shows the cost of

this brutality throughout the poem, but he is by no means

condemning war. Although it is terrible, it is also a vital means

of winning the glory and honor that was so important in the

ancient world. In other words, it is an unavoidable part of life.

Achilles's reappearance in the narrative at the end of Book 11

starts the progression of events that leads to the fated deaths

of Patroclus, Hector, and (after the end of the poem) Achilles

himself. When Patroclus answers Achilles's call to question

Nestor, Homer says "from that moment on his doom was

sealed." After Nestor's suggestion that Patroclus pretend to be

Achilles in battle, the shape of that doom starts to become

clear.

Patroclus's character also sheds light on Achilles. Although

they are great friends and foster brothers, they are quite

different. The humanity of Patroclus's compassion for the

wounded fighter Eurypylus contrasts with Achilles's choice to

place his pride above the fate of his fellow Achaeans.

Patroclus himself even speaks with some disapproval of

Achilles's anger, saying he would "leap to accuse a friend

without a fault."

Book 12

Summary

As the Trojans advance on the Achaean wall, the poet reveals

that the gods will destroy it as soon as they depart. The trench

before the wall blocks their chariots, so Hector and his troops

attack on foot. One captain and his men race ahead toward the

still-open gates, but they are blocked and cut down by two

valiant fighters. The Trojans hesitate to follow when they see a

sign: an eagle bitten by the huge snake it is carrying.

Polydamas advises falling back, saying the sign means the

Achaeans will defeat them, but Hector mocks him and charges

the wall.

The two Ajaxes rally to defend the wall. Zeus sends his son

Sarpedon forward, and he fights through all opposition to rip a

section of the wall away. Achaeans rush to block the breach,

and neither side can push the other back. Finally, Zeus helps

Hector heroically lift a giant rock and smash it through the

gates, and Trojans stream over and through the wall to the

Achaean ships.

Analysis

More doom is foretold at the beginning of Book 12. In a

passage that jumps forward in time to predict the death of the

"best of the Trojan captains," Hector, and the Achaean victory

and departure "in the tenth year." Because there have already

been nine years of war, all of this is going to happen pretty

soon.

Hector's reaction to Polydamas's advice begins moving him

toward his doom. He takes Polydamas's first suggestion to

attack on foot because it promises "less danger, more

success." But he rejects Polydamas's accurate reading of the

bird sign warning of the Trojan defeat. It would mean

retreating, a dishonorable move, and an illogical one based on

how the battle is going—except for the sign. Hector decides to

ignore the omen and fight honorably for his home, fulfilling the

destiny laid out by Zeus that ultimately leads to his death.

Zeus gets more involved in orchestrating the conflict in Book

12, granting and denying specific fighters success and glory as

they struggle for control of the wall. Both sides of the war



claim his backing, but fighters are often confused about his

will. When the battle turns against them, more than one

Achaean rails at Zeus for breaking his promise that Troy will

fall before they sail for home. Fear shakes their faith in the

prophecy that supports them. In Book 12, Hector mistakes

Zeus's current favoritism for a promise of ultimate success and

ignores his sign to the contrary. As throughout the poem, the

intervention of Zeus can be seen as providing an explanation

for things that have no obvious explanation: the chaotic ebb

and flow of war and individual instances of inspiration and

extraordinary valor.

Book 13

Summary

With the Trojans through the Achaean wall, Zeus takes his

eyes off the fighting, and the sea-god Poseidon takes

advantage. He inspires Great Ajax, Little Ajax, and the troops

around them to hold back Hector. After his grandson is killed,

Poseidon inspires Idomeneus of Crete and his fierce aide

Meriones on the left of the battle. He doesn't dare openly

defend the Achaeans for fear of Zeus's punishment, but with

his support Idomeneus and other Achaeans kill or wound many

Trojans.

Polydamas successfully urges Hector to withdraw a bit and

regroup. Looking for his captains, he finds that many are dead

or wounded. However, Paris speaks bravely and raises

Hector's spirits. Now Zeus remembers to drive on the Trojans,

who advance like pounding waves. Great Ajax is not

intimidated, making a brave speech. Hector responds,

promising to kill Ajax and the Achaeans. With many war cries,

the armies clash again before the ships.

Analysis

Zeus, who has kept tight control of the action for the last few

books, now takes his eye off the ball. Gazing at the peaceful

land of Thrace to the north of Troy, he doesn't notice that

Poseidon defies his order of noninterference—it seems Zeus

isn't completely all-seeing. Poseidon manages to avoid

detection by waiting until Zeus is distracted, and staying

disguised and hidden. He avoids fighting directly for the

Achaeans, which would presumably attract Zeus's attention.

Instead he sticks to giving advice and whipping up morale. The

effects of Poseidon's intervention can also be viewed as the

bravery of desperation. The Achaeans rally because they have

nowhere left to retreat to and need to protect their ships,

without which they cannot survive.

The action in Book 13 displays more strategy than past scenes

of war. Leaders on both sides consider which part of their

fighting line needs to be reinforced. Hector's and the Aeantes's

(plural of Ajax) position in the center of the line illustrates their

central roles in the conflict—at this point the Aeantes are the

best fighters still unharmed on the Achaean side. Paris, who

has been less than heroic in most of his appearances, actually

demonstrates a fighting spirit that lifts up Hector at a time

when he is tired and discouraged.

The beginning of a pattern in the poem of warriors fighting to

protect their comrades's bodies can be seen in this section.

This interaction directly pits the honor of one side against the

other. Both collecting plunder from fallen enemies and

protecting a comrade's body can be honorable and glorious,

but only one side of each conflict can claim the honor.

Book 14

Summary

Hearing the sounds of battle, Nestor gathers the wounded

Achaean commanders. Agamemnon fears losing and proposes

sailing away while the army still fights. Odysseus

contemptuously rejects the idea, and Diomedes offers a better

plan: All the commanders should go to the front, not to fight

because they are wounded, but to inspire their army. On the

way to the front, Poseidon in disguise reassures Agamemnon

that the Trojans will retreat from the ships at some point.

On Olympus, Hera decides to distract Zeus. Making herself

beautiful as only an immortal can be, she tricks Aphrodite into

giving her a band that contains the power of love. She also

bribes the god Sleep to help her. She goes to Zeus on Ida, and

he is overcome with desire for her. Hidden in a cloud they

make love. Afterward, Sleep uses his power on Zeus and then

informs Poseidon he is free to fight for the Achaeans.

Inspired by Poseidon, the Achaeans prepare for more fighting,



giving the best fighters the best armor. The battle resumes,

and Great Ajax and Hector soon face off. Hector strikes Ajax

with a mighty spear throw, but it again fails to get through his

armor. Ajax crushes Hector with a rock for a second time, and

he begins to spit up blood. After Hector retreats, opposing

fighters trade insults and battle, and Poseidon turns the tide

against the Trojans.

Analysis

At the beginning of Book 14, top Achaean commander

Agamemnon must once again be talked out of giving up and

sailing away. At every setback he thinks Zeus has abandoned

his promise of victory. Seeing defeat as inevitable, he proposes

dishonorable survival, sailing away while part of his army still

fights. Choosing a safe return home over glorious and

honorable death is the opposite of Achilles's choice. Odysseus

roundly denounces this plan and calls him a disgrace. As the

audience knows, an Achaean defeat is not inevitable and

Agamemnon needs to have more faith in the gods.

This revelation of Agamemnon as faltering and faithless helps

explain why Achilles and other Achaeans resent his claim to

the bulk of the plunder they seize. For the first time

Agamemnon seems to feel some regret for offending Achilles,

but only insofar as how it directly affects him. He worries that

the men blame him for the current turn of events.

The gods again provide a humorous counterpoint to the brutal

slog of war down on earth. Hera, who never misses an

opportunity to take advantage, capitalizes on Poseidon's

success and uses all her wiles to keep Zeus distracted a little

longer. She comically takes advantage of Aphrodite's good will

to manipulate Zeus on his weakest point, his fondness for

beautiful woman. Although naive about Hera's intent, Aphrodite

is supreme in her own area, love, and Zeus is helpless to resist

the band she loans to Hera.

Book 14 also features Hector's second one-on-one face off

with Great Ajax, in which he again comes out the loser. This

illustrates the relative strength of each side's armies and

heroes. Hector is the strongest Trojan fighter, but he

consistently cannot stand up to the second-strongest fighter

on the Achaean side. And if he falls, there is no fighter nearly

as strong to replace him, whereas the Achaeans have a deep

pool of mighty warriors. Even with Zeus's help, Hector's

progress toward the ships is painfully slow and full of setbacks.

Homer portrays both sides sympathetically—both display

honor and fight heroically—but as the epic continues, it

becomes increasingly clear the comparative strength of the

Trojans just doesn't stack up.

Book 15

Summary

As the Trojans are driven back to their chariots outside the

wall, Zeus wakes up and sees what is happening. He threatens

to punish Hera, but she protests her innocence. Zeus seems to

accept her answer but puts her to work to undo Poseidon's

interference. She obeys, but not before goading the war-god

Ares into almost defying Zeus to avenge his son—he is only

stopped by Athena. Iris calls off a reluctant Poseidon, and

Apollo strengthens Hector and accompanies him back to the

battle.

The uninjured Achaean champions gather together to face

Hector and his army. With a war cry, Apollo shakes Zeus's

storm-shield at the Achaeans, who are struck with terror and

retreat. The god fills the trench and knocks down the wall for

the Trojans's charging chariots. But Nestor prays to Zeus for

help, and the charge stops just before the ships, with neither

side able to gain ground. With the ships in imminent danger,

Patroclus goes to persuade Achilles to fight.

Fighters rally to protect and avenge fallen comrades, first on

one side and then the other. The great archer Teucer aims at

Hector, but Zeus breaks his bow. Death comes to brave

fighters on both sides while Hector rampages, glorified by

Zeus with only a little time left. Finally, with Zeus's help, Hector

reaches a ship! Great Ajax stands alone on the deck fighting

off Trojan torches.

Analysis

Zeus's reaction to Hera's meddling and Poseidon's

interference in the war sheds light on the relationships

between the gods. Hera manages to wriggle out of punishment

by swearing her innocence. However, her oath on the river

Styx—a vow the gods cannot break—cuts the truth pretty fine.

It is true she did not send Poseidon to help the Achaeans, but

she seized the opportunity to assist him. If Zeus recognizes



this, he lets it go, perhaps in favor of preserving his relationship

with his touchy wife.

In addition to holding a grudge against the Trojans, Poseidon is

motivated by a rivalry with Zeus, his older brother. The first-

born Zeus is more powerful, but Poseidon bristles at having to

give up his own interests for Zeus's priorities. This parallels the

conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon. Achilles resents

Agamemnon, the more powerful king, who expects Achilles to

give up something he values for Agamemnon's whim. Poseidon

gives way rather than face Zeus's punishment—clearly he fears

his brother's power—but with a threat that calls to mind

Achilles's ultimatum.

Zeus reveals to Hera, and the audience, the full pattern of fate

to come: The audience has already heard that Achilles, Hector,

and Patroclus will die, but more details are revealed. Zeus's

son Sarpedon will be killed by Patroclus before he dies. After

Achilles kills Hector, the Achaeans will advance until they have

taken Troy, an event that occurs after the end of The Iliad. This

creates the tragic irony of the audience knowing Hector's fate

even as he gains ground in battle and boasts of Zeus's

support.

When Hector finally battles through to the Achaean ships, with

one about to be set on fire, Zeus's promise is fulfilled. From this

point on the tide of battle will turn, and the Trojans will be

driven back for the final time.

Book 16

Summary

Patroclus tells Achilles how badly the battle is going and scolds

him for his rage. If he will not relent, Achilles should at least let

Patroclus take his armor and troops into battle. Tragically,

Patroclus is begging for his own death. Achilles agrees but tells

Patroclus he should only drive the Trojans back from the ships,

not follow them to Troy. As the Trojans finally set fire to a ship,

Patroclus dons Achilles's armor and Achilles musters his

Myrmidons.

The fresh fighters turn the tide of battle, and Hector and the

Trojans break and run. In Achilles's chariot Patroclus sweeps

through the retreating Trojan army. Sarpedon turns to face

Patroclus, and they get out of their chariots to duel. Zeus

wants to save his son from his fate to be killed by Patroclus,

but Hera argues every god would then want to follow his

example. Zeus agrees but weeps as Sarpedon dies. Hector

and other Trojans return to fight a fierce battle to protect his

body.

However, Zeus decides to glorify Patroclus before he dies by

driving Hector back to Troy, and he makes Hector retreat. The

Achaeans get Sarpedon's armor, but Zeus sends Apollo to

take his body home for burial. Patroclus chases the Trojan

army to the walls of Troy, but Apollo holds him off. After he kills

Hector's chariot driver and many others, Apollo strikes him in

the back, knocking his armor and weapons away. A young

Trojan spears him in the back, and Hector finishes him off with

a spear to the gut. As he dies, Patroclus warns Hector of his

fate that Achilles will bring him down.

Analysis

As the story finally returns to Achilles in Book 16, his rage may

be waning a bit, but his injured pride is still as fresh as ever. He

continues to act without humanity, showing no concern for the

fate of the Achaean army—in stark contrast to Patroclus, who

is in tears over their plight. Patroclus accuses him of being

born not of gods and mortals but of the ocean and rocks,

forces with no feelings. Homer also creates a sense of tragic

irony related to Patroclus's fate. Achilles prays for his success

and safe return, but the poet reminds the audience the second

part of that prayer will not be answered.

Battles over fallen comrades become more significant in Book

16. The desire to protect Sarpedon's body motivates Hector to

return to battle where Hector and Patroclus face off in a literal

tug-of-war over the body of Hector's driver. Patroclus

eventually wins these face-offs and gains the glory of stripping

the bodies of armor. Zeus wants him to achieve glory in battle

before he dies.

As Patroclus rises in glory, Hector seems to diminish. He

retreats without being wounded twice in this section. Although

Homer says Zeus forces the second retreat to allow Patroclus

his glory, Hector's earlier retreat from the ships, abandoning

his fleeing army, seems out of character with his earlier

conduct. (Even a few short lines earlier he was guarding the

retreat.) Patroclus's death is strangely unheroic—for both him

and Hector. Apollo knocks his armor and weapons away,

allowing him to be stabbed in the back by one of the youngest



Trojans. As Patroclus points out, Hector only delivers the coup

de grâce—the gods did most of the work.

Zeus's decision not to save Sarpedon illuminates the

relationship between the gods and fate. Apparently, fate can

be changed because Zeus considers making an exception for

Sarpedon. However, even the king of the gods cannot block an

established fate without consequences. If he saves his son, the

gods will fail to respect him and think they can do the same,

leading to all sorts of problems.

Book 17

Summary

A fierce battle rages over Patroclus's body with gods assisting

fighters on both sides. Menelaus kills Euphorbus, the young

Trojan who stabbed Patroclus in the back, but backs off when

Hector joins the fight. Menelaus calls in Great Ajax to help him,

and together they drive Hector off before he can dismember

Patroclus. However, Hector does come away with Achilles's

armor, which he quickly puts on. Zeus disapproves—he will

empower Hector because he is about to die, but he has no

right to the famous armor.

Hector whips up his troops and allies, and Menelaus calls for

and challenges his own reinforcements. Having always liked

Patroclus, Zeus helps the Achaeans shield Patroclus's body.

First one side gains ground, and then the other pushes back,

but neither can move the other.

Hector, Aeneas, and others briefly try to seize Achilles's

horses, but they quickly focus back on the corpse. After Apollo

strikes fear in the Achaeans with Zeus's storm-shield,

Menelaus sends a messenger to Achilles, hoping he can help

retrieve Patroclus's body. In the meantime, Great Ajax

organizes fighters to carry the body off the field. Hector,

Aeneas, and the Trojans charge desperately, but the Aeantes

hold them off. The battle rages on like a flash fire.

Analysis

Issues of honor and pride run throughout Book 17. The central

conflict revolves around Patroclus's honor. The Achaeans want

to preserve it by protecting his body and possessions from

mutilation and theft, and the Trojans want to dishonor the body

of their enemy to gain honor for themselves.

Menelaus has a dilemma of honor as he first defends

Patroclus's body alone. Should he stand against Hector and die

or desert Patroclus who was there fighting for him? (Helen was

Menelaus's wife before running off with Paris.) He wisely fights

the urgings of pride to make a strategic retreat to find help.

This is one of the times in the poem that a mortal makes a

significant decision without the prompting of any god.

Menelaus's death would remove much of the justification for

the war. It might result in the Achaeans sailing home without

victory, as Agamemnon fears when Menelaus wants to duel

Hector in Book 7.

In contrast Hector gives in to his pride. Angry that Hector has

abandoned Sarpedon's body to the Achaeans, Glaucus calls

him a coward for running and says he can't stand up to Great

Ajax. Although (or perhaps because) Hector has already come

out on the losing end of two encounters with Ajax, this stings

his pride. He boasts overconfidently of Zeus's support and

rashly chooses to wear Achilles's armor. Many seeds of

Hector's ultimate destruction can be found in this scene.

Homer sometimes describes a darkness or fog that comes

over fighters in battle, a physical manifestation of the

confusion of war. In this section, Zeus deliberately places a

similar haze of battle around the Achaeans guarding Patroclus.

Descriptions contrast the hazy center with its close hand-to-

hand fighting with the battle on the flanks where fighters get

long breaks between combat and where the sun shines bright.

The haze hampers both the Trojans and the Achaeans. Ajax

must pray for it to be lifted to find someone to go to Achilles.

Book 18

Summary

Achilles has a bad feeling that Patroclus is dead even before

Menelaus's messenger arrives. Upon hearing the news,

Achilles tears his hair in sorrow and curses "anger that drives

the sanest men to flare in outrage." He will beat down his rage

at Agamemnon and return to the fight. The only thing to live for

is killing Hector. Achilles's mother, Thetis, laments that he must

die soon after Hector. Thetis tells him not to go into battle until

she returns. She will bring him new armor made by the god of



fire in the morning.

Meanwhile, Hector and Trojan fighters hotly pursue Patroclus's

body, preventing the Achaeans from escaping. Athena lends

Achilles powers of the gods, and his bloodcurdling war cries

from the Achaean wall sends panic through the Trojans.

Patroclus's body is brought inside the camp, and the Achaeans

mourn. Achilles vows Patroclus will not be buried until he kills

Hector. Fearing the consequences of Achilles's return,

Polydamas recommends the Trojans return to Troy that night

rather than camping on the plain, but Hector replies in pride

that he will never run from Achilles.

Thetis asks Hephaestus, the god of fire, to make her son new

armor. Because she helped him in the past, he gladly makes a

breastplate, helmet, greaves, and a spectacular shield

decorated with images of the heavens and the earth, peace

and war, and life and death.

Analysis

Patroclus's death changes everything for Achilles. He realizes

his rage against Agamemnon has led to the death of his

greatest friend. He had asked the gods for death for the

Achaeans, but he never thought that someone close to him

would be one who paid the price. Suddenly that anger doesn't

seem so important anymore. He briefly wishes that all anger

could be abolished from the world, but he is not capable of

letting go of anger himself. Instead he redirects all his rage,

supplemented by grief, at Hector, seeming completely

indifferent to Agamemnon in future encounters.

The shield that Hephaestus creates for Achilles is an

instrument of war but also a symbol of life. It is covered with

scenes that show the scope of human existence. The physical

world is represented in depictions of sky, earth, and sea. The

two cities contrast wartime and peacetime. Conflict exists

even in the peaceful city, but it is being resolved through civil

channels rather than violence. The scene of the second city

depicts the desperation and chaos of war. Significantly, it is the

only place the gods appear on the shield. Images of a field

being plowed, wheat being reaped, and grapes being

harvested represent the cycle of the seasons. A herd of cattle

attacked by two lions echoes many similes used to describe

rampaging warriors, connecting war to everyday life. The final

scene of young men and women dancing in a circle is an image

of life and renewal—all things come around again. War looms

large in the narrative, but the shield widens the focus to reveal

the larger context of life for which the war is being fought.

When Hera makes the sun go down, it is the first nightfall since

the beginning of Book 11. Patroclus's attack to drive the

Trojans back and the aftermath of his death have happened in

one long and bloody day. After so many significant battles, the

evening provides a welcome break in action. Both armies

gather for the night, with very different moods in each camp.

The Achaean camp is somber, dominated by mourning for

Patroclus's death. The Trojan camp, led by Hector, is

optimistic—a tragic irony because fate decrees that the army

will be defeated and Hector will die before returning to Troy.

Book 19

Summary

The next morning Thetis delivers Achilles's new armor, gives

him strength, and promises to keep Patroclus's body from

decaying. Calling his Myrmidons and the commanders of the

army together, Achilles foreswears his rage toward

Agamemnon and intends to immediately go into battle.

Agamemnon also speaks, again blaming the gods and

madness for his actions but promising Achilles the formerly

offered treasures and return of Briseis.

Completely indifferent to treasure, Achilles is eager to start

fighting immediately. But Odysseus insists the army needs

food to fight. Agamemnon quickly delivers the promised

treasures. Although he will not eat, Athena fuels Achilles for

battle with the food and drink of the gods, ambrosia and

nectar. He dons his new armor and boards his chariot, chiding

his immortal horses to keep him alive. Given voice by Hera, one

horse replies that they will save him once more, but they

cannot fight Achilles's fate that is coming soon. Achilles isn't

moved—he has already chosen his fate.

Analysis

The conflict that has driven the story to this point is resolved

as Achilles reconciles with Agamemnon. However, the

resolution is not due to any character growth on Achilles's

part—he has only changed the target of his rage from

Agamemnon to Hector. He continues to disregard the needs of



his own army. Instead, he is trying to impose his method of

mourning on everyone else. As Odysseus points out, if soldiers

were always fasting to mourn their fallen comrades, they would

never be able to fuel themselves for the next day's battle. They

have to be able to move on to fight and win glory.

Eating represents a degree of acceptance that life goes on

even after the most tragic events. It is an idea that will play a

significant role in Book 24 as well. Achilles's rejection of food is

a rejection of life and a fatalistic acceptance of his fated death.

To sustain him through battle, the gods grant him the privilege

of living off their own food and drink, again emphasizing his

nature as a demigod, being half mortal and half god.

Even as he pledges to reward Achilles for returning to the

battle, Agamemnon continues to deflect responsibility for his

actions. He blames his actions on the goddess Ruin, a

translation of the Greek Atê. This word has a range of

meanings, from the afflictions of "delusion," "madness," and

"infatuation," to their consequences "disaster," "doom," and

"ruin." Ancient Greeks viewed these strong feelings as being

from the gods rather than features of human nature that might

be subject to human control. Even Achilles blames his anger on

"the blinding frenzies" the gods send to mortals. However, from

a modern perspective Agamemnon's decision seems less like

"madness" and more like selfishness.

Book 20

Summary

Zeus calls the gods together and gives them permission to

intervene in the war however they wish. The gods pick sides

but are reluctant to start fighting directly. Apollo urges Aeneas

to go up against Achilles; his mother is a goddess too, a more

powerful one than Achilles's. Aeneas's spear doesn't pierce

Achilles's shield, and Achilles throws a killing shot in return.

Poseidon briefly switches sides to toss Aeneas to a different

part of the battlefield so he won't be killed. The move is meant

to preserve his destiny to survive the war and lead the

remaining people of Troy.

Hector wants to battle Achilles, but Apollo warns him to stay

with his troops. However, when Achilles kills Hector's youngest

brother, Hector can't hold himself back. He throws a spear at

Achilles, but Athena flicks it away. When Achilles attacks back,

Apollo wraps Hector in a protective mist and warns Achilles it

is not yet time for him to die. Achilles rages on, killing warriors

and allies of Troy without mercy.

Analysis

In another Homeric parallel, the council called by Achilles at the

beginning of Book 19 is echoed in the council of the gods

called by Zeus at the beginning of Book 20. Zeus gives the

gods free rein to intervene because Achilles could actually

overpower the Trojans without divine help, bringing down Troy

before its fated time. This suggests even mortals can change

fate in some cases if the gods don't actively counteract them.

Although Zeus is the god most responsible for ensuring that

fate is fulfilled, all the gods play their parts. For later Greeks

and Romans, fate was much more fixed, but Homer seems to

view it as the result of a complex interplay of the actions of

gods and mortals.

Poseidon actually briefly switches sides to ensure fate is

carried out when he rescues the Trojan hero Aeneas. He pities

Aeneas because he has always respected the gods, and he

has a destiny: "Aeneas will rule the men of Troy in power."

Hundreds of years later, the Romans took Homer's words as

prophecy and adopted Aeneas as an "ancestor" and the

founder of that city. Aeneas's destiny and impressive pedigree

seemed to explain and justify the greatness of Rome. The

Roman poet Virgil made Aeneas the hero of his own epic

poem, The Aeneid, which is modeled in many ways on Homer's

epics.

Two epic similes at the end of Book 20 describe Achilles at the

beginning of a long killing spree. Interestingly, they both work

together and contrast with one another. The first simile

compares Achilles to a rampaging fireball in a wildfire, an

image of uncontrolled destruction that repeats the frequent

comparison of battle to fire. The second simile compares

Achilles to a huge ox crushing grain for threshing (the process

that removes the husk of the grain so it can be consumed).

Although this is a peacetime task that sustains life, it also

evokes the violence of war, emphasizing Achilles's strength

and the crushing of his enemies. Sustenance and violence

coexist in the same image, suggesting they are part of the

same whole.



Book 21

Summary

Achilles pushes the Trojan army back, driving a portion of it

into the river Xanthus (also called Scamander), where he

slaughters huge numbers of enemies. Lycaon, whom Achilles

had captured in a previous battle, begs for mercy, but there is

none to be found in Achilles's heart. Filled with rage at

Patroclus's death, he cries, "Die, Trojans, die—/till I butcher all

the way to sacred Troy!" He kills so many that their bodies clog

the river.

This angers the god of the river, who nearly overwhelms

Achilles with waves, whirlpools, and floods. However, Hera

sends Hephaestus, the god of fire, to force back the river until

its god swears not to interfere with the fate of Troy. At this

point, the gods begin to fight each other directly. Athena

knocks Ares out and injures Aphrodite when she tries to help

him. Hera humiliates Artemis, sending her running home. Apollo

declines to fight Poseidon and retreats to protect Troy.

With the Trojan army completely routed, Priam flings open the

gates for the survivors, and Apollo distracts Achilles to protect

their retreat. He inspires Prince Agenor to attack Achilles.

When Achilles strikes back, Apollo disguises himself as Agenor

and lures Achilles away until the last Trojan fighters reach the

gates of Troy.

Analysis

Achilles's grief and rage results in the wholesale slaughter of

the Trojan army without a shred of mercy. The episode with

Lycaon highlights the difference between Achilles's past

actions, when he sometimes ransomed or sold fighters he

captured rather than killing them, with his current state of mind

in which no one will be spared. He only seizes some enemies

alive to later burn on Patroclus's funeral pyre. It is a practice

that greatly honors the dead but seems a little close to

barbarity, even from the ancient Greek perspective because it

is not a part of any other funeral in the poem.

Achilles's rampage is unstoppable, godlike. He even attacks

Xanthus, the god of the river, when he sides with the Trojans.

Because he is actually mortal, Achilles ends up having to call

for help, but he holds his own for an impressive length of time

against the elemental force of the river.

Despite the feeling that fighting because of mortals is beneath

them, for the first time the gods fight each other directly

without any mortals involved. The divine conflict both parallels

and contrasts with the mortal conflict playing out right beside

them. As the fighting between mortals grows more brutal and

deadly, fighting between the gods becomes more petty and

pointless, bordering on slapstick. They no longer make any

attempt to affect the course of the battle but simply act out

their personal conflicts, which are only loosely based on the

war.

Because the gods cannot die, they risk only temporary pain

and humiliation, and their struggles have no nobility or dignity.

They deal poorly with even minor injuries, running back to Zeus

as soon as they are hurt. The specifics of each attack seem to

fit the nature of the god being attacked. Artemis crushes Ares,

the god of war, with a boulder, a common type of attack in war.

Athena punches Aphrodite, the goddess of love and desire, in

the breasts. Hera boxes the ears of the huntress Artemis with

her own hunting implements.

Book 22

Summary

Apollo reveals he has tricked Achilles into letting the Trojans

escape, and Achilles runs back to Troy like a deadly star.

Despite the pleas of his parents, Hector waits outside the

gates alone. But when Achilles approaches, Hector breaks and

runs in fear. Achilles chases him around the plain of Troy,

always blocking him from the city. Apollo gives Hector extra

strength to flee for a time, but Zeus's scales declare his doom,

and Apollo departs. Disguising herself as Hector's brother

Deiphobus, Athena pledges to help him fight Achilles so that

Hector will stand and fight.

Hector proposes a pact that the winner will not mutilate the

loser's body, but Achilles has only rage in his heart, saying,

"There are no binding oaths between men and lions." Achilles

throws his spear first, and Hector dodges. Unbeknownst to

Hector, Athena then brings Achilles's spear back to him.

Hector's spear throw hits Achilles's shield dead center—and

bounces off. Hector calls to Deiphobus for another spear, but



there is no one there.

Realizing his fate is upon him, he charges with his sword.

Achilles spears him through a hole in the armor—his

armor—and slashes his neck. Dying, Hector begs Achilles to

ransom his body back to his parents for burial, but Achilles

responds, "dogs and birds will rend you—blood and bone!"

Achilles strips his body of armor and other Achaeans take

turns stabbing the body. As Achilles drags Hector's body back

to the Achaean camp behind his chariot, the whole city wails in

mourning. Hearing the cries, Andromache runs to the walls and

faints when she sees what has been done to her husband.

Analysis

Pride and honor finally bring Hector to his doom. Waiting at the

gates, he recognizes "reckless pride" made him reject

Polydamas's advice, and now he can't retreat without facing

dishonor. Andromache regrets Hector's "fatal headstrong

pride" that doesn't allow him to give ground to anyone.

However, that is also part of what makes him honorable and

heroic. Even as he begs Hector to return to the city, Priam

fears the disgrace of dying an old man in a conquered city (a

fate he will soon suffer), suggesting it is better to die young

gloriously.

Hector's vow to never run from Achilles goes out the window

when they come face to face. Whether or not it was intended,

the image of fighters running after each other across an empty

battlefield is a bit comical. However, the stakes—Hector's

life—could not be more serious. This scene also contains a

striking simile, comparing the chase to a nightmare in which

the dreamer can never catch what he is chasing, a theme

different from that of any other simile in the poem.

Achilles is his most godlike in battle (he needs no help from a

god to run endlessly and never gets tired) but least human.

Achilles doesn't even treat Hector as human, instead viewing

him as prey. He refuses to agree to respect Hector's body in

any way, threatening to "eat you raw" (the same sentiment is

attributed to Hera in Book 4). These two warriors represent

very different kinds of heroism. Achilles is all heroic strength

and fighting prowess, but he suffers from character

deficiencies. Hector displays the more heroic character,

valuing mutual respect even amid the horrors of war and in the

face of death.

Inextricably linked with Hector's doom, the impending doom of

Troy lies especially heavy in Book 22. Priam foresees, as

Andromache did in Book 7, that Troy will fall without Hector.

This makes the scene in which Andromache learns of Hector's

death especially poignant. She fears the fate of their son, who

will lack status without a father. Tragically, as Homer's

audience knew, his fate is much worse.

Book 23

Summary

After returning to the Achaean camp, Achilles and the

Myrmidons mourn Patroclus, and Achilles vents his anger by

abusing Hector's corpse. He vows he will not wash Hector's

blood off his body until he has buried Patroclus. Later Achilles

falls asleep on the beach. Patroclus's spirit visits him in a

dream, asking why he has forgotten him. His spirit cannot enter

the land of the dead until his body has been burned. Recalling

their shared childhood, Patroclus asks that their bones be

interred in the same jar when Achilles dies, which will be soon.

Achilles reaches out to hold Patroclus, but he slips away like

smoke.

The next day, the Achaeans build a pyre for Patroclus,

surrounding his body with slain animals, enemies, and other

goods. Achilles cuts a lock of hair he was letting grow as a

pledge to return to his father and burns it with Patroclus.

Achilles vows that dogs will eat Hector's body, but Aphrodite

and Apollo keep it safe from animals and the elements.

Achilles gathers the Achaeans for funeral games the following

day. Diomedes, with Athena's help, wins the chariot race.

Nestor's son Antilochus appeases Menelaus, who feels he

cheated, by giving up his second-place prize. Odysseus and

Great Ajax tie in the wrestling match, and Odysseus wins the

footrace. Warriors also compete in a boxing match, a duel, and

shot put and archery contests. Achilles awards Agamemnon

first place for the spear-throwing contest based on his

reputation.

Analysis

As he did in his argument with Agamemnon, Achilles takes his

anger against Hector too far, abusing his body at every



opportunity and killing captured enemies to burn with

Patroclus's body. As he cries to Patroclus, he is "venting my

rage on them for your destruction!" The appearance of

Patroclus's ghost emphasizes the importance of a proper

burial for the ancient Greeks, exactly what Achilles is denying

Hector. Achilles again expresses a feeling of responsibility for

Patroclus's death. Cutting the lock of hair he has been growing

out symbolizes his choice to die with glory in the war rather

than return home.

In the second half of Book 23, the audience gets a fascinating

glimpse of Achilles free of the effects of rage, which seems to

briefly take a backseat to his role as host of the games. He is

fair and diplomatic, graciously conceding to resolve a dispute

about prizes that contains echoes of his own conflict with

Agamemnon.

Games such as those described in this section played an

important role in Greek culture. They were a way for fighters to

win glory, honor, and prizes in peacetime, and they share many

attributes of war. The games test many of the same skills used

to make war, and boasting plays a similar role in the contests

as in battle. However, contests and arguments are not allowed

to proceed to the point of actual harm. Participants in the

games are as protective of their honor as in battle, as shown

by the disputes over the equitable awarding of prizes.

In addition to achievements in the games, position and

recognized skill are honored. Achilles wants to award second

prize in the chariot to the best driver who actually came in last.

(Ultimately he gives him a different prize.) Nestor is honored

with a leftover prize for his long and accomplished life as a

warrior. Achilles diplomatically declares Agamemnon the

winner in the spear-throwing contest without a competition, a

nod to his position as the overall commander of the army and

his pride.

Book 24

Summary

For the next several days, Achilles drags Hector's corpse

around Patroclus's tomb every time he misses his comrade.

Apollo protects the body from decay and damage, but Hera,

Athena, and Poseidon won't let the other gods steal it from

Achilles and return it to Hector's family. Zeus decrees a

compromise: Achilles will give up Hector's body for a ransom,

which Priam will bring in person and alone. With the treasures

gathered, Priam prays for a sign of approval and Zeus sends a

huge eagle in confirmation. Zeus sends the god Hermes, who

disguises himself as Achilles's aide, to hide him and guide him

safely to Achilles.

Arriving at Achilles's lodge, Priam kneels before him and kisses

his hands. Priam's appeal touches Achilles's heart, and they

weep together. Achilles agrees to give up Hector's body, but

when Priam suggests he sail home safely to his own father,

Achilles warns him not to tempt his rage. After ordering

Hector's body prepared, Achilles provides hospitality—food

and a bed for the night. Achilles pledges to hold off attacking

until Hector is buried.

Fearing Priam might be captured, Hermes wakes him before

dawn and guides him out of the Achaean camp with Hector's

body. Priam's daughter Cassandra sees him approach, and the

entire city gathers at the gates to receive its favorite son.

Andromache, Hecuba, and Helen sing songs of mourning that

highlight Hector's skill in battle, how the gods favored him, and

his kindness. After nine days of mourning, his body is burned

and his bones interred in a golden box. "And so the Trojans

buried Hector breaker of horses."

Analysis

Book 24 is a portrait of grief, from anger to compassion. Up to

this point Achilles has been stuck in anger fed by grief. At the

beginning of the section Apollo calls him "That man without a

shred of decency in his heart," all "brute force and wild pride,"

and no "shame that does great harm or drives men on to

good." Abusing the corpse of noble Hector offends the gods

and brings him no honor. However, when Achilles is asked to

give up Hector's body, it seems to open his ears, and he

actually listens to Priam. When they weep together, Achilles is

mostly crying for his own losses, but he also empathizes with

Priam's pain, recognizing that his own father will feel the same

grief after Achilles's fated death. The other concession he

offers Priam, to hold the Achaeans back from attacking until

Hector is buried, seems inspired entirely by his own

compassion with no prompting of the gods. He is finally putting

aside his godlike rage and finding his humanity.

This gentler Achilles is not likely to stick around for long,

though. The poet shows that his anger is not far from the

The Iliad Study Guide Quotes 30


surface, even now. He warns Priam not to insult his honor with

suggestions that he sail home without glory, and he avoids

rousing Priam's anger, fearing it will ignite his own rage again

and he will kill Priam in defiance of Zeus's decree. Other

characters also display anger in grief. Priam takes his pain out

on his remaining sons, saying he wishes they had died instead

of Hector. Hecuba (Hector's mother) is so angry she could

"sink my teeth in [Achilles's] liver, eat him raw!" echoing

Achilles's words to Hector in Book 22.

Eating plays a significant role in this section. In his grief,

Achilles isn't eating or sleeping. His mother, Thetis, asks him,

"How long will you eat your heart out here in the tears and

torment?" He seems to be living on rage rather than food.

However, after weeping with Priam he tells the story of Niobe

to urge Priam to eat. They dine together, symbolically providing

some healing for both their griefs.

The eagle of Zeus again appears in Book 24 as a sign of the

god's approval of Priam's trip to the Achaean camp. As an

animal with excellent vision, it also symbolizes that the gods

will help the king navigate successfully through the darkness.

The god Hermes, who acts as Priam's guide, is likewise

associated with clear sight.

The poet uses parallel events to bring the story structure full

circle. Chryses's appeal for the return of his daughter from

Agamemnon in Book 1 is balanced by Priam's appeal for the

return of his son's body in Book 24. The parallel is

masterful—the first appeal starts the conflict and the second

one ends it. The poet's choice to end the story with this

emotional resolution, rather than with a dramatic battle that

provides a military resolution, focuses the epic on the

characters's emotional journeys. The burial of Hector parallels

the burial of Patroclus and ends the poem with mourning

befitting not only Hector but all those who died.

The story of the Trojan War continues in many other stories,

including Homer's The Odyssey. (Tragically, Andromache's fear

that an Achaean will hurl Hector's son "down from the

ramparts" does foretell his fate.) However, the story of

Achilles's rage is done.

g Quotes

"O my son, my sorrow, why did I

ever bear you?/... doomed twice

over."

— Thetis, Book 1

It is a terrible thing for a parent to foresee the death of a child,

even a brawny, grown one. Thetis, the sea goddess who is

Achilles's mother, knows he is fated to die at Troy. (At least

that is one of his fates.) And now he must suffer dishonor for

much of his remaining time as well, compounding both their

sufferings.

"Now be men, my friends! .../Dread

what comrades say of you here in

bloody combat!"

— Agamemnon, Book 5

In the first battle in The Iliad, the leader of the Achaeans sums

up the significance of honor: it's basically what others say

about you based on your performance in battle. Fighters seen

cutting and running will be dishonored. He goes on to say fear

of dishonor makes fighters stand their ground together,

helping keep more of them alive.

"Zeus ... Grant this boy, my

son,/may be like me, first in glory

among the Trojans."

— Hector, Book 6

Hector prays over his baby son before he returns to battle.

Although he recognizes that the destruction of Troy, the death

of his family, and the capture and enslavement of his wife are

possible outcomes of continuing to fight, honor demands that

he continue to seek glory. Despite the costs, glory is also what

he most wishes for his son.

The Iliad Study Guide Quotes 31


"First they fought with heart-

devouring hatred,/then they

parted, bound by pacts of

friendship."

— Hector, Book 6

According to Hector, this is what will be said of him and Great

Ajax after their duel and exchange of gifts. This statement

emphasizes the conflicted relationship between the honorable

values of glorious combat and friendly respect. This pact of

friendship will not prevent them trying to kill each other the

next day, but the exchange of gifts is recognition that they

faced an honorable opponent.

"The same honor waits/for the

coward and the brave. They both

go down to Death."

— Achilles, Book 9

Although he has been very mindful of his honor in the past,

when Agamemnon offers Achilles extravagant prizes in Book 9

to replace the one he took, Achilles makes a couple of

statements, like this one, seeming to reject honor. Some think

Achilles realizes he doesn't need these honors because he is

going to die soon. Others believe he is rejecting the concept of

honor altogether.

"Even the gods themselves can

bend and change."

— Phoenix, Book 9

Phoenix asks Achilles to give up his anger and return to the

fighting. If the immortal gods can do it, so can Achilles. Of

course, not all the gods are capable of forgiveness—Hera,

Athena, and Poseidon all hold grudges against Troy—and

Achilles is not about to forgive either.

"Bird signs!/Fight for your

country—that is the best, the only

omen!"

— Hector, Book 12

This is the first time that Hector disdains Polydamas's advice,

and he continues to attack the Achaeans despite the bad

omen of an eagle dropping a snake it has caught after being

bitten by it. Polydamas rightly interprets that this bodes badly

for the Trojans. The second time Hector ignores his advice is

even more fateful.

"If only strife could die .../and

anger that drives the sanest man

to flare in outrage."


When he learns of Patroclus's death, Achilles briefly curses the

anger that kept him from protecting his greatest friend. He

wishes anger and strife could die from the world altogether. Of

course this is an impossible wish, and Achilles soon loses

himself in rage again, only redirected from Agamemnon to

Hector. However, it represents a brief moment of self-

awareness for this hero not otherwise given to self-reflection.

"So grief gives way to grief, my life

one endless sorrow!"

— Briseis, Book 19

Briseis is a hostage of war, seized when Achilles defeated one

of the towns around Troy. Other parts of the poem indicate

that these women were expected to help mourn along with

their captors. However, Briseis's sorrow over the death of

Patroclus seems genuine. She says he was kind and helped

her work toward regaining status by becoming Achilles's wife

rather than a slave. She has already lost her family, and now

The Iliad Study Guide Symbols 32


she has lost her best support among the Achaeans as well.

"Here was a man not sweet at

heart, not kind, no,/he was raging,

wild."

— Narrator, Book 20

This is how the narrator describes Achilles when he kills the

Trojan fighter Tros as he begs for his life. Achilles's rage is the

focus of the epic, and there is no room in his heart for mercy,

especially after his greatest friend in the world, Patroclus, has

been killed by the Trojans.

"Come, friend, you too must die.

.../Even Patroclus died, a far, far

better man than you."


As another Trojan begs for his life, Achilles displays the

fatalistic view that now governs his actions. His greatest friend

has died, and he will die soon as well. Death comes to

everyone, so what point is there to mercy?

"You ... were their greatest glory

while you lived—/now death and

fate have seized you."

— Andromache, Book 22

Hector's wife, Andromache, speaks these words after learning

of his death. Not only has fate seized Hector, it is about to

seize Troy. He was the city's protector, and without him it is

destined to fall.

l Symbols

Achaean Ships

For the Achaean army, their ships represent home and survival.

They are their home base, holding supplies and treasures, and

their means of flight if the war should completely turn against

them. The Achaeans are very protective of them. Each group

camps around its own ships, and they build a protective wall

around them once the Trojans start to gain ground outside the

city. Without the ships the Achaeans could not get home,

which is why when Hector begins getting close enough to burn

one of them, it is such a threat. They are also symbols of power

and might, crossing a sea to make war in a distant land. Homer

takes quite a bit of time in Book 2 to enumerate the ships of

each group and commander, representing relative strength.

Eating

Homer employs the ritual of eating, which is governed by social

rules, as a means of characterization in the poem. When

characters eat and how reveal important states of mind. After

the death of Patroclus, Achilles chooses not to eat breakfast,

showing his separation from his peers. When Achilles fights

Hector, he expresses a desire for cannibalism, illustrating his

distance from civilization. In the end Achilles shares a meal

with Priam, reconnecting with his humanism through this social

ritual.

Shield of Achilles

The most symbolic object in the poem, the shield that the god

Hephaestus makes for Achilles, represents the world outside

of the Trojan War and his status as the dominant warrior in the

conflict. The images on the shield depict scenes of war and

peace. Some of the scenes of everyday life include conflict or

violence that evokes the brutality of war. The circular dance

The Iliad Study Guide Themes 33


symbolizes the endlessness of time, and the Ocean River that

runs around all the images also bounds the world without end.

Achilles's shield is also invulnerable to attack. Spears go

through many other shields, but not his. His superior armor

(particularly the shield) represents his special status in the

conflict that glorifies him and distances him from his comrades.

However, even his divine armor will not prevent his eventual

death.

Armor

Armor symbolizes glory and honor. The finer the armor is the

more prestigious its wearer. To take an enemy's armor is to

strip him of honor and take it for oneself. This causes fighters

to expose themselves to harm on the battlefield to take this

prize.

Armor also has great value as a symbol of trust and goodwill.

When Glaucus and Diomedes meet in battle, they realize that

they are guest-friends and exchange armor to display their old

ties.

Armor seems to have a life of its own in The Iliad. Hector's

helmet is constantly flashing, setting him apart from other

warriors. Armor rings and clashes as fighters prepare for

combat as well as when they fall on the battlefield, almost

seeming to express eagerness or sorrow for the

circumstances. The armor worn by two Lapiths who block the

gates in the Achaean wall gets its own epic simile, its clatter

compared to the noise of boars ripping up trees. In Book 19,

Achilles's new armor clashes as Thetis delivers it, almost

seeming to announce itself.

Eagle of Zeus

Zeus, king of the gods, often sends mortals signs in the form of

an eagle, his personal bird emblem. Eagles were valued for the

distances they fly and the sharpness of their sight. Eagle signs

indicate the direction of Zeus's changing favor. Hector ignores

an eagle sign in Book 12, starting his path toward destruction.

An eagle serves as a good omen, reassuring Priam of Zeus's

promise of a safe entry into the Achaean camp to recover his

son's body.

m Themes

War

Achilles seeks a vengeful glory by staying separate from the

battle. Even the images of nature and everyday life that appear

in the many epic similes often contain elements that evoke the

violence of war in normal life, creating a sense that war and

conflict are part of the fabric of life. In The Iliad the war is

sparked, directed, and even occasionally fought in by the gods,

making it a force beyond human control, much like the images

of storm, water, and fire often used to describe it.

As such, war cannot be good or bad—it is simply a fact of life

with inherent contradictions. As Hector says in Book 17, "live or

die—that is the lovely give-and-take of war." It is brutal,

beautiful, and confusing. It fosters brotherhood and heroism

and destroys people in terrible, bloody ways. The poet often

describes a haze or darkness of confusion that overtakes the

heaviest fighting. Otherwise reasonable people lose

themselves in chasing glory and honor, often to their doom.

Vengeance leads to a lack of mercy and more killing.

Humanity

Amid the horrors of war, human compassion and connection

are hard to find—but not impossible. Glaucus and Diomedes

meet on the battlefield and, finding their forefathers were

guest-friends, pledge friendship and exchange armor. Achilles

shows a hint of humanity early on by understanding the

position of couriers sent by Agamemnon to seize Briseis from

him, but he immediately turns around and asks that his own

allies be killed and defeated to get back at Agamemnon. When

he finally emerges on the battlefield, he shows no mercy to his

enemies no matter how much they beg, and he treats Hector's

The Iliad Study Guide Glossary 34


body monstrously. However, Priam's grief and humility break

through his anger and grief and he is able to show mercy to his

opponents. When it does occur, humanity counteracts the evils

of war.

Honor and Pride

Honor was supremely important to the ancient Greeks and

underlies nearly every interaction in the poem. Honor can be

gained through position, athletics, or debate; and particularly in

wartime, it is built by demonstrating skill and bravery in battle

and seizing valuable prizes. Fighters make themselves

vulnerable in battle by stripping their defeated enemies of their

armor as battle trophies. They even wear it to emphasize their

triumph. Conversely, fierce battles are fought to keep enemies

from gaining the honor of looting comrades' bodies. Leaders

such as Agamemnon inherently have more honor, but they

assume the dishonor for their followers in the case of defeat.

The choices of both Hector and Achilles demonstrate that

honor and glory are more important than long life.

The argument between Achilles and Agamemnon escalates

because both exercise pride without humility. When

Agamemnon seizes the woman Achilles has taken as a battle

prize, he takes Achilles's honor away and insults his pride.

Without an apology, a humbling of Agamemnon's pride, Achilles

will not return to the battle. Although Agamemnon started the

conflict, he will not bend his pride to apologize. Only an issue of

greater pride and honor, avenging Patroclus's death, can make

either man budge. In contrast, Priam humbles himself to

Achilles to beg for Hector's body and is able to break through

his grief and sense of vengeance to reach his humanity.

Gods and Fate

The immortal gods gleefully pull the strings of mortal humans,

often determining the fate of armies and individuals without

much thought for the consequences. Sometimes the gods

push mortals to be better (such as when Hera and Athena

restrain Achilles from killing Agamemnon), but often their

interference leads to more death and destruction. From a

modern perspective, the gods provide explanations for

phenomena that people couldn't otherwise explain: chance

occurrences, sudden changes in the course of battle, and

individual inspiration. But to the ancient Greeks they were the

controlling forces in their lives.

Even so, The Iliad shows that mortal actions and choices can

sometimes determine a person's fate, such as when Menelaus

decides not to face Hector on his own after the death of

Patroclus.

Fate is at least somewhat changeable based on the decisions

and actions of gods and of mortals. Achilles has the

opportunity to choose between two fates—a long life without

glory or a short but glorious life. Zeus chooses not to change

his son Sarpedon's fate because it would upset the balance of

power with the gods, but it seems he could do so if he wished.

Even Achilles's actions occasionally threaten to change fate,

though the gods always prevent that. It seems that fate is the

result of a complex interaction between the gods and mortals.

b GlossaryAeacides: Another patronymic for Achilles, meaning "grandson

of Aeacus"

Aeantes: Collective name for the two Achaean fighters named

Ajax

Amazons: Tribe of fierce warrior women who later become

Trojan allies

Ares: God of war, who is neutral but fights more in support of

the Trojans

Argives, Danaans: Other names for the Achaeans (Greeks and

their allies)

Artemis: Huntress goddess of wild places and childbirth and

sister of Apollo; like her brother, she is an archer

Atridae: The two Atrides, Agamemnon and Menelaus

Centaurs: Mythical creatures that are half horse and half

human—mostly wild and brutish, except for Chiron who taught

the famous healer Asclepius

Cronus: Father of Zeus, Hades, Poseidon, Hera, and Demeter;

The Iliad Study Guide Suggested Reading 35


one of the Titans who were overthrown by the Olympian gods

Dardans: Alternate name for the Trojans

Demeter: Goddess of agriculture and grain crops

Enyo: Goddess of war

Gorgon: Mythological monster, a woman with snakes for hair

whose glance turns people to stone

Hades: God and king of the dead

Hellespont: Narrow straight north of Troy that connects the

Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara (now called the

Dardanelles)

Hephaestus: God of fire and blacksmith of the gods, who

fashions Achilles's new armor

Heracles: Greek name for Hercules, the hero son of Zeus who

was raised to godhood after his death

Hermes: Guide and messenger of the gods, god of shepherds

and luck, and son of Zeus, who killed the hundred-eyed giant

Argos

Ida: Mountain range near Troy and its central peak, where

Zeus likes to rest

Ilium: Another name for the city of Troy

Lycia: Region near Troy and source of Trojan allies such as

Sarpedon and Glaucus

Olympus: Tall mountain in northeastern Greece believed to be

the home of the gods

Poseidon: God of the sea and earthquakes, who has been an

enemy of Troy since Priam's father Laomedon refused to pay

him for building a wall around the city

Scamander: River that runs near Troy that is also worshipped

as a god

Simois: River that runs near Troy, brother river of Scamander

Styx: River in the land of the dead on which the gods swear

binding oaths

Xanthus: (1) Another name for the river Scamander near Troy

and its god; (2) river in Lycia

e Suggested ReadingEdwards, Mark W. Homer: Poet of the Iliad. Baltimore: Johns

Hopkins UP, 1990. Print.

McLoughlin, Kate. Authoring War: The Literary Representation

of War from the Iliad to Iraq. New York: Cambridge UP, 2014.

Print.

Schein, Seth L. The Mortal Hero: An Introduction to Homer's

Iliad. Berkeley: U of California, 1984. Print.

Weil, Simone. War and the Iliad. New York: New York Review of

Books, 2005. Print.

Willcock, Malcolm, M. A Companion to The Iliad. Chicago: U of

Chicago P, 1976. Print.

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