SSTTUUDDIIEES S OOF F LLEEAARRNNEERRSS

Dr. Azadeh Asgari

NATURE Learners shape their own lives and destinies. They are the products of nature or their heredity.

NURTURE John Locke compared children’s mind to blank slates. Children’s experience were etched to their mind.

INTERACTION Combination of nature and nurture. Heredity as well as environment plays a role in children’s

development.

VIEWOF

DEVELOPMENT

SOURCEOF

MOTIVATIONTO

LEARN

RELATIONSHIP OF SOURCETO

LEARNER

TYPEOFLEARNING INWHICH

LEARNERSENGAGE

BEHAVIORAL Nurture Largely external

Largely receptive

COGNITIVE

Interaction of nurture with

natureLargely internal

Largely generative

HUMANISTIC Nature Internal Generative

LEARNING an enduring change in observable behavior that occurs as a result of experience (Eggen & Kauchak)

Learning is almost exclusively receptive learning because learners are subjected to events in their external environment.

CONDITIONING In operant conditioning, stimuli become associated with response based and the consequences of learner’s action.

OBSERVATIONAL Learner’s expectation, beliefs and goals may LEARNING influence situations.

Uses the following mental processes :- attention- retention- production- motivation

Skinner and Bandura – interest in aspects of human behavior those normally associated with cognitive-

intellectual development.

CONDITIONING Skinner’s views about development other than intellectual matters inferred from his writings.

1948 – Skinner wrote a novel, Walden Two.

Devoted chapters to child-raising practises in a Utopian society.

Show how social, personal and moral development are accomplished through conditioning.

OBSERVATIONAL “People acquire attitudes, values and emotional LEARNING dispositions towards persons, places and things” (Bandura,1989)

Changes are in the learner’s environments and the results of the changes are behaviors

In behavioral perspectives learners develop incrementally in social, personal and moral dimensions

LEARNING – “a change in individuals mental structures that gives them the capacity to demonstrate changes in behavior” (Eggen & Kauchak)

- Learners create knowledge by engaging in mental processes

- Learning is largely generative learning

Three perspectives on cognitive-intellectual development are :

Developmental

Cognitive Structuralist

Cognitive Science

Cognitive-Intellectual Development in Cognitive Perspectives :

PERSPECTIVES MODEL OFLEARNER

DETAILS

DEVELOPMENTAL ConstructivistLearners progress through qualitatively different changes or stages in perception and cognition.

COGNITIVE STRUCTURALIST

Hypothesis generatorLearners develop patterns or configurations to make sense of experiences.

COGNITIVE SCIENCE

Novice-to-expertLearners build cognitive structures that enable the organization and acquisition of knowledge.

DEVELOPMENTALISM

Piaget – stresses the importance of experience in which children and youth seek to make sense of the world. The mind has structures for information processing. Learning – involves continual matching of mental structures with

experience. Children demonstrate egocentric speech – they talk to themselves. Piaget’s model of development has been called restrictive because it

focuses on logical-mathematical intelligence and does not explain steps towards competence in other areas.

“A generation of empirical” researchers have found many details of Piaget’s work incorrect.

However, Piaget’s research provides useful explanation for how children generate knowledge.

COGNITIVE STRUCTURALISM

Learners are hypothesis generators in charge of decisions about which information enters their minds.

How learning is influenced by the structures used to organize prior learning and current teaching.

Individuals observe what they ‘saw’ differently and reasoned that difference based on what they ‘knew’.

‘Emphasized that learning could be more effective if learners were explicitly taught the structure of the content and relationship among components. (Darling-Hammond & Snyder, 1992)

Ausubel – strategies that promoted meaningful reception leaning. - developed advance organizers, provide a framework for

processing the information. Bruner – researched discovery learning. - focused on mathematical structures. Vygotsky – children’s thought and speech begin as separate

functions without connection.

COGNITE SCIENCE

Elaborated on the cognitive structuralists’ work in information processing

models. Information processing system are hypothesized as having

structures through which information passes and is managed by cognitive process stored in long-term memory.

Information enters as stimuli via the sense organs from the external environment into sensory memory.

The stimuli are in sensory memory for only a few seconds, but others are encoded into symbols that can be manipulated by the nervous system in the individuals’ working memory.

In this site, the ‘thinking transactions’ take place. But, information can stay here only a short period and be lost unless

processed into long-term memory through some form of encoding. Encoding information – through elaboration or activity which

learners connect new information.

Information is stored in long-term memory as mental structures constructed by learner.

The long-term memory is the repository for all knowledge forms and learning outcomes.

Content of learners’ long-term memories are important because what learners already know about a topic affects their construction of meaning.

Actual learning outcomes differ among individual because learning results from the combination of what is already known and how learners make sense of new information.

Differences in learner’s information processing strategies result in multiple definitions of learning styles.

Their methods of study are introspection directed towards assisting learners in the development of self.

Humanistically oriented psychologists study individuals’ thoughts and feelings about their personal experiences.

Humanistic theory hold that ‘the biologically determined inner nature of the human consists of basic needs, emotions and capacities.

According to humanistic views, development fosters the expression of learners’ inner natures so they are subject to the least number favorable experiences.

Psychologists who contribute to the loterature on humanistic views development :

- Combs and Snygg (1959)- Allport (1961)- Kelley (1962)- Mahrer (1978)

Maslow (1968) proposes that people develop to fulfill certain needs. They include :

DIMENSIONS EARLY CHILDHOOD AND PRIMARY GRADES

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

MIDDLE-SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Social relations Egocentrism; play significant

Sociocentrism Egocentrism gives way to sociocentrism

Social regulations

Largely dependent on adults

Coregulation with adults

Coregulation gives way to self-regulation

Psychosocial development

Initiative versus guilt

Industry versus inferiority

Identify versus role confusion

Moral reasoning Preconventional Usually conventional

Usually conventional

Aspect Behaviorist Cognitive Humanistic

Learning theorists

Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Tolman, Skinner

Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Piaget, Ausubel, Bruner, Gagne

Maslow, Rogers

View of the learning process

Change in behaviour

Internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception

A personal act to fullfil potential

Locus of learning Stimuli in external environment

Internal cognitive structuring

Affective and cognitive needs

Purpose in education

Produce behavioural change in desired direction.

Develop capacity and skills to learn better

Become self-actualized, autonomous

Educator's role Arranges environment to elicit desired response

Structures content of learning activity

Facilitates development of the whole person

Manifestations in adult learning

Behavioural objectives Competency -based educationSkill development and training

Cognitive development Intelligence, learning and memory as function of ageLearning how to learn

Andragogy Self-directed learning

Phys ical Deve lopment Phys ical Deve lopment

Development in body sizeGrow rapidly in first few months

Grow slowly in early and middle childhood

2-3inches in height and 5 pounds in weight each year.

Again has a rapid growth at puberty

At the adolescent stage – 10 inches in height and about 40 pounds in weight – to reach a mature body.

Proportions and composition change – school-age span

Phys ical Deve lopment Phys ical Deve lopment

Early Childhood and Primary GradesChildren differ in physical size depending on genetic

factors & nutritionWide range in physical sizes among children of same

age.Gross motor skills refinedFine motor skills develop

• Fine motor skills and eye coordination not well developed

– Difficulty in focusing on small print or objects• Girls generally handle distraction well

– Forge ahead of boys in motor skill development.

Phys ical Deve lopment Phys ical Deve lopment

• Elementary– grow slowly and steadily– Smaller-catch up with their peer– Exerting their autonomy (more independent)

» Sometimes - Less active» Less nutrition diets» Physical fitness problem

– End of elementary- begin a growth spurt– Girls –spurt earlier than boys– Boys legs continues growing- men taller than

women.

Phys ical Deve lopment Phys ical Deve lopment

Middle-Senior High SchoolDramatic differences in growth ratesFemales mature more rapidly than males Changes of physical features-physically mature

• Development does not always follow norms because of the following factors :

• genetic

• trauma

• biological

• psychological environmental

Phys ical Deve lopment Phys ical Deve lopment

Some children - born with or acquire learning problems or physical impairments – prevent normal development.

Public Law 94-142 made clear that all children, regardless of disability must have free appropriate education.

Law- they must be educated in the most normal environment possible.

Learning Problems Learning Problems

1.Giftedness2.Mental Retardation3.Learning Disabilities4. Behavioral Problem5. Physical Impairments

Learning Problems Learning Problems1.GiftednessMYTH-ACTUALITYM : Gifted students are a group of like individualsA: Gifted students vary greatly in their abilities, personalities

and interest.

M: Gifted Children are “better”A : All students in a classroom are of equal value

M: Gifted students will make it on their own.A: Gifted students need the guidance of teachers.

Learning Problems Learning Problems1.GiftednessMYTH-ACTUALITYM : Gifted students are perfectA: Gifted students have strength and weakness

M: “Early Ripe, Early Rot”A: Gifted students’ abilities do not ‘burn out’

M : Gifted students like to be called giftedA: Gifted students feel they are basically like other students

and have not been ‘given’ anything.

Learning Problems Learning Problems1.Giftedness• Associated with advanced cognitive-intellectual

development.• Past- high score on intelligent test• Now- concept broadened

– Gardner’s Theory Multiple Intelligences• There are intelligences rather than a single

intelligence• 7 intelligence • Linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-

kinesthetic, musical, inter-personal and intra-personal.

Learning Problems Learning Problems1.Giftedness• No universally accepted definition• Agreed- Nature of content and the rate of

presentation may need modification for gifted students.

• Creativity, intellectual initiative , critical thinking, social adjustment, responsibility and leadership should be emphasized

• Gifted students are able to grasp and master complex concepts. (Wolf 1994)

Learning Problems Learning Problems

1.Giftedness• There is no agreement of absolute definition of

giftedness• However there are some critical points to

remember when developing definition of giftedness for program planning :

Critical Points2. There are many intelligence3. Intelligence vary in the extent to which they are developed

and show strength.4. Consideration of giftedness an talent should encompass

multiple ability areas.5. Developing, as well as developed, abilities should be

considered.6. High levels of ability may require programs beyond those

typically provided in schools in order to nurture and develop students’ abilities fully.

6. The definition that is adopted by a school district or for a particular program served as the basic for the development of student selection and program design procedures.

Learning Problems Learning Problems

2.Mental Retardation• Opposite extreme on the cognitive-intellectual

development continuum.• Ranges from mild-profound• Mild Retardation – reflected- below age 18

– Demonstrates significant sub average general intellectual functioning (IQ score about 70-75%)

– Deficits in adaptive behavior• Adaptive skill limitation are evident in 2 or > of this area• Communication, self care, home living, social skills,

community use, self direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure and work.

Learning Problems Learning Problems2.Mental Retardation• – Curriculum mus t be s ens itive to the ir current

+ and future needs challenging• , , - - Content s equence pace ins truction adjus ted• - - - Age curriculum s hould vocational and life

skills • IQ tes t < 70% & concomitant s cores on meas ures

of adaptive functioning– – – Moderate s evere profound dis abilities

Learning Problems Learning Problems

2. Mental Retardation• In this category- many have other disability• Very different from other group – careful

evaluation of individual abilities needed – to plan the curriculum

• Curriculum- organized by life skill domains and geared to functional, contextual based skills.

Learning Problems Learning Problems3. Learning Disabilities- Have academic problem in one or more areas

- NOT due to primary to emotional disability, mental retardation, visual or auditory impairment, motor disability or environmental disadvantage

- The areas include – understanding or using language, reasoning or mathematical abilities

- (Learning difficulties)

Learning Problems Learning Problems3. Learning Disabilities- Children with learning disabilities – also have

deficits in meta cognitive abilities- Thinking about their own thinking- Hyperactivity - Problems with language, perception, motorabilities- Social-emotional concerns, memory or attention

- Assessing –complex – Best 1st step – prepare curriculum to meet their needs

•Developmental disability

•Appears during the first 3 years of life

•More prevalent in boys then girls

•Autism people have deficiencies in verbal and non verbal communication, social interactions and leisure

•This disorder makes it hard for them to communicate with others and relate to the outside world.

•They may exhibit repeated body movements, unusual responses to people/ attachments, to object and resist any changes in routines.

What are the mos t effective ?approaches to Autis m

•No one approach is effective way in reducing the symptoms of autism.

•How ever, experience has shown autistic people will respond to highly structures, specialized education and behaviour modification program that is invented according to the individual needs of the person.

•A well designed intervention approach includes

»Communication therapy»Social skill development»Sensory impairment therapy»Behaviour modification (at minimum)

• These approaches must be conducted by autis m trained profes s ionals in a consistent, comprehensive and coordinated manner.

Learning Problems Learning Problems4. Behavioral Problems

• Learners with behavioral problem• Have a typical social-personal-moral development• Sometimes behavior disorder referred to as

emotional disturbances or maladjustment.• Learners exhibit little or no classroom participation,

communication or other interaction at play /other context

Learning Problems Learning Problems4. Behavioral Problems• Excessive physical aggression, threats,

disobedience, destructiveness, moving around – lack of basic academic and school readiness skills

• This disorder range from mild-severe• Most cases- learners need training in social skills

to promote positive interaction with the adults who work with them.

Learning Problems Learning Problems5. Physical Impairments• Visual handicaps, hearing difficulties /

communication disorders• May or may not develop according to norm of

cognitive, social and personal change• If they face cognitive or social difficulties –special

design curriculum required• If they don’t – special setting and equipments are

needed in classroom.

Teacher will have limited students

Teacher prepares lesson according to the students need (Rancangan Pelajaran Individu) Individual Teaching Lesson Plan

Collaboration

Parents

Students

Objective

Diagnostic test after 3 months

Achieved – Move to next topic

Not Achieved- Lesson repeated