Article Review Chart

Distance Learning and Gifted Students: What are the benefits?Reference Purpose Research

QuestionsParticipants Methods Data Analysis Limitations/

Reliability/Validity

Results/Findings

Implications

Cifuentes, L., Murphy, K., & Davis, T. (1998). Cultural Connections: Promoting Self-Esteem, Achievement, and Multicultural Understanding through Distance Learning. http://search.ebscohost.com

Explored the effectiveness of distance learning for adolescents in promoting self-esteem, achievement, and multicultural understanding.

In what ways, if any, did the distance learning experiences affect 1)self-esteem, 2) school achievement and 3)multicultural understanding

24 teachers and the 24 students of 2 of those teachers, 2 school counselors, 3 administrators, and 2 university faculty at Texas A&M.Participants were chosen from three different schools (14 randomly placed 8th graders and 10 gifted 5th graders)

Mixed methods were used. The study relied on ethnographic, case study methods.

Content analyses of each of the data sources were conducted . Scores on three school benchmarking reading tests were examined.

None was reported. They found that student's self-esteem, academic achievement, and multicultural understanding increased in response to Cultural connections. Four overarching themes emerged from the data: growth, empowerment, comfort with technology, and mentorship. Students' increased academic achievement was indicated by comparing scores on the benchmark reading tests.

This project demonstrates that in networked classrooms students can connect with distant others to learn about and from their perspectives and to increase their multicultural understandings. In addition, distance technologies can foster team teaching across cultures and geographical distances.

Olszewski-Kubilius P, Lee S. Gifted Adolescents' Talent Development through Distance Learning. Journal for the Education of the Gifted [serial online]. January 1, 2004;28(1):7-35. Available from: ERIC, Ipswich, MA. Accessed October 21, 2009.

The study was designed to investigate how academically talented students use a university-based distance learning program, its role in their education and talent development, and their experience with distance education.

Why do talented students take distance-learning courses, and for what do they use distance education? do they take courses to supplement their school program? to accelerate? For personal enrichment?Were students satisfied with their distance-education course? What were sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction? How do students perform in the distance-learning

Students in grades 6-12 who had participated in the LearningLink program by taking either high school honors-level courses or Advanced Placement courses during the past 4 (honors-level) years or 2 years (AP classes.) There were 99 honors level and 97 AP students who took classes through distance learning.

Mixed Methods were used.Two questionnaires, LearnningLinks Course Evaluation and AP Course Evaluation, were used for this study. Each consisted primarily of multiple choice items, but each also contained items using a 4-point Likert-type scale. Each questionnaire consisted of 19 items.

Descriptive statistics were computed for all multiple-optionitems in the survey, and students’ comments for some open-endeditems were analyzed using the constant comparative method typicallyemployed for qualitative research analysis (Hutchinson,1990). First, all of the open-ended comments made by studentswere analyzed line by line. Next, several categories (e.g., programseemed the best, too much philosophy for English class, helpfulteacher, different communication with instructors, a lot of homework,lived close to

Since this study included only students who participated in theCTD distance-learning program, no comparisons were possiblebetween students who took the distance-learning classes versusthose who took classes in a more traditional format. These investigationswould help to ascertain the unique features of online anddistance-learning classes and how these features potentially impactlearning. Studies also need to focus on

Overall, this study showed that students’ interests in the subjectarea, a desire to enrich and accelerate themselves, and the unavailabilityof advanced courses at an appropriate time in their homeschools were the major reasons for enrolling in the CTD distance learningcourses to take either Advanced Placement or honors-levelcourses. For students who took the AP courses, getting credit forcollege was another important reason for taking the distance-learningclass.An interesting finding of this study was that a significantnumber of students took AP courses via distance learning fortheir own personal interest and

The Article did not indicate specific implications.

classes and on subsequent AP exams? How are distance education courses received by student' schools? Do the students receive high school credit for them? do they appear on school transcripts? Are their grades factored into their GPA's?

Northwestern University, etc.) were createdbased on an initial coding process.

comparing different onlineand distance-education formats to determine what features aremost supportive of learning for adolescent students. Also, havinginformation on the success of students in various distance-educationformats would be a contribution to the literature and couldguide educators’ future efforts on behalf of these students.

enrichment, and many of thesestudents also prepared for AP exams on their own at home, asidefrom the CTD distance-learning courses. This suggests that studentssupplemented their distance-learning courses with additionalindependent study, attesting to their exceptional motivation,interest, and achievement orientation

Wallace, P. (2005) Distance education for gifted students: leveraging technology to expand academic options. Retrieved from ERIC database on August 30, 2009.

To examine the effectiveness and varieties of distance education and the technologies that support them. Specifically to examine the role of distance education as a supplement for the gifted/talented students. To examine a model called The Center for Talented Youth.

What benefits can be gained from distance education to create rich learning environments for gifted students through supplementing the educational setting rather than replacing it.

The participants involved in the study were students enrolled in the CTY program at Johns Hopkins University. Enrollment patterns were analyzed as well as student evaluation of the distance education program.

Materials were not detailed in the article but there were tables with survey results and comparison charts.

An analysis of the program details the enrollment patterns and student satisfaction with this particular model of distance education. The specific procedures were not discussed at length only details of the results.

Wallace, P. (2009). Distance Learning for Gifted Students: Outcomes for Elementary, Middle, and High School Aged Students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 32(3), 295-320. http://search.ebscohost.com

The purpose of the study was to explore the effectiveness of distance learning for gifted students along several different dimensions and to compare the outcomes for students in different age

The study was intended to examine, both as a whole and by age group, the reasons gifted students enroll in distance education, how they evaluate their academic experience and instructors,

Participants were drawn from the students enrolled in the Johns Hopkins University Center for Talented Youth (CTY) distance education program who submitted online course evaluation forms between July1, 2005, and March

Mixed methods were used to gather data.

A 5-point Likert scale from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied) was used for the parents on the suitability of the course. Students used a 5-point

Information for the study included (a) responses to the course evaluation forms submitted by the students, (b) responses submitted by their parents for the same course, (c) demographic data contained in the student information system, and (d) final course grade. The information addresses

A limitation on the conclusions regarding any differences between the age groups in attitudes or outcome is that age group is partially confounded with instructor, course, software, previous experience with technology and distance learning, and other variables.

It is possible that younger children are somewhat less critical and show a slight

Overall, this study suggests that distance education can be an effective approach to accelerate or enrich the academic opportunities available to gifted students in grades k-12. Distance learning is frequently included as on the options for introduction acceleration and enrichment into the curriculum for gifted students, yet research on its effectiveness for this population has been limited. for home-schooled students, for example, distance

Based on the results of this study, gifted students at the elementary, middle, and high school levels all benefit from distance learning. Nevertheless, the area has received little research attention, and many questions remain about how to implement it, how to tailor the material to provide appropriate levels of challenge to each gifted student, and how to integrate it within a school setting Also, more research is needed to explore individual differences and

groups. how parents evaluate the course's suitability, how well they perform in terms of final grade, and how the distance learning course affects their interest in the subject.

30, 2007. the sample included 690 students, (age 5.23 to 17.67, M=12.75, SD=2.18; 56.5% girls, 45.5% boys). More than 94% resided in the United States, and the remainder registered from 16 other countries.

Liker scale from 1-5 (strongly disagree to strongly agree) in responding to several questions assessing their perceptions of the instructor.

several dimensions, including (a) reasons for enrolling, (b) appropriateness of the course for the student, (c) instructional effectiveness, (d software effectiveness, (e) overall satisfaction, and (f) student outcomes as measured by performance and interest in the subject after completing the course.

response bias toward overall high ratings. However, their significantly lower rate ins for software usability would argue against this hypotheses.Another feature of the program under study is that while the courses may include some synchronous interactions, such as shared use of an internet whiteboard, most interaction occurs asynchronously. Results from program that contain more synchronous interactions may different from the findings in this study.

learning provides a means to introduce advanced studies in subjects outside the expertise of the students' parents or tutors. Distance learning also can play an important role in school settings as well, particularly to alleviate scheduling conflicts and to provide access to courses that are not offered in the school. This study indicates that younger gifted students can benefit from distance learning opportunities as least as much as older students, provided their needs are taken into account. Software usability should be a key concern for younger students and adequate technical support.

identify students who possess the level of readiness to thrive in a distance learning environment in terms of their capacities for time management, technological literacy, writing skills, and even keyboard skills. Qualitative research, in addition to the quantitative research presented in this paper, will be very useful in better understanding how individual students interact with their remote instructors and their online learning materials and how they, their parents, and their teachers perceive the pros and cons of online learning.

Dixon, F., Cassady, J., Cross, T., & Williams, D. (2005). Effects of Technology on Critical Thinking and Essay Writing Among Gifted Adolescents. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 16(4), 180-189. http://search.ebscohost.com

The goal of our project was to explore the impact of word processing technologies on writing in response to guided prompts. The investigation was restricted to writing samples that were produced in one attempt (no revision stages enabled), much as would be seen in standard essays.

Specifically, we sought to answer two questions: First, is the rubric used to evaluate critical thinking scores both valid and useful in measuring the construct? Second, what differences are noted in student writing samples based on the gender of the writer and the mode of creating the written work (technology-supported vs. handwritten)?

Participants included 99 students (39 males and 60 females) who attend a legislative-supported residential academy for science, mathematics, and humanities. The mean age of the participants at entry to the Academy was 16 years. Located on a university campus in the Midwest, this residential Academy was established in 1990

Critical thinking was assessed using the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (Watson & Glaser, 1980 Students took alternate forms of this test two times: in the fall of their junior year (2001), and again at the end of their junior year (spring, 2002). Form A of the Watson-Glaser is composed of 80 test items following 16 scenarios. All of the items are objective questions in which the test taker selects the answer. There are five content areas: Inference, Recognition of Assumptions, Deduction, Interpretation, and Evaluation of Arguments. A student receives a single score based on the

Two raters were trained to score both administrations of the essays. Raters were two English instructors at the school who were interested in working on the project and were experts in writing and in assessing writing. Training occurred on four occasions. At the first session, the rubric was explained and examples of each level of the rubric were presented to the raters. They read the essays and asked questions to clarify their notions of what each level represented. Then they practiced coding essays. Each rater coded 10 essays and scores were compared. They practiced on three different occasions after the initial explanatory session. The goal was

Therefore, the data analyses demonstrated that girls produced more handwritten content in the initial writing sample, when all students were required to handwrite their responses. The change scores demonstrated a significant effect of the use of computers on writing production (words and sentences) regardless of gender, and a small effect was evident for writing sample rubric ratings. Examination of the means presented in Tables 4 and 5 reveals a trend in which use of the computer (available only in WS-2) helped adolescent boys generate more text in response to the writing prompts, bringing

A distinct limitation of this study is the number of participants. Other limitations include our lack of data on computer expertise, and the interest of the students in writing, computers, or other specific topics. In addition, the rubric used was not a strong measure of critical thinking in general in this study. However, the results certainly emphasize the importance of format when requiring students, particularly boys, to write.

The results yielded some interesting considerations. First, the Dixon (1996) rubric used for coding and scoring essays was useful in reveling limited aspects of critical thinking. This makes sense because deduction requires one to establish or identify a general idea and then support it with examples (Ennis, 1989) and inference requires making connections in ideas. Well-thought-out essays do this exact process: that is, they focus on a thesis, which is then supported by examples to elucidate the thesis. Second, when gifted boys used word processors to respond to a writing prompt, they composed better essays than when they were required to handwrite them. Our study indicated that on Essay 1, when the students were required to handwrite their work, the boys produced an average of 229 words. On the other hand, on Essay 2, those with access to computers produced an average of 420 words on their essays compared to 265 words from boys who composed handwritten essays on Essay 2. This 83% increase in word production

completion of the test. The internal consistency reliability (coefficient alpha) for the measure was .85; test-retest at a 3-month interval was reported at .73; alternate forms reliability was reported at .75. In our analyses, we have also examined the raw scores for each of the five content areas to provide more fine-grained exami-nation of critical thinking skills. Essays. Critical thinking was also measured in essays gathered from the participants at two different adminis-trations. The first essay prompt was administered to all juniors as an entry essay at the beginning of their junior year. The second essay prompt was administered during the fall semester of their senior year (2002). All students in the study composed their first essay in handwritten form. On the second essay, some students were randomly assigned to a computer condition and composed their

to establish interrater reliability at .70 on the practice essays before beginning to rate the Subsequent training sessions involved prac-ticing coding essays, checking scores for congruence, and discussing the reasons for lack of agreement. When training was completed, and interrater reliability was established at .70, the raters independently scored the essays for each administration, naïve to the identity of the students creating the essay. For any essay where the two primary raters did not reach initial agreement, the rubric creator and trainer for the two raters coded the essays. In this way, all essays were assessed with the same rating by two raters. Initial interrater reliability estimates for the two primary raters for the data in this study was .60. To overcome the reduced consistency found in initial rating, the rubric creator and trainer coded all essays that did not receive matching scores. In all cases, this expert rating matched one of the initial codes; therefore, all reported values are based on converging values from two

the amount of written work in line with their female counterparts. Reviewing the means in Table 4 also illustrates the dramatic difference on the essay rubric scores when comparing the boys in the handwritten and word processing conditions. Given the primary interest in this study on the effect of computer applications on writing quality, an independent samples t-test of boys’ writing sample rubric ratings for WS-2 was conducted to compare the handwriting and word processing conditions. The difference was statistically significant and in favor of the word processing group

in the word processing condition may be attributed to the ease and speed in writing that they were able to achieve in the same amount of time. That is, it is quite likely that the computer-experienced students in this population simply type faster than they write, and were inclined to stop writing after a period of time rather than bringing their open-ended essays to a conclusion. In this way, the benefit of computers to gifted adolescent students (particularly males) appears to be a simple matter of speed and efficiency.Female participants in this study, on the other hand, performed more consistently on both essays (average rating of 4.1 on essay 1 and 4.0 on essay 2). Their performance did not seem to change regardless of what format they used. They were overall more reflective and generated more words, sentences, and paragraphs. Because gifted girls in high school report higher levels of interest (motivation) and confidence in their skills for English (language arts) than boys (Li & Adamson, 1995), our results are consistent with other research. Indeed, overall, on all measures—critical thinking, number of words, sentences, and paragraphs generated—females scored higher than males in the handwritten condition. However, the most significant finding was the improvement that the males made when they were able to compose essays on computers.

essays on the computer. Both prompts were based on an essay by Katherine Anne Porter. English teachers at the school selected the initial reading.

independent raters.

Katz, Y. (2002). Attitudes affecting college students' preferences for distance learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 18(1), 2-9. http://search.ebscohost.com, doi:10.1046/j.0266-4909.2001.00202.x

The aim of the present study was to examine whether the psychological attitudesmentioned above affect students attitudes to distance learning at the tertiary level.

In the presentstudy the relationship between two distance learning ICT-basedconfigurations were examined. The results indicate that psychologicalattitudes held by students differentially facilitate efficient use of distancelearning approaches. Satisfaction with learning, level of control of thelearning process, and study motivation for distance learning are allpositively related to the students’ preferences for structured

SampleThe research sample consisted of 67 first year students who were registered in theSchool of Education at the Safed Regional College. All students were accepted forstudy on the basis of two main criteria: (a) college entrance psychometricexamination scores, and (b) mean achievement level attained in school matriculationexaminations.†

InstrumentA research questionnaire designed to examine satisfaction, independence, level ofcontrol and study motivation of students who studied through the two distancelearning systems was specially compiled. At the outset, the questionnaire consistedof 120 items which were presented to three distance learning experts for face andcontent validity evaluation. Ninety-four items met the validity criteria used by theevaluators and were included in the questionnaire administered to the researchsample. After administration the responses of the

ProcedureAt the beginning of the 1999–2000 academic year the students were randomlydivided into two groups for a content-identical year-long (60 hours) courses on thetopic ‘Introduction to Educational Psychology’. The first group of 35 students wastaught by a senior lecturer using the video-conferencing system and the second groupof 32 students was instructed by the same lecturer using the Internet approach. Forboth groups the same senior lecturer taught from a lecture hall, located at the mainuniversity campus in Ramat Gan which was specially adapted for both teachingapproaches. The synchronous lectures were performed

ResultsMeans and standard deviations for the ‘satisfaction with distance learning’,‘independence in the learning process’, ‘level of control of the learning process’, and‘study motivation for distance learning’ attitudes for each distance learning approachwere computed from data collected from the research questionnaire. Thereafter aDiscriminate Function analysis was computed to evaluate the contribution of eachattitude to students’ utilization preferences of the two distance learning approaches.The Discriminate Function analysis indicates statistical significance (Canonicalcorrelation = 0.66, p < 001) between the two distance learning approaches as well ascorrect assigning of 78.65% of the research subjects to their correct distance learninggroups. In addition, the ‘satisfaction with distance learning’, ‘level of control of learning process’, and ‘study motivation for distance learning’ characterized thesynchronous distance learning configuration whereas

Results of the present research lead to the conclusion that a distance learning systemthat is highly interactive and most closely resembles a regular college lecture hall ispreferred by students with certain learning preferences and attitudes. Studentstypified by independence in their learning process seemingly prefer a less interactiveInternet-type distance learning approach.When contemplating the use of a distance learning system, university and collegeauthorities should consider the apparent advantages of a more highly interactivedelivery system. This type of interactive system is preferable for students who aresatisfied with the learning process, need to feel in control of learning and aremotivated to study. An Internet-type approach should be considered mainly forindependent and self-confident students who do not feel that they are in serious needof intense interaction with tutors or lecturers when they go about their learning.

distancelearning, whereas independence in learning is positively connected tostudents’ preferences for the more open Internet functionality.

students were factor analysed in aprincipal components analysis. Eighty items met the criterion of statisticalsignificance (0.30) and were used in the statistical analysis of the research data. The80 items clustered around 4 significant factors (20 items per factor) which werelabelled ‘satisfaction with distance learning’ (Cronbach reliability coefficient of= 0.88), ‘independence in learning’ (= 0.91), ‘level of control of learningprocess’ (= 0.86), and ‘study motivation for distance learning’ (= 0.87). Eachfactor had a latent root of unity and explained at least 10% of the variance.The research instrument was administered to the two groups of students at theend of the second academic semester.

online and the Internetlectures were downloaded from the relevant university website with the lecturersituated in the same lecture hall and teaching environment. The students in bothgroups studied in a specially constructed lecture theatre suited to both distancelearning configurations at the Safed college campus with the video-conferencinggroup of students able to see the lecturer on screen and to communicatesynchronously /interactively with the lecturer during the course of each lesson. Inaddition to the particular distance learning system used by the lecturer for bothgroups, all students were required to communicate once weekly with the lecturer byway of email as a secondary and complementary interactive learning system.

‘independence in the learningprocess’ typified the Internet distance learning system

ProcedureOffir, B., Barth, I., Lev, J., & Shteinbok, A. (2005). Can interaction content analysis research contribute to distance learning?. Educational Media International, 42(2), 161-171. http://search.ebscohost.com, doi:10.1080/09523980500060324

The project was designed as a DL enrichment program for highly talented pupils in geographicallyisolated and under developed areas of Israel. Although the project was designed for highschool students, one of the 10 participating schools asked us to allow a class of seventh andeighth grade students to participate. The class of younger students was one of only two groupsin which all students in the group participated in the entire course. As we show later, theabsence of dropouts in the younger group may be due to the ‘intensive care’ and large degreeof support that they consistently requested and received from their local site-based teacher.Interviews with Rachel, the site-based teacher who accompanied

The policy allowed a relatively high percentage of students who did not fulfill the university’sstandard admission criteria to take part in an academic course. The high academic level andstringent conditions imposed by the university authorities represent only a partial explanation ofwhy over 50% of students withdrew from the course. Among the 10 participating groups onlyone group of seventh and eighth grade students (n=22) and one group of eleventh grade students(n=25) participated in the entire course The findings direct us to examine to

During the first two years of the project we used a content analysis instrument developed andvalidated in our previous studies (Offir & Lev, 2000) to calculate frequencies and ratios of differentcategories of teacher–student interactions. The instrument we used was based on Henri’s(1992) content analysis framework, which was subsequently modified by Oliver and McLoughlin(1996). The inter-rater reliability rate for our instrument isr=0.82* (Offir & Lev, 2000).The instrument’s coding scheme contained the following five categories:●Social interaction: teachers interact with learners in order to create social relations andsupport affective–motivational aspects of the learning process.●Procedural interaction: statements

. The inter-rater reliability rate for our instrument isr=0.82*

An initial examination showed no significant correlations between different categories of teacherinteractions. However, re-examination of the data indicated that the category ‘teacher’s explanatoryinteractions’ should be redivided into the following three sub-categories:●Learning assistance interactions: the teacher’s explanatory interactions designed to facilitatethe students’ comprehension and retention of content; the sub-category contains theteacher’s use of advance organizers, overviews and summaries, explicit definition of thelesson’s objectives and structure, emphasis on the relevance of the target content and otherteaching strategies designed to gain and maintain the students’ attention; this sub-categorywas subsequently defined as a category in order to allow the user to differentiate betweenexpository statements which present content and statements which facilitate students’information-processing. (Offir & Barth, 2002).●Superficial teacher feedback: the teacher’s responses that do not contain an informativeexplanation of why the student’s answer or comment is incorrect; teachers’ responses such as‘Incorrect, anyone else?’ and ‘You are in the right direction, try again,’ would be included inthis sub-category.

In a DL environment, teachers no longer have direct immediate access to the confused faces andoff-task behaviours that indicate that students are experiencing difficulties. Consistent monitoringof student performance throughout the course, in addition to a final exam, is an essential conditionwhich enables teachers to identify when sub-groups of students require additional support.Content analysis using conditions-based instruments can provide teachers with individualisedfeedback and ‘tailor-made’ guidelines regarding which interaction patterns need to bestrengthened or modified in order to support learning. Consistent monitoring and feedbackcreate a recursive process which helps teachers to regulate their management of interactionswhen they no longer have access to immediate direct feedback from their students.Supplying a support systemStudents in a DL environment do not have access to teachers’ non-verbal signals such assmiles and gestures that often moderate the teacher’s messages in the conventional classroom.A lack of non-verbal interactions (where those types of interactions usually reassure andencourage young students in ‘typical’ classroom settings) may cause young students toperceive a DL environment as inhospitable. As Brown, Palincsar and Purcell (1986) observed,the lack of reassurance may

the seventh and eighth gradestudents throughout the course, show that younger students, in comparison to older students,require considerably more practice and review of newly learned content in order to feel thatthey have mastered the material. One of the main purposes of the project was to identify students who, despite their high levelsof learning potential, would not be eligible for university admission since their psychometric scoresand school grades do not reflect their high levels of

what extent minimalwithdrawal rates are related to age appropriate support provided by local site-based teacherswho accompanied the students in their classrooms throughout the course

contain information regarding administrative and technicalissues related to the lesson or course.●Expository interaction: statements present knowledge content.●Explanatory interaction: teachers use the learners’ reactions to explain content.●Cognitive task engagement: teachers present a question or learning task, which requireslearners to engage in processing information.

trigger coping defensive strategies for preserving self-worth, suchas the systematic devaluation of academic tasks and goals and justification of lack of effort. Toprevent young students from perceiving the DL environment as non-supportive, we providedour students with a ‘safety net’ of support features, in addition to the site-based teacher in theclassroom:●An online ‘help desk’ option during each lesson.●A course Web site which served as an electronic notice-board and informal meeting place forparticipating students.●An additional, asynchronous option that enabled students to download each week’s lesson forreview at their own pace.In-service programs for site-based teachersIn our project, university-based lecturers were mainly responsible for knowledge transmission,while the local site-based teachers were responsible for mediating between the subject contentand their individual students. Our field experience shows that not all site-based teachers madea smooth transition from being the ‘sage on the stage’ and main source of knowledge in the classroomto the more supportive role of ‘guide on the side’. We conclude that effective in-service programs. Toprevent young students from perceiving the DL environment as non-supportive, we provided

ability. our students with a ‘safety net’ of support features, in addition to the site-based teacher in theclassroom:●An online ‘help desk’ option during each lesson.●A course Web site which served as an electronic notice-board and informal meeting place forparticipating students.●An additional, asynchronous option that enabled students to download each week’s lesson forreview at their own pace.

Carnwell, R. (2000). Approaches to Study and their Impact on the Need for Support and Guidance in Distance Learning. Open Learning, 15(2), 123-140. http://search.ebscohost.com, doi:10.1080/02680510050050837

The aim of the research was to develop relationships between approachesto study, learning styles and strategies, and materials design, and how these impact on theneed for support and guidance in distance learning. The research draws on theories oflearning style and strategies, as well as constructivism.

Forty-five of the original sample were willing to be interviewed, of which 20 werepurposively selected. Each interview produced about 12 pages of text.

This paper is based on the findings of the second phase of a two-phase study. Thefirst phase comprised a questionnaire survey of 120 students who had studied eithera Research Awareness module, or an Access module in health care. Both types ofmodule were studied at diploma level. The Research Awareness module includedmonthly group tutorials, whilst the access modules included no such provision. Themain focus of the initial survey was students’ experience of distance learning. Theneed for dialogue and its relationship to materials design and learning

The transcriptswere analyzed using the principles of grounded theory in order to derive atheory inductively from the data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Using grounded theoryfacilitated the development of tentative concepts and categories as well as anexplanation for the approaches to study used by the women in this study (Glaser &Strauss, 1967).The coding processes loosely followed those recommended by Strauss and Corbin(1990). This paper explains the development of concepts, categories and propertiesfrom the interview transcripts. The process through which raw data from interviewtranscripts was translated into a theory of approaches to study in distance

Preparation and Analysis of DataTo ensure familiarity with the data all the transcripts were read twice, in addition tolistening to the tapes to take into account nuances of speech (King, 1994). The firstthree tapes were transcribed verbatim, and analyzed, before commencing subsequentinterviews, thus informing the ensuing data collection (Strauss & Corbin,1990). As is consistent with grounded theory, superfluous phrases were omittedconsistently at the data preparation stage, before commencing open coding (Strauss& Corbin, 1990).Open CodingOpen coding involves naming and categorizing phenomena through close examinationof the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). This process relied upon a line-by-line,sentence and paragraph

Immersion in the data during open coding hadalready indicated possible overlaps between properties belonging to different categories, particularly in relation to the three approaches to study.Axial coding, then,confirmed and developed these tentative links between the properties of the threeapproaches to study and other concepts and categories.

Theories of learning styles and approaches to learning provided a useful frameworkfor the focus of this research. Moreover, the three approaches to study provide amore holistic picture of distance learning students in that they demonstrate not onlythe way in which students progress through the learning experience, but the differenttypes of support and guidance needed during this process.A constructivist approach, however, relies on more than style theory to explainbehavior. It became evident within the analysis that styles and strategies employedby these students all of whom were women are predicated upon by socializedpatterns of learning, together with pressures of existing work and domestic life(Belenky et al., 1986). The use of grounded theory, therefore, demonstrates linksbetween styles and strategies and how these are mediated by other concepts, such asthe need for guidance and engagement with materials. It is proposed, therefore, thatstudents use different approaches to study in distance learning depending upon their

The nature of guidance is fundamental to the future of distance education innursing, and will become increasingly important as advances in technology impactfurther on the delivery of distance learning provision. Guidance, therefore, shouldinclude different levels and types of student support, as well as materials designfeatures. Providing the appropriate resources to cater for different approaches to study should facilitate deeper levels of learning and hence achievement.

support(Carnwell, 1999) emerged as important concepts from phase one.The aim of the second stage of the research was thus to further develop relationshipsbetween approaches to study, learning styles and strategies, and materialsdesign, and how these impact on the need for support and guidance in distancelearning. The interactive nature of the research assumes a constructivist philosophyin which students construct their own meaning from the learning situation (Olugbemiro,1991).

learningis also explained (Kna¯ & Howard, 1984). The theory emerging from the data isthen discussed with reference to theories of learning styles and approaches to study.

analysis to label phenomena arising from the interviews.Axial coding involved the development of tentative links between the different categories (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Immersion in the data during open coding had already indicated possible overlaps between properties belonging to different categories,particularly in relation to the three approaches to study. Axial coding, then, confirmed and developed these tentative links between the properties of the three approaches to study and other concepts and categories. An important tentative link emerged between external dialogue, a preference for closed materials, and need for guidance (Table II). It would appear, then, thatguidance is necessary to help students to determine their learning needs and to findtheir way through the learning process. Furthermore, guidance can be providedeither by closed materials, or external dialogue.

preferred style of learning, and that this is mediated by the learning context andmaterials design. This combination of factors will determine the nature and extentof guidance required by individual students.Distance learning is increasing in nurse education to allow greater access to studyopportunities. Most students, however, are likely to be women with domesticresponsibilities and work commitments. Some students will have had a break fromeducation and may be unsure about the level of learning required. Whilst notattempting to generalize these findings beyond the 20 participants, this research hasdemonstrated a link between approaches to study, the nature of guidance required,and the way in which students construct meaning from distance learning materials.

Inman, E., Kerwin, M., & Mayes, L. (1999). INSTRUCTOR AND STUDENT ATTITUDES TOWARD DISTANCE LEARNING. Community College Journal of

Eleven instructors, eight men and three women, teaching six different telecourses in the University of Kentucky Community College System, were surveyed in the fall of 1996. The classes included history,

Questions were not specified but the following was gained from the results:

How were following ranked in importance for distance learning?

*The quality of

Qualitative Methods: Three hundred and thirty-four students in six different classes taught by 11 different instructors were surveyed (62.9% response rate). Of the students, 26% were male, 74% were female. The smallest number of students from a single college

A pencil-and-paper survey was given to teachers. The distance learning technology employed in all classes was telecourse video (called "telecourse materials" in the results). In addition, instructors created their own materials for the classes (called "instructor-generated materials" in the

One regression equation was calculated for each of three measures of overall satisfaction: ratings of quality of instruction, ratings of overall quality of the course, and ratings of the amount learned in the course. The decision to include a variable in a regression analysis was based on the correlations between individual items and the factor. Any item

There may be a limitation to the generalizability of this study because of the high quality of these courses. As was noted in the results, of several hundred students, not one student rated any instructor as "poor." It may be that, in a course taught by a less competent instructor, direct interaction with the instructor is the critical predictor of ratings.

The quality of the instructor-generated materials was the most influential factor, accounting for 55% of the variance in instructor ratings. The second most important factor was the quality of on-campus sessions, accounting for 9% of the variance in instructor ratings. The third most important factor was the perceived availability of the instructor, accounting for 5% of the variance in instructor ratings. In general, the instructors were experienced teachers who had volunteered to teach the

Based on these findings, several important suggestions can be made: Because teaching a distance learning class involves a new role for instructors, administrators must provide them with the time, the tools, and the training to meet these new responsibilities. Distance learning programs should educate faculty on this new role and how to fulfill those challenges. Instructors should be provided feedback from their students before end-of-the-semester course evaluations. Instructors who depend

Research & Practice, 23(6), 581-591. http://search.ebscohost.com, doi:10.1080/106689299264594

English, psychology, political science, family studies, and anthropology classes. Ten of the 11 instructors had taught at least five years. The least number of instructors from a single college was one and the most was four. The least number of students taught by a single instructor was 13 and the most was 184.

.

the instructor-generated materials

*quality of on-campus sessions

*availability of the instructor

was 13 and the largest number was 159. The smallest number from a single class was 13 and the largest number was 86. The average age was 28.4 years old (SD = 9.5, Median = 26, Mode-19) and the sample was predominantly white (98.8%) Three variables accounted for 69% of the variance in how students rated the quality of instruction (see Table 1). On a scale of 1 to 4 with 1 being poor and 4 being excellent, the mean rating for instructors was 3.56 (8D = .60). No student rated any instructor poor, and only a small percent rated the instructor as fair. Almost all students rated the instructors good (33.5%) or excellent (61%)).

results). These materials ranged from standard syllabi to elaborate, ten-page syllabi, and/or weekly or monthly newsletters with study guides and calendar reminder notices. Instructors completed these surveys about two-thirds through the semester.

with a statistically significant correlation over .20 was used in an equation for that factor. The items were entered into a stepwise regression equation in order of the highest correlation first. The following describes the results, based on that process.

Moreover, with poorly developed videos, on-campus sessions with the instructor may become a more critical factor.

distance learning class. Nine of 11 had volunteered to teach the distance learning class. Ten of 11 had taught a distance learning class before. At the end of the class, 10 of the 11 said they would teach this course again using distance learning technology or another course using distance learning technology.

However, the instructors' responses to another question revealed a peculiar contradiction. Despite their willingness to be involved and participate again, given a choice among reporting that the class was lower quality, similar quality, or higher quality, five of these 11 willing, experienced distance learning class instructors said the distance learning class was of lower quality and not one said it was of higher quality.

on questions or "head nods" or "looks of understanding" from students in class may benefit from survey data from students reporting what they find helpful or what they need. Instructors may be doing a better job than they imagine. The more experience an instructor has teaching in a traditional classroom, the less satisfied that instructor may be, at first, in a distance learning classroom. Distance learning programs can address this by providing education about the technology, data on previous successes, and interaction between faculty new to this technology and those who have had positive experiences. Despite some negative attitudes about distance learning technology, it is clearly a means of educational delivery with which students are satisfied. Distance learning may not be best for every student or for every college, but it is one means of ensuring access to higher education for many, and access is a goal at which community colleges have excelled.

Caraisco, J. (2007). Overcoming Lethargy in Gifted and Talented Education with Contract Activity Packages "I'm Choosing to Learn!". Clearing House, 80(6), 255-259. http://search.ebscohost.com

The author compares the potential academic and attitudinal gains of a gifted and talented population using different instructional methods. It has been found that instruction for identified high-achieving students must be different than that of general education students. Gifted and talented students cannot maximize learning

Will there be a significant difference in the scienceachievement of fourth grade gifted and talented studentstaught through traditional methods comparedwith those taught with CAPs?Will there be a significant difference in the attitudetoward curriculum of fourth grade gifted and

twenty-five subjects from a population of gifted fourth-grade students currently enrolled in a self-contained gifted and talented class in a NYC elementary school. The students in this school are 38.3 percent Caucasian, 8.5 percent black, 9.6 percent Hispanic, and 43.6 percent Asian and Other, which isrepresentative of the demographically diverse populationfound in the local neighborhood. These students

Mixed Methods

1. The administration of the Our Wonderful LearningStyles (OWLS) Inventory (http://www.owlstest.com) in February 2006 to assess students’ learning preferences.This assessment asks the students a series of questions that identify each student’s preferences fortwenty-five different elements. Examples include eachstudent’s preference for bright or soft lighting, soundversus quiet, seating, pictures versus words,

The entire population of students in the self-contained gifted and talented fourth-grade class participated:1. We administered the OWLS learning styles assessment to the students. 2. Students completed a pretest on Unit A, Chapter 5, Lesson 3, “What are the digestive and nervous systems?” 3. We taught students a traditional science lesson using Scott Foresman Science: See Learning in a WholeNew Light. 2006. Unit A, Chapter 5, Lesson 3, “What are the digestive and nervous systems?” 4. We administered the semantic differential scale to students to assess their

There were no specific limitations reported. The following statement could be construed as a limitation:The classroomteacher felt the only drawback to the CAP lesson wasthe increased volume of student voices in the classroom.She had to continually remind students to useclassroom-appropriate voices. The teacher did notethat some of the children were frustrated during theCAP unit because the nature of the projects did not allow them to be absolutely perfect in their

Analysis of variances (ANOVA) and correlations tests for each instructional situation were conducted. There were statistically significant improvements in bothgains (α = .05) and final test scores (α = .01) whenusing the CAP method of teaching compared with a traditional method of teaching. There was also a statistically significant increase in positive attitude towardscience learning when using the CAP method comparedwith the traditional method (α = .05; see figures 5, 6, and 7).Students were highly engaged during the CAP unit of study compared with the traditional lessons.

The findings from my research project will support creation of professional development opportunities for the gifted and talented teachers to align instructional methods with students’ learning preferences. The results of this research will allow the entire staff to better understand the learning preferences of our giftedand talented students and provide data for future modifications of instructional materials and methods to support both the attitudes of gifted and talented students toward curriculum and their subsequent achievement gains.

opportunities unless they are appropriately challenged and motivated to learn. When gifted learners are lethargic and disinterested in learning, better-matched instruction is needed. Using contract activity packages with a gifted and talented population will support high-end learners in the classroom. During this project, the contract activity packages method of instruction provided the children with choice, flexibility, and challenged them at a higher level than they experienced through traditional lessons.

talentedstudents taught through traditional methods comparedwith those taught with CAPs?

were identified as gifted based on the administrationof the OLSAT School Ability Test in the spring of 2002.

and learningalone, with peers, or directly with the teacher. Thislearning-style approach was developed more than thirty-four years ago and has been used in thousands ofclassrooms around the world to help students improvetheir grades and better enjoy schooling. It has beenproven to increase aptitude and achievement scores in hundreds of studies (http://www.learningstyles.net). 2. Computerized OWLS analyses for each child. After we tested the children, I was able to print out the individual results for each child. My goal in administering this assessment was to help better plan our instructional techniques for our gifted and talented studentsbased on their learning styles. Students took this assessment in the computer lab and it took approximatelythirty minutes to complete.

attitudes toward scienceinstruction and curriculum. 5. Students completed a posttest on Unit A, Chapter 5, Lesson, “What are the digestive and nervous systems?” 6. Students completed a pretest on Unit A, Chapter 5,Lesson 4, “How does the body defend itself?” (Cooney et al. 2006).7. We taught students through the use of a CAP, “How does the body defend itself?”8. We administered the semantic differential scale to students to assess their attitudes toward scienceinstruction and curriculum. 9. Students completed a posttest on Unit A, Chapter 5, Lesson 4, “How does the body defend itself?”

presentation.As we know from our gifted learners, many ofthe children tend to be perfectionists in their workand are highly critical of their own performances.

Atan, H., Rahman, Z., & Idrus, R. (2004). Characteristics of the Web-Based Learning Environment in Distance Education: Students' Perceptions of Their Learning Needs. Educational Media International, 41(2), 103-110. http://search.ebscohost.com, doi:10.1080/09523980410001678557

In this study, we looked at the students’ perceptions regarding their needs on the various aspects of the on-lineservices. The aspects studied were the general support services, learning

The questionnaire contained statements related to the variousaspects of on-line learning, including the general support system, learning support

The sample of the study consisted of the distance education learners enrolled in the distance educationprograms at the School of Distance Education, University Sains Malaysia,

The questionnaire developed for this study was of the type that tried to elicit the feedback of the respondentstowards their needs in on-line learning. The questionnaire contained statements related to the

The analysis of the data involved extracting the means of each of the statements with the means of 3.0 representingthe equilibrium point. The means greater than 3.0 reflected the respondents’ agreement with thestatements put

No limitations were reported.

The results of this study show that the students agreed with the superior advantage of on-line learning in terms of the instructional strategies it can support that would result in learning that is more interesting, communicative and collaborative. The other advantages included the linkages to other reference resources that they perceived would affect

support services, on-line learningmaterials, the instructional design of on-line learning, the resources of on-line learning and other relatedaspects. It was hoped that this study would reveal the characteristics of, and student preferences towards, theon-line web-based design that could provide a comprehensive learner’s support system and pedagogicalapproaches that are in line with their need as students in distance education. This study would also fosterunderstanding of the students’ needs with respect to on-line learning and the appropriate instructional strategiesthat are most suitable for them. The preferred on-line instructional design could

system, learningmaterials, instructional strategies of the learning materials, learning resources.

Penang, for the 2001/2002Students’ Perceptions of Learning Needs105academic session. The questionnaires were distributed randomly among the first, second and third-year undergraduatestudents. A total of 315 questionnaires were returned – a return rate of 31.5%.

variousaspects of on-line learning, including the general support system, learning support system, learningmaterials, instructional strategies of the learning materials, learning resources. Each statement was accompaniedby the Likert Scale ranging from 1–5, with 1 denoting the least useful/important and 5 the mostuseful/important

forward, while means with values less than 3.0 reflected the respondents’ disagreement with thestatements put to them.

their learning positively through their receptiveness to new information. However, the studentsperceived that the role of on-line learning in distance education is more of a supportive nature to enhance and assist their understanding of the course materials via the dissemination of supplementary learning materials.Despite the advantageous features of on-line learning, the students perceived that the printed modules should remain the main medium of the course delivery in distance education, leading to a more suitable and comprehensivehybrid learning environment. Our research can be regarded as an attempt to further develop the existing learning environment in distance education with an exciting blend of the printed text, much needed face-to-face interaction at the right dose and the on-line format; giving rise to the appropriate use of synchronousand the asynchronous environment.

be taken into considerationduring the planning and development stage of on-line web-based support and learning environments,leading to an effective and satisfying learning experience by the students.

Ying, W., Huamao, P., Ronghuai, H., Yanhua, H., & Jingjing, W. (2008). Characteristics of distance learners: research on relationships of learning motivation, learning strategy, self-efficacy, attribution and learning results. Open Learning, 23(1), 17-28. http://search.ebscohost.com, doi:10.1080/02680510701815277

● Hypothesis one: Learning motivation and learning strategy have directly positive predictableeffects on learning results, respectively.● Hypothesis two: Self-efficacy and attribution have indirect effects on learning results andthey can affect learning

As two important characteristics of distance learners, how do these two components affect learningresults? How are they related? How do the other relevant factors such as self-efficacy andattribution affect learning results? What are the relationships among

For this research, 135 adult distance learners were sampled (68 females and 67 males). Thesestudents were all majors in software development and the application of electronic informationtechnology. The students were all based at Beijing Radio and Television University, and theyeach received a questionnaire and

Questionnaire on learning motivation of distance learners The questionnaire consists of 34 questions with a four-point Likert scale, The mean ofthe 34 questions is taken as the final score for the questionnaire. The higher the score, the strongerthe learner’s motivation on this measure. The Cronbach α coefficient of the questionnaire is0.877. The wording of this questionnaire

Multidimensional–Multiattributional Causality Scale (MMCS) The MMCS mainly measures learner’s attribution tendency ofthe success or failure of schoolwork achievement. This scale puts forward four possible attributions,which are ability and effort, reflecting internal locus of control, and luck and task difficulty, reflecting external locus of control. Each attribution tendency is divided further into two conditions, success and failure. MMCS scale uses a five-point score calculation.Taking learning results as a dependent variable and various psychological characteristics aspredictable variables, we used AMOS software to set up the structure equation model of

However, this research extends analysis of this idea and brings in thevariable of distance learning strategy

In summary, learning results are mainly affected by learning strategy. This is particularlyso in self-directed learning and collaborative learning for distance learners, where having a learning strategy plays an important role. This conclusion is similar to the research outcome fromShih and Gamon (2001), which also supports the view that the level of learning strategy is one ofthe most important factors in determining learning results. Also, it is similar to the researchoutcome from Liu, Xi, Huang, and Shen (2000), which indicates that learning motivation canindirectly affect learning

The model of distance learners’ psychological characteristics set-up in this research indicates thefollowing recommendations for practical teaching. It may particularly help to improve learningsupport.First, it is important to help learners adapt to self-directed learning in a distance environment. Second, it is important to pay attention to and strengthen instruction related to learning methodsfor distance learners. It is also important to specify learning objectives, and to help with improving and promotingthe level of the learner’s learning strategy . Third, there is a need to emphasize the self-efficacy and to correct

results via their effect on learning strategy and learning motivation.

these psychologicalvariables?

participated in an instructional experiment

(four-point scale) is different from the other researchtools used because we deleted some neutral options to take account of a possible neutral tendencyof motivation

the relationship between psychological characteristics and learning results. The analysis indicates that the model is a good fit and the coefficient of each path is significant. The edge ofthe path from the learning results towards the final examination result of the course is marginallysignificant (p < 0.08) and the other path coefficients are statistically significant (p < 0.01).

results because of learning strategy.

the attribution of learners,first of all by reinforcing the cultivation of self-efficacy.

Neber, H., & Schommer-Aikins, M. (2002). Self-regulated Science Learning with Highly Gifted Students: the role of cognitive, motivational, epistemological, and environmental variables. High Ability Studies, 13(1), 59-74. http://search.ebscohost.com, doi:10.1080/13598130220132316

This research examines the issue of self-regulated learning among highly gifted elementary(n 5 93) and high school students (n 5 40) in science. Self-report measures assessedself-regulatory strategy use in science and a spectrum of environmental (perceived levelof investigation) and individual prerequisites (motivational beliefs, goal orientation, epistemologicalbeliefs and intentions).

This study focused on three questions:(1) Comparing highly gifted students at elementary school and high-school levels onvariables of self-regulated learning. (2) Examining gender differences in science-related self-regulated learning. (3) Analysing causal relations among external and internal variables of self- regulatedlearning in science/physics. This includes analyses of the causal roles of epistemologicalbeliefs, epistemological intentions, and variables of the learningenvironment for

A total of 133 students (69 boys, 64 girls) participated in the study. Of these, 93 students attended an elementary school for highly gifted pupils in New York City, NY (32 fourth, 39 fifth and 22 sixth graders). They had been identified by ascreening procedure using the Stanford–Binet and they scored in the top 2–3% ofthis test. The participating 40 secondary school students met the same intellectualrequirements and attended the high school for highly gifted students also in NewYork City (24 eighth and 16 twelfth graders).

For each of the groups of dependent variables, self-regulated learning, motivation,epistemological intentions, epistemological beliefs, and learning environment,MANOVAs were carried out with the between-subject factors gender (2) and schoollevel (2). With the exception of self-regulated learning, school level differences werefound in aspects of all categories of dependent variables. Gender differences werefound in motivation and epistemological beliefs. Table 2 shows the multivariate testresults

Epistemological beliefs were checked using the high school questionnaire of Schommer(1993). Six general epistemological beliefs, titled from a less sophisticatedperspective, were measured: belief in innate inability for knowing; belief that successis unrelated to work; belief in quick learning; belief in seeking single answers; beliefin avoiding integration of knowledge; and belief in certain knowledge.Learning environment was considered by one variable: investigation is one of fourdimensions measured by the Classroom Environment Scale (a self-report questionnairefor students) which was developed by Teh and Fraser (1995). The subscale was used to measure the extent of exploration in the science/physics learningenvironments of the students. The

Limitations were not discussed in this article.

Firstly, high school students were experiencing lessinvestigation in science, and test anxiety and work avoidance were more pronounced thanwith elementary students. Secondly, highly gifted girls’ science-related motivational beliefswere less positive than those of boys. Thirdly, path analyses indicate that the level ofinvestigation in the science learning environment strongly determines motivational andepistemological prerequisites of self-regulatory strategy use. The results indicate that explorationand discovery should be enabled and strengthened in science classrooms of highlygifted students.

the utilization of self-regulated learning strategies.

questionnaires were administered in two parts with at least a day betweenthem. This occurred with intact classes or groups of students. The students participatedvoluntarily and anonymously.An overview of the instruments used in the current study and their reliabilitycoefficients (Cronbach’s a) is shown in Table 1.ResultsFor each of the groups of dependent variables, self-regulated learning, motivation,epistemological intentions, epistemological beliefs, and learning environment,MANOVAs were carried out with the between-subject factors gender (2) and schoollevel (2). With the exception of self-regulated learning, school level differences werefound in aspects of all categories of dependent variables. Gender differences werefound in motivation and epistemological beliefs. Table 2 shows the multivariate testresults.Comparisons of Elementary School and High School StudentsSelf-regulated learning measured as cognitive activities (strategy use) is not a verydistinct characteristic of these highly gifted elementary and high school students.The means for cognitive and regulatory strategies use are weaker than Wolters andPintrich (1998) found for normal seventh graders (cognitive strategy use M5

5.28;regulatory strategy use M5 4.95). In addition, the data reveal no significant differencesin strategies between elementary graders and high school students.Motivational characteristics

Thornton, B., Haskell, H., & Libby, L. (2006). A Comparison of Learning Styles Between Gifted and Non-Gifted High School Students. Individual Differences Research, 4(2), 106-110. http://search.ebscohost.com

The present research examined differences in learning styles among threestudent groups of high school students who were distinguished, in part, on thebasis of intelligence, academic aptitude and performance, and achievements andcould be differentially identified as "gifted or talented" or not. It was predictedthat greater use of synthesis-analysis and elaborative processing would beapparent among gifted students compared to non-gifted students. The oppositewas expected with regard to fact retention and methodical study techniques.

Nonprobability samples of lO'^-grade Caucasian urban high-school students(N = 100) took part in this study during their regularly scheduled study hallperiod. Certain students previously had been identified as gifted {n = 34). Thisclassification had been based on teacher recommendations, academic history,and performance on either the Maine Educational Assessment (measuringstudent progress and achievement in reading, writing, math, and science) or theTerra Nova Test (a norm referenced standardized test of student performanceand mastery of English, language arts, social studies, math, and science). Otherstudents were not gifted, but were identified as college-bound (n =32). Stillothers were identified as not gifted and not college-bound {n = 34).

Differences in the use of the four learning styles previously described wereassessed using the Inventory of Learning Processes (Geisler-Brenstein &Schmeck, 1996; Schmeck, 1983).

The measure consists of 62 items describingvarious strategies and techniques a student may use to study in order to learnnew information. Each item is responded to as either true (scored 1) or false(scored 0) as it reflects a particular student's approach. Individual items werethen appropriately combined to form composite assessments of synthesis analysis,elaborative processing, fact retention, and study methods. Thisassessment has been shown to have very good validity, reliability, and predictiveability (DeBello, 1990; Duff, 1997; Gadzella, 2002; Gadzilla, Stephens, &Baloglu, 2003; Schmeck & Ribich, 1978; Schmeck, Ribich, & Ramanaiah,1977).

Proportional response rates reflecting the relative reliance on each of the fourlearning strategy indices were analyzed as a within-subjects factor while studentclassification served as a between-subjects factor in a split-plot factorial design.An initial analysis had included student gender as an additional factor but, asthere were no significant differences (Fs < 1) between girls and boys, it wasremoved and the data are reported on in the aggregate.

This suggests the potential forenhancing the academic performance of students, not by emphasizing differentmodes of learning, but more extensive and varied use of these modes. It is alsorecommended that routine assessment of individual differences in learning stylestake place to ensure the success of learning strategy training and researchprograms (e.g., Schmeck, 1988). The assessment and identification of learningstyle also has been noted to be of particular importance where gifted and talentindividuals are concerned so that counseling interventions that match theirlearning style may be utilized (Griggs, 1993) and by implementingcomplementary interventions and opportunities that would contribute to"catalyzing giftedness" and promote high achievement (Griggs & Dunn, 1984).This would seem to be something of importance to all students, not just thoseidentified as gifted and talented, so as to enhance the educational experience andpromote achievement for all students albeit in their respective differentendeavors.

Feng, A., VanTassel-

The purpose of this study was to assess the

There were two major research questions: 1)

A total of 973 students (grades three to nine) from one northeastern

Both quantitative and qualitative techniques were used in data analysis. Descriptive

The instruments employed to assess student learning were performance based in orientation. Interrater

There were several limitations to the study. First, there was a lack of a comparison group from the

Paired-samples t tests were performed to examine students' academic growth in the program in the key areas of language arts and science over a

Implications for research include a need for replication studies in other districts that can document the 3-year growth patterns found in this study for

Baska, J., Quek, C., Bai, W., & O'Neill, B. (2004). A Longitudinal Assessment of Gifted Students' Learning Using the Integrated Curriculum Model (ICM): Impacts and Perceptions of the William and Mary Language Arts and Science Curriculum. Roeper Review, 27(2), 78-83. http://search.ebscohost.com

effects over time of implementing a differentiated curriculum for gifted learners designed around the Integrated Curriculum Model (ICM).

To what extent is there evidence of gifted students' growth as a result of the use of ICM-based curriculum? 2) To what extent is this curriculum meeting the needs of identified students as perceived by relevant stakeholders?

suburban school district comprised the overall student sample of this study, among which there were 116 third-graders, 106 fourth-graders, and 109 fifth-graders. Most of these students had been exposed to the William and Mary language arts and science units over a 3-year period and were tested by the corresponding performance-based assessments during the period of 1996 and 2002. In the perceptual part of the study, surveys were returned by 367 parents, 110 educators, and 732 students.

statistics such as means, standard deviations, and percentages were used to present the survey data; inferential techniques such as paired samples t tests, and analysis of variance were used to investigate students' pre-post achievement gains in targeted areas of language arts and science.

reliability was .90, based on the use of outside trained observers over most years of data collection. The Diet Cola Test which assessed scientific experimental design facility has reported form reliability at .76 and inter-rater reliability from .90 to .95; it has been found to be a highly sensitive instrument to students' different responses and has been recommended for use with gifted students to assess high level science learning (Adams & Callahan, 1995). Researchers and project staff also found that it adequately assessed research skills in experimental design (VanTassel-Baska et al. 1998). The pre-post literary analysis assessment and pre-post writing assessment was developed and validated in earlier studies (VanTassel-Baska, Johnson, Hughes, & Boyce, 1996; VanTassel-Baska, Zuo, Avery, & Little, 2002). The pre-post writing assessment rubric was also validated with other populations (Burkhalter, 1995).

The stakeholder survey instrument used in the study contained multiple-choice and Likert-type items, with two open-ended questions. It consisted of 28 to 31 items (depending on the stakeholder group) and was designed for electronic scanning

school district. All gifted students in the district have received the same treatment over the last 6 years, making an in-district comparison group difficult to establish. However, because of the multi-year track of students' performance on pre- and post-tests by multi-cohorts (1996-2002), an inference of the curricular impact might be made through the longitudinal pattern of performance.

Another limitation was the low rate of return of the parent survey (40%) and the teacher survey (48%), which might affect the overall generalizability of the survey findings. Finally, although the district has collected performance-based assessment data over a period of 6 years, the reported data in this study cover only grades three to five for any given cohort group. Current sixth- through eighth-graders' performance-based assessment data were not available.

period of 6 years (1996-2002). Table 1 shows that statistically significant gains from pre- to post-assessment were registered in literary analysis, persuasive writing, grammar, and scientific research skills, regardless of the grade level being tested. The effect sizes using Cohen's d index ranged from .52 to 1.38, suggesting that these academic gains were educationally important and statistically significant. Except for literary analysis, students' academic growth in persuasive writing, grammar, and scientific research skills have been large, an increase of more than one standard deviation above the pre-test means in corresponding areas. The magnitude of achievement growth in literary analysis was of medium size; the size of growth in persuasive writing appeared to slow down to the moderate level at fifth grade (d = 0.66), as compared to growth of 1.28, and 1.27 standard deviations above the pre-test means at the third and fourth grade. However, the overall academic growth steadily increased from lower to higher grade levels in all domains assessed.

science and language arts learning at higher levels. Other studies, using appropriate level and type of standardized assessments, would further validate these findings, as would a study examining long term outcome differences on high stakes measures such as Advanced Placement tests and the Scholastic Aptitude Test. Studies that analyze gifted student performance from underrepresented groups would also contribute to our understanding of the curriculum's flexibility of use.