structure!–phrase-markers! transformaonal!grammar! engl424 · word*level(categories(!...

ì Chapter 2-‐3 Structure – Phrase-‐markers

Transforma4onal Grammar Engl 424

Hayfa Alhomaid

Intuitions about Structure

ì  There are two types of intui4ons about the na4ve language syntax:

•  Intui4ons about how sound-‐sequences are structured into larger structural units (cons4tuents).

•  Intui4ons about whether par4cular sets of cons4tuents belong to the same category or not.

E.g. This boy must seem incredibly stupid to that girl

This boy must seem incredibly stupid to

that girl

Intuitions about Structure

ì  There are two types of representa4on that we can analyze the sentences using them:

1-‐ Phrase-‐marker (labeled tree diagram)

This boy must seem incredibly stupid to

that girl

S

D

NP

N M V ADV

VP

AP

A

PP NP

P D N

2-‐ Labeled bracke4ng [S[NP[D this][N boy]][M must][VP[V seem][AP [ADV incredibly][A stupid][PP[P to][NP [D that][N girl]]]]]

S Sentence/clause

NP Noun phrase

VP Verb phrase

AP Adjec6ve phrase

PP Preposi6onal phrase

ADV Adverb

D Determiner

N Noun

M Modal

V Verb

A Adjec6ve

P Preposi6on

Word-‐level categories

ì  What do we mean by word-‐level category? It a set of words which share a common set of linguis4c (especially morphological and syntac4c) proper4es.

ì  What evidence is there that words belong to various categories of different types – categories like Noun, Verb, Adjec4ve, Adverb, Preposi4on, Modal, Determiner, and so forth?

Morphological evidence: Certain types of inflec4on a[ach only to specific categories. 1-‐ Verbs in English can be recognized by the fact that they have up to five forms; base, 3rd person singular, past tense, past par4ciple, present par4ciple. This can help to differen4ate verbs from modals. E.g.

However, irregularity may cause some confusion since some verbs have one form that can serve two or three places E.g.

Base 3rd person singular Past tense Past par6ciple Present par6ciple

Show Shows Showed Shown Showing

can *cans could *cannen *canning

Base 3rd person singular Past tense Past par6ciple Present par6ciple

come comes came come coming

cut cuts cut cut cu`ng



Morphological evidence: Certain types of inflec4on a[ach only to specific categories. 2-‐ Adjec4ves and adverbs can also be dis4nguished by morphological grounds depending on the inflec4ons since they are the only categories that take compara4ve –er. E.g. Tall è taller , fast è faster , Soon è sooner

However, this can a problema4c because some adjec4ves and adverbs do not take the compara4ve –er form, such as beau4ful and intelligent. Moreover, we can differen4ate between adjec4ves and adverbs morphologically by the fact that adverbs take a dis4nc4ve –ly inflec4on. E.g. Sad (A) è sadly (ADV) Lucky (A) è luckily (ADV)



Morphological evidence: Certain types of inflec4on a[ach only to specific categories. 3-‐ Nouns can also be dis4nguished from adjec4ves and other categories by the fact that only nouns can take the plural –s. E.g. Hero (N) è Heroes Heroic (A) è *Herorics 4-‐ Preposi4ons can be dis4nguished by saying that they are invariable forms that cannot take the verb inflec4ons; -‐s, -‐d, -‐ing, -‐en, the compara4ve –er, the adverb inflec4on –ly, and the noun plural inflec4on –s. 5-‐ As for determiners, they do not have any morphological dis4nc4ve feature that dis4nguishes them from other categories.



Syntac4c evidence: 1-‐ Only Nouns (not verbs, adjec4ves, adverbs, or preposi4ons) can be used in the following spot _ can be a pain in the neck. Linguis4cs John Girls can be a pain in the neck è All are NOUNS Television Babies *Go *For *Older can be a pain in the neck *Seriously *The



Syntac4c evidence: 2-‐ Only Verbs (not nouns, adjec4ves, adverbs, or preposi4ons) can be used in the following spot They can _. stay hide They can leave è All are VERBS die cry cute *They can down woman



Syntac4c evidence: 3-‐ Only Modals can begin a three-‐word sentence _ he be George? Can Could Should he be George?è All are MODALS Will Must *Go *For *Older he be George? *Seriously *The



Syntac4c evidence: 4-‐ Only Adjec4ves and Adverbs can occur aier (very) He is very slow (A) / He walks very slowly (ADV) *Very girls love to have fun (N) / *He very loves her (V) / *It happened very aier the party (P) We can differen4ate between adverbs and adjec4ves by the fact that only adverbs can be used to complete four-‐word sentence badly politely He treats her well è All are ADVERBS arrogantly nice *He treats her woman go However, adjec4ves also can be used to complete four-‐word sentence of the form “They are very _”

Phrasal categories: syntactic evidence

First evidence: Coordina4on

He has a cat and a dog

Is she in the kitchen or in the bathroom?

He speaks very slowly but very accurately

We can only conjoin cons6tuents, noncons6tuent sequences cannot be conjoined

*John rang up his mother and up his sister.

We can only conjoin cons6tuents of one category

John wrote to Mary and to Fred (PP and PP) / John wrote a le[er and a postcard (NP and NP)

*John wrote a le[er and to Fred (NP and PP) / *John wrote to Fred and a le[er (PP and NP)


Second evidence: Pronominalisa4on (a general property of natural languages that they have ability for referring to en44es men4oned elsewhere in the same sentence). 1-‐ Speaker A: What do you think of the guy who wrote that unbelievably boring book on Transforma6onal Grammar? Speaker B: I can’t stand him. 2-‐ Speaker A: Have you ever been to Paris?

Speaker B: No, I haven’t been there. 3-‐ John might go home, and so might Bill.

4-‐ Many people consider John extremely rude, but I’ve never found him so. We name these words that replace or refer back to another cons4tuents pro-‐cons6tuents or proforms


Third evidence: Ellipsis (to be omi[ed). 1-‐ Speaker A: John won’t wash the dishes.

Speaker B: I bet he will wash the dishes if you’re nice to him.

2-‐ John won’t help me with the dishes, but his brother will help me with the dishes.

The nature of Phrase-‐markers

ì  A P-‐marker is a graph comprising a set of points (or nodes) connected by branches.

The president will stay in

a hotel

S

NP VP M

D N V PP

NP P

D N

Terminal nodes

Nonterminal nodes


ì  Any given nodes contained in the same P-‐marker will be related by one of two different types of rela4on; by dominance, or by precedence.

The president will seem in

a hotel

S

NP VP M

D N V PP

NP P

D N

Dominates all the othe

r nod

es

Immediately dominates


ì  Any given nodes contained in the same P-‐marker will be related by one of two different types of rela4on; by dominance, or by precedence.


a hotel

S

NP VP M

D N V PP

NP P

D N

Preced

es all the rig

ht-‐han

d no

des

Immed

iately precede

s


ì  If one node immediately dominates another node, then the first one is the mother of the second, and the second one is the daughter of the first one.

ì  A set of nodes are sisters if they are immediately dominated by the same mother


a hotel

S

NP VP M

D N V PP

NP P

D N

Mother

daughter

sisters

SEE YOU NEXT WEEK J

This is all for today

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