structure providing transition, depth and emphasis
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StructureStructureProviding Transition, Providing Transition, Depth and EmphasisDepth and Emphasis
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TransitionsTransitions Transitions are critical to lead the reader Transitions are critical to lead the reader
through your organization strategythrough your organization strategy• Between sentencesBetween sentences• Between paragraphs & Between paragraphs & • Between sectionsBetween sections
Having set up an organization with sections, Having set up an organization with sections, there have to be transitions between the there have to be transitions between the sections so you don’t lose the reader.sections so you don’t lose the reader.
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Section TransitionsSection Transitions
Mapping sectionsMapping sections - presenting the name of the - presenting the name of the
sections in an explanatory list (like a table on sections in an explanatory list (like a table on
contents) just before the sections contents) just before the sections
Smooth transitions, sections introduced by: Smooth transitions, sections introduced by:
• Introducing the subjectIntroducing the subject
• Repeating the heading in sentence contextRepeating the heading in sentence context
• Providing brief background informationProviding brief background information
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Transitions to AvoidTransitions to Avoid
Empty beginning – waste the first sentence Empty beginning – waste the first sentence without saying anything significantwithout saying anything significant• Many countries are spending money to study Many countries are spending money to study
global warmingglobal warming
Begin with details that are too specificBegin with details that are too specific• Oxygen isotopic data from Antarctic ice cores on Oxygen isotopic data from Antarctic ice cores on
the Ross Ice Shelf range from …the Ross Ice Shelf range from …
Begin with a statement that is too generalBegin with a statement that is too general• Global warming is a world-wide problemGlobal warming is a world-wide problem
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Depth of DetailsDepth of Details Depth includes the way you classify, analyze, and Depth includes the way you classify, analyze, and
assess detailsassess details• Level 1 – classification & organization of dataLevel 1 – classification & organization of data
• Level 2 – analyze data for significanceLevel 2 – analyze data for significance
• Level 3 – assess the validity of analysis Level 3 – assess the validity of analysis
Audience determines level of detailAudience determines level of detail• Interest of the audienceInterest of the audience
• Technical level of the audienceTechnical level of the audience
• Purpose for the audience (info vs persuasion)Purpose for the audience (info vs persuasion)
Parallel depth of discussion of related topicsParallel depth of discussion of related topics
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Emphasis of DetailsEmphasis of Details
Details need to be presented so Details need to be presented so that the reader understands their that the reader understands their relative importancerelative importance
Four ways to emphasize:Four ways to emphasize:• RepetitionRepetition• WordingWording• IllustrationIllustration• PlacementPlacement
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Emphasizing Details with Emphasizing Details with RepetitionRepetition
Repeating important results in different sections of the Repeating important results in different sections of the
paper – in the abstract, summary and conclusions, for paper – in the abstract, summary and conclusions, for
instanceinstance
Increases the likelihood that the reader will recall Increases the likelihood that the reader will recall
important detailsimportant details
Contrast with Repetition with RedundancyContrast with Repetition with Redundancy
• redundant – containing material that is predictable from its redundant – containing material that is predictable from its
context (It was late in the month of July context (It was late in the month of July vsvs It was late July) It was late July)
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Emphasizing Details with Emphasizing Details with WordingWording
To emphasize important details, sentences should To emphasize important details, sentences should
explain explain whywhy they are important they are important Rather than giving details in a sequence of Rather than giving details in a sequence of
prepositional phrases, which give equal emphasis, prepositional phrases, which give equal emphasis,
use use dependent clausesdependent clauses and and infinitive phrasesinfinitive phrases Dependent clausesDependent clauses begin with introductory words begin with introductory words
such as: because, since, as, although, whensuch as: because, since, as, although, when Infinitive phrasesInfinitive phrases are verb phrases that begin with are verb phrases that begin with
the word “to”the word “to” These help show the relative importance of detailsThese help show the relative importance of details
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Emphasizing Details with Emphasizing Details with IllustrationsIllustrations
Readers may not read every sentence, but they Readers may not read every sentence, but they
will usually look at your illustrationswill usually look at your illustrations If possible, put important results in an illustrationIf possible, put important results in an illustration AlwaysAlways integrate your illustrations into your text integrate your illustrations into your text
for emphasis of the textfor emphasis of the text Overuse of illustrations dilutes their ability to Overuse of illustrations dilutes their ability to
emphasizeemphasize
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Emphasizing Details with Emphasizing Details with Placement – Sentences & ParagraphsPlacement – Sentences & Paragraphs
Text that borders white space has more Text that borders white space has more
emphasis than text surrounded by wordsemphasis than text surrounded by words
• Titles and headingsTitles and headings
• Beginning and end of sections or paragraphsBeginning and end of sections or paragraphs
Changes in the length of sentences and Changes in the length of sentences and
paragraphsparagraphs
• Short sentences or paragraphs following long Short sentences or paragraphs following long
sentences or paragraphs receive emphasissentences or paragraphs receive emphasis
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Emphasizing Details with Emphasizing Details with Placement – Items in ListsPlacement – Items in Lists
Lists of important information should be short, or Lists of important information should be short, or
prioritized and placed for emphasisprioritized and placed for emphasis Consider using numbers or first, second etc.Consider using numbers or first, second etc. Consider a vertical listing (use sparingly)Consider a vertical listing (use sparingly) Consider shortening a list to two or three important Consider shortening a list to two or three important
points followed by a list of secondary points or points followed by a list of secondary points or
recommendationsrecommendations
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LanguageLanguageBeing Precise, Clear, Being Precise, Clear,
Forthright, Familiar,Forthright, Familiar,
Concise and FluidConcise and Fluid
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Being PreciseBeing Precise – – Saying what You Mean Saying what You Mean
One of the most important goals One of the most important goals of language in scientific writingof language in scientific writing
Involves two aspects of Involves two aspects of language:language:• Choosing the right word - usageChoosing the right word - usage• Choosing the appropriate level of Choosing the appropriate level of
accuracyaccuracy
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Choosing the Right WordChoosing the Right Word
Understand the correct use of similar Understand the correct use of similar meanings:meanings:• Comprise vs composeComprise vs compose• Affect vs effectAffect vs effect• Continual vs continuousContinual vs continuous• Like vs asLike vs as• Principle vs principal Principle vs principal • See also Appendix B of - Alley (1996)See also Appendix B of - Alley (1996)
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Choosing the Right WordChoosing the Right Word
Avoid using word grouping with no Avoid using word grouping with no meaning:meaning:
• Centers around, revolves aroundCenters around, revolves around Avoid using words as synonyms that Avoid using words as synonyms that
are not are not exactexact synonyms synonyms
• Classified – secret – mysterious –Classified – secret – mysterious –
unidentified – unclassified unidentified – unclassified
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Choosing the Right Choosing the Right Level of DetailLevel of Detail
Balance general statements with specific statementsBalance general statements with specific statements
• General statements establish the direction of thoughtGeneral statements establish the direction of thought
• Specific statements give evidence to support the thoughtSpecific statements give evidence to support the thought
General statements by themselves do not leave an General statements by themselves do not leave an
impression, they only set up the context for detailsimpression, they only set up the context for details
Too many details without a context confuses your Too many details without a context confuses your
reader or makes for tiresome readingreader or makes for tiresome reading
Choose only useful detailsChoose only useful details
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Being ClearBeing Clear – Avoiding – Avoiding Things that You Don’t MeanThings that You Don’t Mean
Two things make writing Two things make writing ununclearclear
• Needless complexity ofNeedless complexity of wordswords phrasesphrases sentencessentences
• AmbiguityAmbiguity
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Needlessly Complex WordsNeedlessly Complex Words
Are the words Are the words precise?precise?
Are the words clear?Are the words clear?• If so, use them; if not If so, use them; if not
find simpler find simpler substitutessubstitutes
Suspect words end Suspect words end in ize, in ize,
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Needlessly Complex PhrasesNeedlessly Complex Phrases
Are commonly a result of strung Are commonly a result of strung
together modifiers preceding the nountogether modifiers preceding the noun• ““critically important aspects of the fluorescent dye tracer testing critically important aspects of the fluorescent dye tracer testing
procedures resulted in a very unfortunate failure of our experiment.”procedures resulted in a very unfortunate failure of our experiment.”
• Dilute the significance of the modifiers Dilute the significance of the modifiers
because they get lost in the phrasebecause they get lost in the phrase
• Can reduce the precision of the sentenceCan reduce the precision of the sentence
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Needlessly Complex SentencesNeedlessly Complex Sentences
Long sentences test a readers patience, but Long sentences test a readers patience, but not all long sentence are complexnot all long sentence are complex
Convoluted sentences are a bigger problemConvoluted sentences are a bigger problem• Too many prepositional phrasesToo many prepositional phrases
• Too many ideasToo many ideas
Every sentence should have just Every sentence should have just oneone main main idea idea
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Spotting Complex SentencesSpotting Complex Sentences
Does the sentence have more than one idea?Does the sentence have more than one idea? Do you notice that the sentence is longDo you notice that the sentence is long
• In a In a goodgood long sentence you don’t notice the length long sentence you don’t notice the length
How clear would it be to you as the readerHow clear would it be to you as the reader• Imagine yourself sitting across from your most important Imagine yourself sitting across from your most important
readerreader
• Write your paper as if you were talking to that readerWrite your paper as if you were talking to that reader
Get rid of needless formality and complexityGet rid of needless formality and complexity• Your purpose is to inform, not to impress your reader with Your purpose is to inform, not to impress your reader with
needlessly formal or complex wordingneedlessly formal or complex wording
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Avoid AmbiguityAvoid Ambiguity Ambiguity occurs when a word, phrase or Ambiguity occurs when a word, phrase or
sentence can be interpreted in more than sentence can be interpreted in more than one way.one way.
You are most likely to recognize ambiguity You are most likely to recognize ambiguity when you are revising your writing several when you are revising your writing several days after having written it.days after having written it.• You are more likely to recognize ambiguity as a You are more likely to recognize ambiguity as a
reader than as a writerreader than as a writer PrintPrint out a draft rather than reviewing it out a draft rather than reviewing it
only on a computer screenonly on a computer screen
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Types of AmbiguityTypes of Ambiguity Ambiguity of word choiceAmbiguity of word choice
• Many word in English have multiple meaningsMany word in English have multiple meanings Ambiguity in syntaxAmbiguity in syntax
• Syntax refers to the order and structure of Syntax refers to the order and structure of word or phrases in a sentenceword or phrases in a sentence
Ambiguity of pronounsAmbiguity of pronouns• There should be absolutely not doubt as to There should be absolutely not doubt as to
what the pronoun referswhat the pronoun refers• Be careful using “it” and “this”Be careful using “it” and “this”
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Types of AmbiguityTypes of Ambiguity Ambiguity of punctuationAmbiguity of punctuation
• Commas cause the most ambiguityCommas cause the most ambiguity Mandatory commas – used to keep a Mandatory commas – used to keep a
sentence from being misreadsentence from being misread• For instance, following an introductory For instance, following an introductory
phrasephrase• Commas with “and” or “or” in Commas with “and” or “or” in
sequences of three or moresequences of three or more
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Language:Language: Being Forthright Being Forthright
When you are forthright you are:When you are forthright you are:• Sincere, straightforwardSincere, straightforward• You use strong nouns and verbsYou use strong nouns and verbs
You control this with the “tone” of You control this with the “tone” of your writingyour writing
Tone is the part of your language Tone is the part of your language that indicates your attitude that indicates your attitude toward your subjecttoward your subject
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Controlling ToneControlling Tone Avoid pretentious words that are likely Avoid pretentious words that are likely
to smack of a pseudo-intellectualityto smack of a pseudo-intellectuality• facilitate, implement, interface, facilitate, implement, interface,
component, utilizecomponent, utilize Avoid arrogant phrasesAvoid arrogant phrases
• as is well known, of course, clearly as is well known, of course, clearly demonstrate, unambiguous, it is obvious demonstrate, unambiguous, it is obvious thatthat
Avoid clichésAvoid clichés• Rat race, bundle of nerves, …Rat race, bundle of nerves, …
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Choosing Strong Nouns & VerbsChoosing Strong Nouns & Verbs
A noun is strong if it invokes one of the five A noun is strong if it invokes one of the five
senses in a reader (concrete nouns)senses in a reader (concrete nouns)
• touch, smell, taste, hearing & visiontouch, smell, taste, hearing & vision
Abstract nouns do not invoke the sensesAbstract nouns do not invoke the senses
• ability, approach, capability, concept, factor, ability, approach, capability, concept, factor,
nature, parameternature, parameter
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Strong VerbsStrong Verbs Avoid verb phrases in favor of active verbsAvoid verb phrases in favor of active verbs
• arranged vs made arrangements forarranged vs made arrangements for
• decided vs made the decisiondecided vs made the decision
Words that indicate the natural action of the Words that indicate the natural action of the
sentence are the best verbssentence are the best verbs Don’t bury strong verbs with verb “to be”Don’t bury strong verbs with verb “to be”
• begins vs is beginningbegins vs is beginning
• detects vs is used to detectdetects vs is used to detect
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Active vs Passive VoiceActive vs Passive Voice In most cases, sentences are more straight In most cases, sentences are more straight
forward if the subject completes the action forward if the subject completes the action of the sentences (active voice) rather than of the sentences (active voice) rather than being acted upon (passive voice)being acted upon (passive voice)• The seismometer recorded the earthquakeThe seismometer recorded the earthquake
““recorded” is an active verbrecorded” is an active verb
• The earthquake was recorded by the The earthquake was recorded by the seismometerseismometer
““was recorded” is a passive verb constructionwas recorded” is a passive verb construction
General rule: let objects do the things they General rule: let objects do the things they were made to dowere made to do
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Passive Voice to AvoidPassive Voice to Avoid First-Person References First-Person References
We analyzed the samples for gold. We analyzed the samples for gold. VsVs
The samples were analyzed for gold.The samples were analyzed for gold. Use of the first person is fine as long Use of the first person is fine as long
as the emphasis remains on your as the emphasis remains on your work and not on you.work and not on you.
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Language – Language – Being FamiliarBeing Familiar
Use terms that are familiar to your Use terms that are familiar to your primaryprimary audience. audience.
Avoid unnecessary jargonAvoid unnecessary jargon Define unfamiliar terms if necessaryDefine unfamiliar terms if necessary Define acronyms the first time they Define acronyms the first time they
are usedare used• X-ray computed tomography (CT) will X-ray computed tomography (CT) will
revolutionize rock textural studies.revolutionize rock textural studies.
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Incorporate ExamplesIncorporate Examples and Analogies and Analogies
Whenever you make a general Whenever you make a general
statement, you should anchor the statement, you should anchor the
statement with examples.statement with examples.• Color is not a good property to use to Color is not a good property to use to
identify a mineral. For instance, quartz…identify a mineral. For instance, quartz…
Analogies compare obscure thoughts, Analogies compare obscure thoughts,
features, or processes to familiar onesfeatures, or processes to familiar ones
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Language – Language – Being ConciseBeing Concise
Being concise usually follows from Being concise usually follows from being clear and being forthrightbeing clear and being forthright
Four ways to cut the fat in scientific Four ways to cut the fat in scientific writingwriting• Eliminate redundanciesEliminate redundancies• Eliminate meaningless phrases (zeros)Eliminate meaningless phrases (zeros)• Reduce sentences to their simplest formReduce sentences to their simplest form• Cut bureaucratic wasteCut bureaucratic waste
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Eliminate redundanciesEliminate redundancies
Redundancies occur when you:Redundancies occur when you:• Repeat the meaning of an earlier expressionRepeat the meaning of an earlier expression
(completely) eliminate, mix (together), (still) (completely) eliminate, mix (together), (still) persistspersists
• Make a point that is implicit in what has Make a point that is implicit in what has already been statedalready been stated
aluminum (metal)aluminum (metal)
Catch redundancies by reading to Catch redundancies by reading to eliminate wordseliminate words
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Eliminating Writing ZerosEliminating Writing Zeros
Writing zeros are phrases that Writing zeros are phrases that have no meaning and offer no have no meaning and offer no information to the reader:information to the reader:• It is interesting to note that…It is interesting to note that…• The presence of …The presence of …• In the course of…In the course of…• I might add that…I might add that…• As a matter of fact…As a matter of fact…
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Reducing a Sentence to Its Reducing a Sentence to Its Simplest FormSimplest Form
This does not mean limiting yourself This does not mean limiting yourself
to simple sentencesto simple sentences
It means using only the necessary It means using only the necessary
words in whatever sentence words in whatever sentence
structure you choose, be it simple, structure you choose, be it simple,
compound, or complexcompound, or complex
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Reducing a Sentence to Its Reducing a Sentence to Its Simplest Form (examples)Simplest Form (examples)
Eliminate fat phrasesEliminate fat phrases• At this point in time = nowAt this point in time = now• In the vicinity of = nearIn the vicinity of = near• In the event that = ifIn the event that = if
Eliminate overused adjectives or adverbs Eliminate overused adjectives or adverbs that don’t serve a purpose in your that don’t serve a purpose in your sentencesentence• Comprehensive, detailed, fundamental, Comprehensive, detailed, fundamental,
somewhat, rather, very, pervasive are somewhat, rather, very, pervasive are commonly overused or unnecessary commonly overused or unnecessary
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Reducing a Sentence to Its Reducing a Sentence to Its Simplest Form (examples)Simplest Form (examples)
Eliminate nouns containing verbsEliminate nouns containing verbs• Establishment, measurement, Establishment, measurement,
developmentdevelopment Eliminate needless passive voiceEliminate needless passive voice
• It was concluded that…It was concluded that…
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Eliminating Bureaucratic WasteEliminating Bureaucratic Waste
Eliminate the use of empty bureaucratic nouns such Eliminate the use of empty bureaucratic nouns such as:as:• Target, parameter, developmentTarget, parameter, development
Think about the interest of your principle audience.Think about the interest of your principle audience.• Consider what your audience wants to learn from your Consider what your audience wants to learn from your
document.document. Eliminate things that are superfluousEliminate things that are superfluous Concise writing is forceful and helps your audience Concise writing is forceful and helps your audience
focus on what you sayfocus on what you say Fat writing is lethargic and allows your reader’s Fat writing is lethargic and allows your reader’s
mind to wander from your textmind to wander from your text
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Language – Language – Being FluidBeing Fluid
Fluid writing uses variations in:Fluid writing uses variations in:• Sentence rhythmsSentence rhythms
• Sentence lengthsSentence lengths
• Sentence structureSentence structure
• Paragraph length Paragraph length
– – to lead the reader though the textto lead the reader though the text
Fluid writing - eliminate discontinuities byFluid writing - eliminate discontinuities by• Providing smooth transitions between ideasProviding smooth transitions between ideas
• Providing a smooth visual formatProviding a smooth visual format
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Varying Sentence RhythmsVarying Sentence Rhythms
Sentences that have the same kind of Sentences that have the same kind of
beginning, same length, the same noun, beginning, same length, the same noun,
verb, and phrase arrangements are boring verb, and phrase arrangements are boring
to read and can make your subject boring.to read and can make your subject boring. Vary rhythms by changing the way Vary rhythms by changing the way
sentences begin, the way they end, the sentences begin, the way they end, the
position of subjects and verbs, their length, position of subjects and verbs, their length,
and their complexity (see Alley, p. 130-137)and their complexity (see Alley, p. 130-137)
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Eliminate DiscontinuitiesEliminate Discontinuities
Discontinuities may be a result of:Discontinuities may be a result of:• Poor transitions between ideasPoor transitions between ideas
Within sentences, between sentences, between paragraphsWithin sentences, between sentences, between paragraphs
• Use conjunctive words early in a sentence to make strong Use conjunctive words early in a sentence to make strong transitions to previous sentences transitions to previous sentences (although, however,…)(although, however,…)
Transitional words signal one of three things:Transitional words signal one of three things:• Movement of ideas will continue in the same directionMovement of ideas will continue in the same direction
Also, moreover, first…second… thirdAlso, moreover, first…second… third
• Movement of ideas will pauseMovement of ideas will pause For instance, for examples, in other wordsFor instance, for examples, in other words
• Movement of ideas will reverseMovement of ideas will reverse However, on the other hand, converselyHowever, on the other hand, conversely