stress levels and teaching effectiveness

8/22/2019 Stress Levels and Teaching Effectiveness

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FILAMER CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY

Graduate School

SOURCES, CAUSES AND IMPACT OF STRESS ON

THE TEACHING PERFORMANCE IN P.E.

A Thesis Proposal

Submitted to the Faculty

School of Graduate Studies

In partial fulfillment for

For the degree

MASTER OF ARTS IN TEACHING

Major in Physical Education

By

CASTER L. KAPUNAN

2012


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CHAPTER I

Introduction

Teaching has a very prestigious place in all professions.

A teacher is a kingpin in the entire system of education.

Almost all cultures of the civilized world have considered

their teachers in a very high esteem. To achieve this

status teachers throughout the history of civilization have

come up to the expectations of the world around them. Most

thinkers and philosophers of the past who are still remembered

because they had their students and disciples that proliferate

the ideas and knowledge they have produced.

Times have changed and the societies and cultures have

drastically diversified, but the tasks of a teacher are

primarily the same, which is the transfer of knowledge to the

next generation. With change in cultural norms and traditions

in the societies there has been a drastic change in the

expectations from a teacher. Some of these changes have limited

the measures which a teacher in the past could exercise in

disciplining a student and some have put additional burden on

teachers in respect their preparation of lessons and adopting

and maintaining their teaching styles. This is because most of


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the school systems prefer to maintain uniformity in all of

their branches.

Teaching has now become a very demanding occupation with a lot

of stresses for a teacher who has a lot of deadlines to meet

and a lot of responsibilities to shoulder besides teaching a

child. Primarily the role and responsibility of a teacher is

multitasked in the present day school system. This was

altogether different just a few years ago. With the change in

the type of teaching culture and added managerial

responsibilities for teachers include planning and executing

instructional lessons, assessing students based on specific

objectives derived from a set curriculum, and communicating

with parents. Some of the jobs that teachers face from day to

day includes: Lesson planning and teaching, accountability for

students performance, classroom management and discipline,

supervisory role, extracurricular activity conducting and

monitoring.

Teaching has been identified as one of the most stressful

professions today. The reasons for that are quite similar to

other stressful occupations in the world. In a survey assessing

the stress levelsf of various jobs by the Health and Safety

Executive(2010) , teaching came out top. Job related stress

also imparts a lot of elements towards performance and


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efficiency of teachers. With the current trend of shifting the

educations focus from quantity to quality, it is then a

qualifier that teaching performance is a primary consideration

in all of the educational system.

It is on this premise that this study is conducted to

determines, assess and qualify stress and its relationship

towards teaching performance in Physical Education subject.


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Statement of the Problem

This study will be conducted to find out the sources,

causes and impact of stress on the teaching performance in P.E.

Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions:

1.What are the socio-demographic profile of the respondents

with regards to: A) Sex, B) Age, C) Teaching Position, D)

Estimated monthly income, and D) Civil Status?

2.What are the sources of stress?

3.What causes stress?

4.Are there significant differences between the levels of

stress and : A) Sex, B) Age, C) Teaching Position, D)

Estimated monthly income, and D) Civil Status?

5.What is the level of impact of stress among the

respondents when grouped according to: A) Sex, B) Age, C)

Teaching Position, D) Estimated monthly income, and D)

Civil Status?

6.Are there significant relationships between level of

impact of stress and the respondents: A) Sex, B) Age, C)


Civil Status?


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Objectives of the Study

This study wants to find out the sources, causes and

impact of stress on the teaching performance in P.E.

Specifically it aims to attain the following objectives:

1.To describe socio-demographic profile of the respondents

with regards to: A) Sex, B) Age, C) Teaching Position,

D) Estimated monthly income, and D) Civil Status.

2.To determine the sources of stress.

3.To find out the causes stress.

4.To determine if there are significant differences

between the levels of stress and : A) Sex, B) Age, C)


Civil Status

5.To find out the level of impact of stress among the

respondents when grouped according to: A) Sex, B) Age,

C) Teaching Position, D) Estimated monthly income, and

D) Civil Status.

6.To ascertain if there are significant relationships

between level of impact of stress and the respondents:

A) Sex, B) Age, C) Teaching Position, D) Estimated

monthly income, and D) Civil Status.


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Significance of the Study

The outcome of this study will give a comprehensive

knowledge of the sources , causes and impact of stress on the

teaching performance in P.E. It will determine the sources of

stress, its causes and the levels of impact of stress as

experienced by the respondents. It will also provide a

conclusion if stress is related to age, sex, income, teaching

position and civil status. This study will provide a clear idea

and data for teachers, administrators and academic leaders for

future decisions and innovations as to how stress can be

battled and reduced.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

This study was set to find out the sources, causes and

impact of stress on the teaching performance in P.E. As such

this study is only limited to the collection, tabulation and

interpretation of data by the use of a standardized

questionnaire and interview schedules.

This study will be conducted in the period of November

2012 to March 2012. The respondents were all Physical Education

teachers.


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CHAPTER II

Review of Related Literature

Job stress has been recognized as a serious and chronic

cause of individual suffering, irritation, strain and

discomforts. As a matter of fact little research work has so

far been carried out on the topic of job stress in Asia. On the

other hand plenty of work has been done on the topic across the

world particularly in the U.S.A and Europe. The magnitude of

research work done on job stress across the world and the

quantum of data available on the topic on the Internet is

phenomenal and is outside the scope of this chapter to

incorporate it all. However an effort has been made to select a

few closely related dissertations, reports and articles on the

topic for review purpose.

British Psychological Society, 1988 stated job stress as one of

the top ten industrial diseases in the US. Willcox (1994), reported

that atleast 25% of the employees are psychlogically stressed at any

one time. It has serious implications for the health of the workers

in the society as a whole. The Health of The Nation (HMSO, 1992)

describes that this area needs to be addressed to promote the health

of the workers.

Stress' is one of the most inaccurate words in the scientific

literature reported by williams (1994). The term sometimes indicates

stressfull events and sometime indicate the effect of these events on


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work performance and sometime dis ordered health remarked by Maclean

(1985). Marmot Et. Al 1987 reports that job stress is lack of

understanding how work enviroment make a person ill. Job stress refer

to broad class of problems indicated by Lazarus (1971) Any demand

which atax the system, whatever it is, a physiological system, a

social system or a psychological system, and the response of that

system. There is greater consensus about the meaning and effect of

job stress. WHO (1986) stated that stress is a dynamic state of mind

characterized by reasonable harmony between a person's abilities,

needs and expectations, and environmental demands and opportunities.

Prof. Cox (1993) concentrates on the importance for general health of

a state of balance between needs and demands, citing the World Health

Organisation's definition of well-being.

Hans Selye (1956) is considered as the father of stress

research. The Stress of Life (1956), a book by Hans Seyle

introduced the concept of stress in the public domain and his

General Adaptation Syndrome [GAS] is a popular one amongst the

research scholar of psychology and management. Stress a state,

manifested by a specific syndrome of biological events Selye

(1974). He argued that stress is not entirely a bad event.

According to him stress is the reaction of the physical body

toward a situation or event, which is demanding. Any kind of

normal activity can produce considerable stress without causing

any harmful effects (Selye, 1974), Selye 1982 clearly state


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that the non specific implication of any demand put on the body

be its effect mental or somatic.

The uncertainty that occurs at the organizational, unit,

group, and individual levels. Uncertainty exists to the extent

that knowledge about an event or condition requiring action or

resolution is experienced as inadequate reported by Schuler

and Jackson (1986).

Edwards (1988) view about the stress is that A negative

discrepancy between an individual's perceived state and desired

state, provided that the presence of this discrepancy is

considered important by the individual.

Taylor (1992) reported about stress in the following words

Demands made upon us [internally or externally] which we

perceive as exceeding our adaptive resources. If we try to cope

and that is ineffective this gives rise to stress. If this

stress is prolonged then lasting psychological and physical

damage may occur. Hereby demands we do mean that arise from

the workload or work burden.

Cox (1993) perception of stress is from te assumption that

stressor are discreat, time limited and various events of the

life requiring adjustments or adaptaion are utterly associated

with stress. Holmes and Rahe (1967) ranked the potential

stressfull events which may be work or non work related such as


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death of spouse, divorce, marriage (not all negative), fired

from work marital reconciliation, retirement, bussiness

readjustment, change in work responsibilities trouble with boss

change in work condition. (Holmes and Rahe, 1967).

Job stress is the sum total of factors experienced in

relation to work which affects the psychosocial and

physiological homeostasis of the worker. The individual factor

is termed a stressor and stress is the individual worker's

reaction to stressors. Suggested by Weiman (1977).

Beehr and O'Hara (1987) used stressor' rather than

stress' to refer to causal factors becausefew people

misinterpret stressor to mean the person's reaction. And uses

strain' to mean the state ofbeing stressed as evidenced by

physiological, psychological or medical indices,

Hans Selye (1951) report about The General Adaptation

Syndrome [GAS] states that, in response to a stressor, an

initial alarm reaction' is followed by a stage of resistance'

in which resistance to the original stressor builds up but

ability to resist new stressors is lowered. Eventually a stage

of exhaustion' sets in which ends in catastrophic inability to

cope with any form of stress.

Health and Safety Executive (HSE 2001) research report

with the title; the workplace stress epidemic; reveals that 53%


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of the employees have experienced a stress in the work place,

International Stress Management Association (2001) found that

one out of four working force have suffered due to stress

related sickness. One out of five has suffered extreme stress

in the work place.

The HSE(2001) research found, a highky significant co

relation between extreme stress and poor working condition. The

employees have reported a wide range of health problems and

behavior problems, Professor Andy Smith have confirmed the fact

that job stress is one of the most evident problem in the work

environment.

The Bristol team(2000)has reported that 30% increase in

job stress has been occurred in the work environment. The major

problems indicated by job stress related illness are

depression, anxiety, backache and musculo-skeletal disorders.

Chartered Management Institute in 2001has found that long

hours work load, working late at night has become a culture in

the todays modern organization and as such are sources of job

stress.This study by the CMI and healthcare(2000), has reportd

that 25% of the executive had gone on sick leave in the past

one year due to job stress, 75% of the executive has reported

that job stress was demaging their home life, health,

performace at work and satisfaction level.


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Cary Cooper(1995), has argued that the trends in the

american society are the major sources of job stress, such as

working for long hours, down sizing and no contact culture.

According to Elizabeth Burtney (2002),who found the

organization are full of stress and therefore we should focus

on the stress intervention in the organization as wel as on

stressed out indivisual.

Professor Stephen Palmer(2001)reported in his research

study that stress in a universal thing. Everyone can be

stressed and the threshold level of every body will be

different. It depend on the person how he percieves a specific

situation. Stress may be the result of the interactio between

the person and enviroment.

Professor Cary Cooper (1995) has argued that insecurity in

the organization stereo type attitude of the boss may be the

major sources of stress. For employees it is necessary that

they should have complete control on the job because of lack of

control some time result in job The Health and Safety Executive

(2001); research survey stated about sorces of stress and the

circumstances which result in stress. The sources of stress are

work overload, repetative work, role conflict, role ambiguity,

danger, harasment and bullying, poor relation ship, in flexible


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shedule, lack of social support, confusion, lack of

communication and poor working condition and many others.

Elizabeth Burtney of HEBS research(2004) reveals that

stress in this modern world too carries a stigma in the closed

style of management where the employees are expected to work

hard and no concern is shown for their home life. The employees

too never talk about the job stress.

According to an article with the title, Job stress and

job satisfaction of employees in German radiotherapy (2001),

which concludes that the greatest source of job stress stemmed

from underpayment, crying patients,keeping patients fit and

living,long hours, role conflict etc. Physicians and nurses

showed a significantly higher stress level on scales such as

structural conditions and particularly compassion than

radiographers and physicists. Finally, rating of job stress and

satisfaction depends significantly on the age group, gender,

experience and the hospital.

Chandriah et. al. (1990) research study with title;Occupational

Stress and Job Satisfaction among Managers, states;Individuals

under excessive stress tend to find their jobs less satisfying.

Some of their intrinsic or extrinsic needs may be thwarted or

not met sufficiently.Corroborating many studies in the

literature (Hollingworth et. al. 1988; Keller, 1975), the


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findingsof the present study also reveal the same. The subjects

with lower job satisfaction were found to experience more

stress in the form of overload,role ambiguity, role conflict,

under participation, powerlessness and low status compared to

those with higher job satisfaction. Age, therefore, was found

to be of importance in these study findings. The results of the

study reiteratethe significance of demands at each career

development level as pointed out by Hallingworth.And the

individuals encounter crisis at each developmental stage as

hypothesized by Erickson.Significantly decreasing stress and

increasing job satisfaction with increasing age was found among

the managers and these confirm the importance of the

developmental process.

An Empirical Study (1999) with title, Effect of Job

Stress reported that; job stress is one of the vital issues in

the organisation. It has been established that a negative

relation exist between job stress and job performance, job

stress and job satisfaction.

This review with title factors influencing stress and job

satisfaction(2001): shows that various elements effect stress

level and job satisfaction. These elements are leadership,

quality control, relation between doctor and nurse. It has been

established that a negative relationship exists between


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leadership, stress and job satisfaction. The association

between these variables and job satisfaction is positive but

tenuous. In addition, a positive but weak relationship was

revealed between the clinical leadership and the quality of

relationships amongst nurses. Organizational issues, lack of

nursing staff and patient care were found to be related to ward

type mental health nurses' stress emerged as mediating

variables between stress and job satisfaction.

Beatrice et. al. (2002) has found that the higher is the

demand on job the higher will be the stress and demanding job

negatively affect the health of the nurses and result in

deterioration of general health.

The study here is of Kaohsiung City government employees,

china human resource management deptt (2000), entitled job

stress relation with social support and job performance.It has

been proved in the above research study that there is great

relevance between job stress and job performance. job stress is

inversly propotional to job performance. Further social support

has a great impact on level of job stress. Greater social

support results in the reduction of stress level and hence

increases the perfromance of the employees. The report also

indicated that female employees feel more stressed as compared

to male employees (Bheer 2000).


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Santha et. al. (2003) research report has presented that

the stress level of the employees has various effects on the

employees as well as on the organization. Due to stress the

employee may give more absenteeism, accidents, high turnover

rate and impaired descion. Upto some extent stress may be a

good thing. It gives the push and motivation to the employee.

But extreme stress is harmful. It may result in poor

performance and yet productivity of the employees is reduced.

NIOSH (1999) reported that; 40% of workers say their job is

extremely stressfull. 26% of workers report burnout during

working hours.

David's and Theresa's(1999)have reported that 25% of the

employees have considered there job stressful, 75% of the

employees say that the task is the modern organisation is more

stressful than earlier. Job stress may give a lot of problems

during the work and it is attached with health problems etc.

NIOSH (2001) model of job stress is self explanatory;

STRESSFUL JOB CONDITION=RISK OF INJURY & ILLNESS.

The NIOSH (1999) research study on gender and job stress

finds that sex descrimination and role conflict and role

ambiguity and family demand may have more severe effect on

female employees. Stress can be reduced in the organisation by


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introducing a change in the workplace. It may result in the

reduction of stress levels for both workers male and females.

The organization should promote family friendly policy,

discourage sex discrimination.

The research study with the title "Women in Construction has reported that women in

the construction industry have complaints of frequent harasment isolation and abuses by her

co workers. The turn over of the female workers in the construction industry is higher as

compared to others. Female labours in this industry are always at higher risk due to lack of

safety measures and trainings.

In the research study by NIOSH (1999) of females workers in the internal revencue

service (IRS), which states that musculoskeletal discomfort can be reduced to a great extent if

periodic rest is provided to the worker during working hours. It may result in higer job

performance.

NIOSH (2001) has presented in a survey that 60% of the

woman workers have reported that stress is a great problem for

them. They have cited that the following are the major sources

of stress during job for females employees, role conflict and

role ambiguity, poor relationship with other workers, burden of

work, rush poor working enviroment, monotonus and repetitive

work, lack of control over job, demands etc.

Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (2001)

indicated that in the current era the stress related

expenditure on employees is 50% higher than the early period.

Encyclopaedia of Occupational Safety and Health(2001)states

that high demanding jobs enhances the risk of cardiovascular

diseases, musculoskeletal disorders, psychological problems,


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injuries at work, suicide, cancer, ulcer and impaired immune

function.

NIOSH(2001) research report on job stress health and

productivity states that job stress has inverse relation with

productivity and it negatively affect the health of the

employees. Stressful working condition results in poor health

of the employees. Job stress increases absenteeism, tardiness,

higher turnover and poor health.

Journal of Applied Psychology (2001)reseacrh report with

the title Stress Prevention and Job Performance states that

effect of intervention programe on job stress is very

encouraging. The organization should educate employee on job

stress, inform the employees regarding policies of the

organization, how to reduce job stress and initiate employees

support program. Stress prevention program encourage employees

and results in enhanced production.

NIOSH (2000)has reported that on average employees remain

off the job for almost 20 days due to job stress, so job stress

results in increased absenteeism.

In the research study by the national insurance company that

female workers feel more stressed than male workers. The chances of

burnout and physical sickness related to job stress are more among


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female workers. The reason may be that the women are paid less than

male workers.

European Agency (2001) research report has mentioned the

following details which may be considered at the cost of Each

year millions of working days are lost due to job stress. The

cost of job stress in term of money is in millions of dollars.

Many studies have tried to determine the posible positive

relationship between job stress and violance at work drug use.

One study has established the fact that job stress creates

negative indivisuals and has negative effect on the

organization. The workers who experienced job stress start

using drugs and alcohol and tobacco to reduce there tension, so

job stress is one of the reason for drinking in the workers ILO

(2001).

University of Utara(2004), Malaysia, school of accounting,

report on job stress among professional accountants working in

selected public firms, a Malaysia case, establish and extends

that job stressors faced by workers during job includes

workload, role conflict, role ambiguity, lack of job autonomy

and lack of job control.

A research report in Saudi Medical Journal

(2003)titledJob satisfaction and organizationalcommitment

states that female nurses are more satisfied and contented in


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the public sector hospital, the study further reveals that

satisfied nurses provide higher output as compared to less

satisfied nurses. The other factor for higher production from

nurses is there comittment toward job.

A report in Journal of Health (2003) with title stress

and suicide in nurses revealed that the relation between

stress and suicide remained U shaped. when the job stress and

home stress are combined, five fold increase in risk of suicide

among women occurs. Risk of suicide among high stress women is

more compare to low stress experience by women.

School of Health Science (2002),Blekinge Institute of

Technology Karlskrona, Sweden entitled job stress of nurses

concludes that stress contains amongst other the element of

moral. There is shortage of nurses in the health care and

organizational structure too impedes nursing performance to

avoid the negative consequences of stress for nurses moral

support is required. In ICU stress and complex situation are

common for all nurses, the stress implication are sometime

ethical issues, morbidity and burn out, the report revealed.

Queensland University of Technology(2002), thesis with the

title The influence of work stress and work support on burnout

in public hospital nurses States that female nurses with high

level of stress and little support have experience high rate of


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burnout. Job stressors were the main predictors of Emotional

Exhaustion, Conflict. Changes in the objective conditions at

work have had major implications for nurses' subjective

experiences of work, with increasing numbers of nurses feeling

stressed and as a consequence, are opting to work part-time or

leave the profession

HSJ - HEALTH SCIENCE JOURNAL(2005), REPORT CARRYING THE

TITLE job stress and job satisfaction shows that a strong

negative relationship was found between clinical leadership,

inter-professional collaboration, and stress and job

satisfaction. Although a positive relationship between clinical

leadership and nurses' job satisfaction was found, the

association between clinical leadership and quality of inter-

professional collaboration is unclear. The association between

these variables and job satisfaction is positive but tenuous.

In addition, a positive but weak relationship was revealed

between the clinical leadership and the quality of

relationships amongst nurses. Organisational issues, lack of

nursing staff and patient care were found to be related to ward

type mental health nurses' stress emerged as mediating

variables between stress and job satisfaction.

A research study by Deptt of medicine(2006). University of

Ottawa, enitiled, job stress corelation with job satisfaction


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and burn outThe findings are that medical staff frequently

faces burn out due to high level of job stress. The turn over

rate amongst the highly stressed workers are very high. The

problem of burnout is common amongst the staff of cancer unit.

A research paper by School of Health Care Practice 2006,

Anglia Polytechnic University, Chelmsford, Essex(2009),

UK,entitled Workplace stress in nursing finds that workload,

management style, professional conflict and emotional cost of

caring and leadership style, lack of reward and shift working

are the main sources of stress for nurses for many years.

Stress management programe should concentrate on stress

prevention as well as how organization should takle this vital

issue.

The Graduate College University of Wisconsin-Stout (2005),

Research Paper with title OCCUPATIONAL STRESS IN MENTAL HEALTH

COUNSELORS, concludes that,The mental healthcounselors involved

in completing the survey instruments scored an average of2.57

on afive point scale, with past administrations of the Weiman

Occupational Stress Scalehaving yielded a baseline score of

2.25. The mental health counselors in this study scoredon

average 13% higher than the calculated WOSS baseline. Employees

in publiclyfunded institutions (Winnebago Mental Health)


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experience greater perceived work stressthan those counselors

in privately funded clinics.

Research study conducted by Carol Brewer(2000)mentioned that new

comers in the profession of nursing confront enhanced stress as

compared to existing lot .New nurses have reported the following are

the major sources of job stress for them; complex jobs ,long

hours,overtimes frequently, role conflict, role ambiguity, dangerous

working conditions,abuses, inadequate resources and strain.

Exploratory Study( 2001) to dig out the job stressors conducted

in Tiawan on nurses concludes that changes in the today's

organizations,role conflict, role ambiguity,lack of social

support,working environment in the hospital, demanding job of nurses

are the main stressors for nurses.

European Journal(2005) of Social Sciences, reportentitled Link

between Job Stress and Job Satisfaction signify that job stress and

job satisfaction are invrsely corelated. According to Stamps &

Piedmonte (1986) job satisfaction has been found significant

relationship with job stress. One study of general practitioners in

England identified four job stressors that were predictive of job

dissatisfaction (Cooper, et al., 1989).

In other study, Vinokur-Kaplan (1991) stated that organization

factors such as workload and working condition were negatively

related with job satisfaction. Fletcher & Payne (1980) identified

that a lack of satisfaction can be a source of stress, while high

satisfaction can alleviate the effects of stress. This study reveals


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that, both of job stress and job satisfaction were found to be

interrelated. The study of Landsbergis (1988) and Terry et al. (1993)

showed that high levels of work stress are associated with low levels

of job satisfaction.

Moreover, Cummins (1990) have emphasized that job stressors are

predictive of job dissatisfaction and greater propensity to leave the

organization. Sheena et al. (2005) studied in UK found that there are

some occupations that are reporting worse than average scores on each

of the factors such as physical health, psychological well-being, and

job satisfaction. The relationship between variables can be very

important to academician. If a definite link exists between two

variables, it could be possible for a academician to provide

intervention in order to increase the level of one of the variables

in hope that the intervention will also improve the other variable as

well (Koslowsky, et al., 1995).

A Study of Job Stress and Job Satisfaction among

University Staff in Malaysia, a research

article(2007)investigates what corelation exists between job

stress and job satisfaction? Inverse relationship exists

between job stress and job satisfaction. The stressors that

have been taken for research contain leadership style and

interference by management, relationship with peers, work

burden, role ambiguity, and role conflict.


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Faculty of Education (2001), University of Ibadan, article

entitledEffects of Job Stress states that stress has negative

effect on health, physical and mental, work behaviour,and

performance,satisfaction level.

Heavy workloads, difficult students and lack of resources

are stressing out Australian teachers (1999). Many also

experience stress from increasing violence and bullying. In one

recent year, 274 teachers in Victoria were either assaulted or

threatened by students and another 70 were attacked by

colleagues. Over the past five years , 910 teachers in Victoria

and 1150 teachers in New South Wales have filed worker

compensation claims for anxiety, depression,nervous breakdown

and other stress related symptom. Union leaders say these

figures are just the tip of the iceberg: Teacher are very

reluctant to proceed with those claims because it just adds

another problem and additional stress, explains Australian

education union president John Gregory Teaching in Australia

may be stressful, but the profession seems to be under siege in

the Uk , Janice Howell a primary school teacher in Newport

(South Wales)is one of the casualties. She initially had the

assistance of an English language teacher but that teacher took

long-term leave with no replacement. Unable to cope with 28

kids, 11 of them with learning or behavioral difficulties,

Howell had a nervous breakdown.


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After recovering several months later, Howell complained to the

school about the intolerable stress. Rather than providing

support, the school added two more troubled kids to Howells

class. One student, new to Wales, ran away one morning and was

seen playing near dangerous mudflats. Although he was taken

home safely, no one told Howell until the end of the day. This

led to Howells second breakdown, ending her career. From being

a confident, well adjusted teacher who enjoyed her job I became

depressed and dysfunctional, says Howell for the first time in

my life I did hate to go to work. It got to the stage that I

was physically unable to enter the classroom.

Nebuo Miuro (1999)quoted in the book about stress that

employees are under a lot of pressure from his employer to get

a new restaurant ready for its launch. The interiors fitter

from Tokyo worked late, sometimes until 4.30 in the morning.

After one such marathon, Miuro caught a few hour sleep, then

return for another long day. But he didn't get very far. The 47

year old suddenly took ill and keeled over while picking up his

hammer and nails. He died a week later. The corners verdict was

that Miuro died of Karoshi_death by overwork. Karoshi accounts

for nearly 10000 deaths each year in Japan. Research indicates

that long work hours cause an unhealthy lifestyle such as

smoking, poor eating habits, lack of physical exercise and

sleeplessness. This result in weight gain, which, along with


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stressful working conditions, damages the cardiovascular system

and leads to strokes and heart attacks. Karoshi came to the

public spotlight in the 1970s when Japans economy was booming,

but the country's current recession is making matters

worse.companies are laying off employees and loading the extra

work onto those who remain. Performance based expectations are

replacing life qtime employment guarantees, putting further

pressure on employees to work long hours. Many also blame

Japans samurai spirit culture which idolizes long work hours as

the ultimate symbol of company loyalty and personal fortitude.

Being exhausted is considered a virtue explains a Japanese

psychiatrist. So far, only 17 percent of Japanese companies

offer over stressed employees some form of counseling.


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CHAPTER III

Methodology

This chapter focuses on the method in which the research

question was investigated. It provides insight into the

research design, sampling method employed, the data gathering

instruments used and the statistical techniques applied.

Research Design

This study will employ the descriptive research design.

According the Aquino (1999), descriptive research is a type of

research that aims to find facts with adequate description and

interpretation. A quantitative empirical investigation was

preferred above a qualitative design as the aim was not to

describe, emphasise meaning or experiences, but rather to solve

the stated problem by analysing and interpreting data

statistically. Quantitative approaches are also considered to

be more objective, structured and have both high validity and

reliability (Coolican, 1999). Stratified random sampling was

employed to obtain a representative sample and information was

collected by means of a questionnaire.


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Respondents, Population and Sample

A population is defined as the total collection of

individuals or objects that forms the focus of the research

whereas the sample is a selected part or a subset of the

population (Pretorius, 1995,). According to Pretorius (1995),

research is generally conducted to make inferences about the

population based on the information available about the sample,

in order to make inferences from the sample to the population.

The population in this study consisted of 300 Physical

Education teachers from various public high schools in Capiz.

Sekaran (2003) maintains that the ideal sample size should

constitute approximately 115 respondents. For the purpose of

this research questionnaires were administered and retrieved. A

response rate of thirty percent (30%) is considered acceptable

for most research purposes (Sekaran, 2003, p. 204).

Sampling Procedure

Probability sampling is considered to be the best

technique as all elements have equalchance to be included in

the sample and hence it yields greater validity and

reliability.(Anastasi, 1990; Huysamen, 1983; Murphy &

Davidshofer, 1988; Shaughnessy & Zechmeister, 1997). A


31/47

stratified random sample was therefore selected, as it allows

the population to be divided into subsets or strata which are

then randomly sampled, and in this manner increases

representativeness of the sample, and minimizes sampling error

(Lehman, 1991). The researcher can therefore from the outset

define or categorizee the population in terms of supplementary

information e.g. age, occupation, income and gender to be

correlated with the variables being studied (Shaughnessy &

Zechmeister,1997).

The Research Instrument

The data collection instruments used included a

biographical questionnaire and the National Institute for

Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Generic Job Stress

Questionaire . A questionnaire was employed as it allows the

researcher to gather structured information from a large number

of individuals (Lehman, 1991), it allows for anonymity and it

is economical to use (Rosnow & Rosenthal, 1996).

Another common method used to quantify stress is the

Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale. Identifying potential areas of

concern can help some make the necessary environment or

personal changes to improve stressful situations. However, for

many situations changes are not possible and individuals need


32/47

to adopt stress management techniques to reduce or eliminate

the adverse effects of prolonged exposure to unhealthy stress.

Moreover, Weiers (1988) indicates that the analysis of

questionnaires is easy due tothe structured information in the

questionnaire with few open-ended questions. Linde,Rothmann and

Sieberhagen (1999, cited in van Zyl, 2002) espouse the view

that questionnaires, requiring self-evaluation can present an

objective measurement of stress since the person is evaluating

himself/herself and the interpretation of data is not dependent

on the subjective judgement of another person, for instance an

interviewer. As self-evaluation questionnaires are quantified,

it is easier to compare the scores of different individuals.

Statistical Tool Usage

After the questionnaire have been retrieved and tabulate

it will be subjected to statistical treatment. Coolican (1999,

p. 389) maintains that Analysis of variance procedures are

powerful parametric methods for testing the significance of

differences between sample means where more than two conditions

are used, or even when several independent variables are

involved. ANOVA makes it feasible to appraise the separate or

combined influences of several independent variables on the

experimental criterion (Mouton & Marais, 1990). ANOVA was


33/47

therefore used to establish if a statistical significant

difference exist between the levels of stress based on the

biographical variables.

Multiple regression analyses the common and separate influences

of two or more variables on a dependent variable (Kerlinger,

1986), and it is used to establish theextent to which various

differing variables add to predict another variable (Guyatt,

Walter, Shannon, Cook Jaeschke & Heddle, 1995). Multiple

regression was therefore used to determine if the selected

sources of stress statistically significantly explain the

variance in total stress experienced by teachers.


34/47

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