strategy for cultural heritage management (chm) in africa: a case

P1: FQS/FRN/GAT/FZA/FXH P2: GCQ/LZX QC: GCQ/FMN

African Archaeological Review [aar] PP040-293004 January 4, 2001 10:47 Style file version Nov. 19th, 1999

African Archaeological Review, Vol. 17, No. 4, 2000

Strategy for Cultural Heritage Management (CHM)in Africa: A Case Study

Audax Z. P. Mabulla1

Africa is both fortunate and unfortunate as far as Cultural Heritage Management(CHM) is concerned. Fortunate because the continent is a warehouse for theheritage resources, which document the origin and development of our humanity.In the meantime, it is very unfortunate that Africa is too poor to take care of suchvast cultural treasures. In this paper, I use Tanzania as a case study to exploreways that Africa can generate revenue and public support for CHM. An effectivemeans of accomplishing this goal is to make the products of the past attractive andaccessible for cultural tourism. Only in this way does Africa’s past heritage becomeeconomically sustainable for long-term survival, productivity, and contribution toglobal education, research, tourism, and pride in the past accomplishments ofhumanity.

L’Afrique esta la fois heureuse et malheureuse en ce qui concerne la Gestiondu Patrimoine Culturel (GPC). Heureuse parce que ce continent est un entrepotde ressources de documentation sur l’origine et le developpement de l’humanite.Mais en meme temps, il est tres malheureux que l’Afrique soit si pauvre pourprendre soin d’un si grand tresor culturel. Dans cet article, je me suis servi dela Tanzanie comme cas d’etude pour explorer les moyens par lesquels l’Afriquepourrait generer des recettes et un appui publica la GPC. Un moyen efficace pouraccomplir ce but est de rendre les produits du passe attrayants et accessibles pourun tourisme culturel. C’est par ce moyen seul que l’heritage du passe africaindeviendraeconomiquement soutenable pour realiser une surviea longue portee,la productivite, et une contribution a l’education mondiale,a la recherche, autourisme eta la fierte des realisations du passe humain.

KEY WORDS: cultural tourism; Olduvai Gorge; Laetoli; Isimila;Australopithecus afarensis; A.boisei; Homo habilis.

1University of Dar es Salaam, Archaeology Unit, PO Box 35050, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

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INTRODUCTION

The need to protect and manage cultural heritage resources2 has become in-creasingly apparent in recent years (e.g., Cleere, 1989, 1993; Goodland and Webb,1987; Schmidt and McIntosh, 1996; Serageldin and Taboroff, 1994). Nevertheless,at the beginning of the 21st century, this objective remains a mere aspiration formany African nations.

Scholars have identified a number of obstacles to the protection and manage-ment of Africa’s past. Although these roadblocks vary from one country to another,the most troublesome issues include physical and cultural factors such as weath-ering, erosion, vandalism, and looting; lack of protection, management programsand legislative laws; lack of adequately trained personnel; political unrest; lack offunds; lack of research on preservation techniques and methods; lack of aware-ness of the value of cultural heritage resources; and lack of appropriate equipmentfor information storage and curation facilities/space (Brandt and Mohamed, 1996;Brent, 1996; Karoma, 1996; Kibunjia, 1997; Mabulla, 1996; R. McIntosh, 1996,S. McIntosh 1993; Marc, 1994; Mturi, 1996).

In this paper, I focus on the lack of funding—the most notorious problem pre-venting the proper protection and management of Africa’s past heritage. Becauseof the economic recession that continues to plague many developed countries,interest in funding cultural heritage management (CHM) programs in Africa isdeclining. Meanwhile, given the economic constraints faced by many Africancountries, CHM is obscured by a sea of more urgent concerns. Investing intoCHM is generally considered a useless luxury that can be contemplated only afterprimary needs are met (e.g., public health, food security, political stability, andeconomic and technological development—issues with more immediate impactupon living societies). The institutions given charge of the protection and manage-ment of cultural heritage resources are often the weakest governmental agencies.As such, CHM is the subject of specific projects only on an exceptional basis andin those cases, usually with external funding (e.g., the recent preservation of theLaetoli footprints by the American Getty Conservation Institute).

I explore ways through which Tanzania can generate revenue and publicsupport for CHM. Apart from requesting grants and soliciting donations from thescientific and public community to supplement locally generated funds (Mabulla,1996), an effective means of accomplishing this goal is to make the productsof the past attractive and accessible for education, appreciation, and enjoyment.Only in this way can Africa’s past heritage become economically sustainable forlong-range survival, productivity, and contribution to global education, research,tourism, and pride in the past accomplishments of humanity.

2Cultural heritage resources refers to sites, structures, and remains of archaeological, paleontological,historical, religious, cultural, or aesthetic value.



Strategy for Cultural Heritage Management in Africa 213

In Tanzania, the cultural heritage resources offer many opportunities for gen-erating funds and public support through “cultural tourism.” By “cultural tourism,”I refer to nondegrading travel and visitation by tourists to sites, structures, and re-mains of archaeological, paleontological, historical, religious, ethnographic, oraesthetic value. Such activities would allow tourists to enjoy, study, and appreciatehumanity’s past and present accomplishments. Revenues would support the pro-tection and management of past heritage resources and bring economic benefits tonearby communities.

As conceived in this paper, cultural tourism should promote a symbiotic re-lationship whereby both tourists and cultural heritage resources benefit from eachother. Tourists will pay money to visit the heritage resources, and the revenuewill be reinvested in CHM programs (i.e., protection, preservation, conservation,documentation, and recovery/salvage). Heritage resources are part of dynamicecosystems that require community participation for long-term survival and pro-ductivity. Therefore, forming partnerships between the tourist industry and localcommunities is vital to the success of any cultural tourism program. When localcommunities are involved in the tourist industry, they become not only the mar-keters and communicators, but also instrumental to public support and educationconcerning the need to protect and manage the cultural resources.

When well conceived, cultural tourism is a lucrative business for the localand international lodging and hotel establishments and for the travel industry.Moreover, it will boost the local community’s economy and create more job op-portunities for local people. This symbiotic relationship between cultural heritageresources, tourists, tourist industry, and local communities does not exist in thepresent system of touring cultural resources in Tanzania. In particular, the finan-cial benefits are being reinvested neither in CHM nor in the local communities. Atpresent, the only beneficiaries of tourism of cultural heritage resources are tourists,business people, and the government.

Therefore, my goal in this paper is to outline a strategy for the development ofcultural tourism in Tanzania. Properly planned and implemented cultural tourismcan achieve long-term CHM and rural community development goals in Tanzania,without degrading the heritage resources.

POTENTIAL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURALTOURISM IN TANZANIA

Although Tanzania may be an economist’s nightmare, it is a “dreamland” inbeing well endowed in natural and cultural assets (Fig. 1). Tanzania provides one ofthe most comprehensive and complete documentations of hominid biological andcultural evolutionary patterns spanning the past 4 million years. These importantcultural heritage resources range from Plio-Pleistocene times to the present. Theresources document the origin of humans and technology, the nature of the initial



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Fig. 1. Map of Tanzania showing natural and cultural heritage resources with potential for tourism.

human adaptation to the environment, African societies and cultures prior to theavailability of documentary sources, the earliest oral traditions, the contact betweenEast Africa and the world, and resistance to European colonial domination (Fig. 1).

Olduvai Gorge

Olduvai Gorge is a 100-m deep and 46-km long stream-cut valley. The Gorgeis located at the western flank of the Ngorongoro Volcanic Highlands in the




Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA), on the plains of the Serengetiecosystem (Fig. 1). It is one of the most famous palaeoanthropological sites in theworld, thanks to the late L. S. B. Leakey and M. D. Leakey’s tireless investigationsand public relations. Geological deposits spanning the last 2 million years beforepresent (bp) have yielded an unsurpassed record of past environments; fossil ho-minids attributed toAustralopithecus(Paranthropus) boisei, Homo habilis, andHomo erectus(about 65 specimens so far); Early, Middle and Late Stone Ageartifacts; and a wide range of fossilized faunal remains (Hay, 1976; Leakey, 1971;Leakey and Rose, 1994; Leakeyet al., 1972; Mabulla, 1990; Manega, 1993).

Olduvai Gorge is open to the public and has been one of the most visitedtourist attractions in Tanzania. After M. D. Leakey’s retirement and her permanentreturn to Kenya in 1984, the Olduvai camp, hominid fossil sites, site museums, andmain museum have deteriorated due to neglect, vandalism, and looting (Karoma,1996; Mabulla, 1996). The present system of tourism at Olduvai Gorge does notfavor the long-term survival and productivity of the Olduvai sites, museums, andinfrastructure, because the revenues generated through entrance fees are not rein-vested into their management. Moreover, the funds are not going back to the peopleat Olduvai Gorge and surrounding Maasai communities, yet these people are thebest potential protectors of Olduvai Gorge heritage resources.

The poor facilities at the main (field) museum and the inaccessibility of manysites in the Gorge have meant that tourist education and enjoyment are limited.During research at Olduvai Gorge (1989–1997), I have witnessed on several oc-casions tourists and tour operators complaining about the poor tour services theyreceived. Some of them even threatened to ask for their money back. To offertourist experiences of outstanding quality, the infrastructure and the attractions atOlduvai Gorge need to be developed and properly managed. This means that thegenerated revenue must be used in maintaining the cultural resources for long-termsurvival and productivity.

Furthermore, although the tour guides at Olduvai Gorge are doing a wonderfuljob given the circumstances of their working environment, they are not appreciatedby their employer. For example, no formal training in the form of short-terminstruction or refresher courses has been given to them since they were employed.This unfortunate condition limits the potential of Olduvai tour guides to offertourists experiences of outstanding quality.

Laetoli

Laetoli is located 36-km south of Olduvai Gorge in a rolling, open plainssetting of the Serengeti ecosystem (Fig. 1). This site may be viewed as contiguouswith Olduvai Side Gorge. Laetoli is famous for two remarkable sets of discoveriesby the late M. D. Leakey. First are the fragments of postcranial bones, jaws, andteeth of an ape-like human ancestor known asAustralopithecus afarensis(White,1977, 1980). Dating to 3.8 million bp,A. afarensiswas until 1995 our earliest



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known ancestor. The second important discovery is several trails of footprintsmade by three individuals ofA. afarensisabout 3.8 million bp (Drake and Curtis,1987; Hay, 1987; Leakey, 1983a). The footprints were imprinted on a fine-grainedvolcanic ash, and they are the world’s only undisputed evidence for the origin ofhabitualbipedal locomotion in the human lineage (Leakey, 1987; Robbins, 1987;Tuttle, 1987). In addition, Early and Middle Stone Age artifacts and a wide rangeof faunal remains have been recovered, as well as an almost complete skull of apossibly anatomically modern human (LH 18; Day and Magori, 1980; Harris andHarris, 1981; Ndessokia, 1990).

The Laetoli site has remained closed since its discovery. Closure was neces-sary because of the fragmentary nature of the hominid footprints. After the 1970sexcavations, the hominid footprints were preserved in situ by covering them withalternating layers of river sand and plastic sheeting (Jones, 1987). Lava blocks andthorn branches were then built on top of them. Ideally, the hominid footprints wereto be preserved in situ by building a museum around them (Leakey, 1983a). Unfor-tunately, the museum was never built and acacia trees and grasses grew on top of thefootprints’ sediments, thus endangering them (Mabulla, 1996; Ndessokia, 1990).The Getty Conservation Institute has recently completed an attempt to preserve thehominid footprints (Agnew and Demas, 1998). Unfortunately, the hominid track-ways were reburied in bio-barrier fabrics and geotextile layers again, freezing thehistory of this important heritage resource. If a portion of the footprints at site Gcould be transformed into an on-site museum, it would serve as an exhibition andresearch center for study, enjoyment, and appreciation by people from all over theworld. In addition, walk-about tours of the 29 hominid pedestals/markers can beorganized easily. During the 1975–1979 expeditions by M. D. Leakey at Laetoli,cement pedestals were built on the location where fossil hominid remains werefound. Over time, these pedestals were destroyed due to natural and anthropogeniccauses. In 1998, 19 of the 29 hominid pedestals were found and restored by RyanSchaub (Belloit College student) and Felix Ndunguru (archaeologist, AntiquitiesUnit) during the University of Dar es Salaam/Associated Colleges of the Mid-west (UDSM/ACM) field school at Laetoli, directed by myself and Russell Tuttle(University of Chicago). The hominid pedestals found and restored are shown inTable I and Fig. 2.

Hominid pedestals offer great potential for walk-about cultural tourism atLaetoli. Photographs and description of the hominid fossil(s) will be encased inglass embedded in each of the pedestals for tourists to see and read. In addition,a trained tour guide can interpret the geology, archaeology, past environment, andfauna of the visited locality in Laetoli.

For proper cultural tourism at Laetoli, I recommend that a field (main) museumbe built 1.5–2 km away from the footprint sites. This field museum (like thatat Olduvai Gorge) should display and interpret hominid and cultural evolutionand palaeoenvironmental histories of Laetoli. Also, the museum will have thenecessary infrastructures such as toilets and rest house. This arrangement will




Table I. Restored Hominid Pedestals Potential for Walk-About Cultural Tourism at Laetoli

Pedestal for Hominid remains Locality

LH 1 Right upper fourth premolar (A. afarensis) 1LH 2 Juvenile mandible (A. afarensis) 3LH 3/6 Partial upper and lower dentition (A. afarensis) 7LH 4 Adult mandible and holotype ofA. afarensis 7LH 5 Right maxillary fragment with upper second incisor to upper 8

first molar (A. afarensis)LH 7 Right upper first and second molar fragment (A. afarensis) 5LH 12 Left third upper molar fragment (A. afarensis) 5LH 13 Right mandible fragment (A. afarensis) 8LH 15 Left lower third molar (A. afarensis) 1LH 16 Left lower first molar (A. afarensis) 6LH 18 Ngaloba (LH 18) skull (H. sapiens) 25LH 19 Left lower second molar (A. afarensis) 8LH 21 Cranial and post cranial material (A. afarensis) 12ELH 22 Right upper fourth premolar and first molar (A. afarensis) 11LH 23 Left lower second molar (A. afarensis) 8LH 26 Right upper second molar (A. afarensis) 6LH 27 Right third upper molar (A. afarensis) 8LH 28 Right upper second molar (A. afarensis) 8LH 29 Left mandible fragment; lower first to third molar (H. erectus) 8

minimize the impact of tourists to the sites and environment as wastes will beproperly disposed of. From the field museum, a trained tour guide will take a smallnumber of tourists to the sites/localities. Vehicles will be parked half a kilometerfrom the sites/localities, and tourists and guides will walk to and from them.

Isimila

Isimila is located about 14 km south of Iringa town along the Iringa–Mbeyahighway (Fig. 1). A number of late Acheulian occurrences have been found pre-served in riverine sediments (Cole and Kleindienst, 1974; Howellet al., 1972).

Isimila is one of the very few early hominid sites in Eastern Africa locatedoutside the East African Rift Valley System. Being located on the outskirts ofIringa town and about 250 m from the Iringa–Mbeya highway, Isimila has greatpotential for cultural tourism because visits can be coordinated through packagetours with wildlife tourism of Mikumi National Park and the nearby Kalengahistorical site. Kalenga was the capital of chief Mkwawa who resisted Germancolonial domination. Mkwawa killed himself to avoid capture by Germans. Hishead was cut off and sent to Germany, only to be returned after independence. Thishead is now displayed in the museum at Kalenga.

A field museum is in existence at Isimila, but it is in poor state. For example,the display and interpretations of hominid culture and environmental histories ofthe site are outdated, based on old lithic terminology and dates that are no longertenable. In addition, soil erosion threatens the future survival of the site. Therefore,



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Fig. 2. Map showing the locations of the Laetoli hominid discoveries, the fauna localities andfootprint sites with potential for cultural tourism (adapted from Leakey, 1987).




we need to conserve the site and create tourist-friendly displays at Isimila. If Isimilais properly managed and the infrastructure developed, it holds great potential forcultural tourism through package tours.

Lake Natron and Engaruka Basin

Lake Natron is located 86 km north of Mto wa Mbu and north of LakeManyara National Park (LMNP; Fig. 1). Early investigations by Isaac and histeam (Isaac, 1965, 1967) recovered a significant assemblage of fossil mammals,Acheulian artifacts, and a hominid jaw fragment attributed toAustralopithecusboiseiat Peninj site (Leakey and Leakey, 1964). These materials were recoveredfrom the Humbu Formation recently dated to 1.7 million bp (Manega, 1993).

Engaruka is located at the foot of the Manyara–Natron rift scarp, about 43 kmnorth of Mto wa Mbu and almost the same distance south of Lake Natron. Engarukais a complex of late Iron Age farming settlement covering an area of about 25 squarekm (Robertshaw, 1986). The farming communities at Engaruka depended on anirrigation system (Sutton, 1986). Remains of terraced irrigated fields, stone/linedirrigation furrows, and stone circles are found at the site.

Both Engaruka and Lake Natron Basin could potentially attract tourists. Infact, many tourists visit Lake Natron Basin to see flamingos, waterfalls, and theOldonyo Lengai volcanic Mountain (personal observations, 1994). On their wayto Lake Natron, tourists bypass the Engaruka site because either tour and safarioperators do not know the potential attractiveness of this site or they cannot interpretit. Posting a guide who can present and interpret the site to the public will attracttourists and tour and safari operators to stop at Engaruka.

In the Lake Natron Basin, Peninj and other archaeological and paleontolog-ical sites are not easily accessible. Therefore, I suggest that a main museum beestablished at one of the tourist camping sites. This main museum will displaythe culture, hominid, and environmental histories of Lake Natron and EngarukaBasins. The fascinating tectonic and volcanic histories of the rift valley (whereLake Natron Basin is located) and volcanic mountains (e.g., Oldonyo Lengai)could attract many tourists to the museum. During my 5-day visit to Lake NatronBasin in July 1994, I observed tourists spending a minimum of two nights inthe Lake Natron Basin. Their viewing of the flamingos, waterfalls, and OldonyoLengai Mountain usually ended between 2.00 and 3.00 pm. From 3.00 to 6.00 pm.tourists had no other place to go. A nearby field museum will, therefore, be aperfect place for tourist education and enjoyment after a long day of walk and/ortravel. Many tourists show an interest in camping in the Lake Natron Basin on theirway to either Serengeti, Olduvai Gorge, Ngorongoro, and Manyara, or to Arushafrom Manyara, Ngorongoro, Olduvai Gorge, and Serengeti. Therefore, there is aneed for an integrated tour package for Tanzania Northern Circuit.



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Serengeti National Park

The Serengeti National Park (SENAPA) is a natural laboratory whose historydates back to the beginning of human evolution, about 4 million years ago. Ex-cavations at both the Seronera Lodge, Serengeti Wildlife Research Institute andthe Gol Kopjes sites have yielded archaeological materials that range from LaterStone Age to Pastoral Neolithic and Iron Age periods (Bower, 1973; Bower andChadderdon, 1986). Also, Middle and Later Stone Age materials have been exca-vated at the Loiyangalani River site (Bower and Gogan-Porter, 1981).

Recent surveys of the savanna environments and landscapes of the northern(Bologonja area) and southern (Seronera area) Serengeti ecosystem, by MasakiNishida and his team, have revealed a wide range of lithic materials, including lateAcheulian handaxes and cleavers (Bologonja area), Sangoan or Njarasan heavy-duty tools (Seronera and Lake Makati valleys), Middle and Later Stone Age (MSAand LSA) and Pastoral Neolithic (PN) materials (Nishida and Mabulla, 1997).Also found at one of the surveyed kopjes were stone engravings of the “cup” type,suggesting that the Swahili game of “bao” was probably practiced at this particularkopje. PN artifacts and stone circle structures were found at this “bao” kopje.

The wildlife, vegetation, and landscape of the Serengeti ecosystem are uniquein the world. For decades they have attracted tourists and will continue to do sofor a long time to come. Although ecotourism is developed and well established inthe Serengeti, cultural tourism is undeveloped. The Serengeti ecosystem is also aperfect place for the creation of an integrated tour package (ecocultural tourism) forthe Tanzania Northern Circuit. I suggest that a main museum be established at thevisitor center in Seronera. Collections for interpretations and museum displays willcome from all the archaeological sites in the Serengeti ecosystem. Undoubtedly, thedisplays and interpretations of past culture, environmental, and wildlife historiesof the Serengeti ecosystem will attract many tourists to visit the museum and thevisitor center at Seronera.

Eyasi Basin

The Eyasi Basin is located at the southern border of the Ngorongoro Con-servation Area (Fig. 1). This is another promising area for cultural tourism. Fossilhominid remains of three individuals (Eyasi I, II, and III), attributed to “archaic”Homo sapiens, were recovered from the Lake Eyasi shore by Kohl–Larsen in the1930s. Recently, I discovered a cranial fragment of a fourth individual of “archaic”Homo sapiens(Eyasi IV) from the 1930s discovery site (Br¨auer and Mabulla,1996). All the fossil hominid remains were associated with an early MSA lithicassemblage locally known as the “Njarasan” Industry.

Located 3.5 km east of the lake shore skull site is the Mumba rock shelter.This shelter has yielded an archaeological sequence ranging from Middle Stone




Age to Iron Age, as well as biological evidence for the emergence of our ownsubspecies,Homo sapiens sapiens. Three hominid molars of anatomically modernHomo sapienswere recovered from the Mumba Bed VI-B dated to ca. 130,000 bp(Brauer and Mehlman, 1988; Mehlman, 1989).

Mumba rock shelter also has rock art. A recent survey in the Eyasi Basinfound more sites with lithic materials and rock paintings (Mabulla, 1996). Mumbarock shelter and other rock painting sites are not officially open to tourists as noAntiquities guides are posted at the sites. Nevertheless, tour and safari operatorsfrom Arusha and some individuals in the Eyasi Basin have been taking tourists tothese important sites (personal observations, 1992, 1993, 1997).

Datoga pastoral and Hadzabe forager way of life, and the Eyasi landscape(e.g., Lake Eyasi, Eyasi rift scarp, natural springs, semiarid vegetation, etc.) havealso played major roles in attracting tourists and safari and tour operators to visitthe Eyasi Basin. Therefore, if Mumba rock shelter and other rock painting sitesare developed and managed for cultural tourism, Eyasi Basin will attract a largenumber of tourists.

Central Tanzania

Central Tanzania is very rich in rock painting sites (see Leakey, 1983c; Lim,1992; Masao, 1979; Fig. 1). The paintings probably tell more about Stone Agepeople, and their behaviors and culture than can be learned from stone tools,pottery, bones, and other artifacts that form the basis of archaeological studies.

Stylistically, the rock art of Tanzania provides one of the longest chronologicalsequences of artistic creativity in the world, possibly going back in time to about40,000 bp (Anati, 1986, 1994). If this date is confirmed, it means that Tanzaniawas one of the earliest centers for the origin and evolution of artistic capability inthe world.

The Kolo area is located about 100 km north of Dodoma and is composed of acluster of rock painting sites. Antiquities employees are stationed at Kolo to guardthe sites as well as their visitors. Nevertheless, other areas in central Tanzania withnumerous rock painting sites (e.g., Masange, Kisese, Pahi, and Tlawi) are not opento visitors as no guides have been posted to them. Yet, these sites and others incentral Tanzania have the potential of attracting a large number of visitors andhence generating funds for their own upkeep.

Tanzania Coast

The Tanzania coast stretches from the Tanga region in the north to the Lindiregion in the south (Fig. 1). This coast is endowed with prehistoric and historic sitesthat document the development of urbanism and Swahili culture in East Africa.



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Early Swahili sites and monuments of interest to tourists include Kilwa Kisiwani,Kunduchi ruins, Tongoni ruins, and the Bagamoyo stone town, just to mention afew. These sites have standing architectural remains that include houses, tombs,mosques, wells, or town walls made of coral lime. Apart from structural remains,there are also objects of local origin such as pottery, iron tools, and shell beads;and imported objects such as Islamic, Persian and Chinese celadon, porcelain andglass vessels, as well as copper and silver coins (Chami, 1994; Mturi, 1983). Mostof these sites date from the eleventh to nineteenth centuries AD (Mturi, 1983).

Recent surveys by the Archaeology Unit, University of Dar es Salaam, havefound many smaller sites besides those with obvious architectural remains (Chami,1994; Schmidtet al., 1992). Some of these sites are located inland, but the connec-tion between them and the coast is apparent (Schmidtet al., 1992). The evidencefor iron working at some of the sites during the first millennium AD suggests thatearly iron working in Tanzania may have been tied into trade with the coast andpoints beyond.

In spite of Mturi’s early efforts to publicize the coastal sites through publi-cations and brochures (e.g., Mturi, 1974, 1983), cultural tourism on the coast ofTanzania is still underdeveloped. The reasons for this are many and varied, includ-ing the following: (1) Mturi’s articles and brochures are either too technical fortourist consumption or have not reached the intended markets, or both; (2) under-developed infrastructure such as tourist hotels and resorts in Kilwa and Bagamoyo;(3) the inaccessibility of Kilwa, located 320 km south of Dar es Salaam; and (4) lackof trained site interpreters and tourist guides at Kilwa and Bagamoyo.

Nevertheless, investors have in recent years built several tourist hotels andresorts along the Bagamoyo–Dar es Salaam coast. Therefore, lack of infrastructurealong this coast is no longer an issue. Moreover, a new all-weather highway is beingconstructed from Dar es Salaam to Lindi via Kilwa. When this road is completed,Kilwa and her vicinity will be accessible all year around. During the climax ofher prosperity, Kilwa was the center for a maritime complex, which controlled theentire East African coast (Chittick, 1974). Evidently, Kilwa was one of the birthplaces of the rich and diversified Swahili culture and architecture in East Africa(Mturi, 1983).

Kilwa Kisiwani’s architectural remains such as the “Friday” mosque, othersmall mosques, the “Gereza,” and the sultani’s palace are potential places for cul-tural tourism. For example, the sultani’s palace was a flashy building that containedmore than 100 rooms, including a swimming pool. It is reputed to be the largestbuilding in Africa, south of the Sahara, prior to European contact (Mturi, 1983). Bypublicizing this rich cultural heritage, coastal cultural tourism would have a greatpotential for attracting tourists from the Islamic world, India, and China—touristmarkets that have not been fully exploited.

Cultural tourism along the coast can be coordinated with other local culturalactivities: excursion boat rides (e.g., to Songo Mnara and other islands), fishingtrips to Mafia Island, and visits to Stone Age sites located along the coast. Also,




it will be possible to coordinate cultural tourism in Kilwa and ecotourism at theSelous Game Reserve when the road is improved.

STRATEGIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURALTOURISM IN TANZANIA

Although tourism is not well developed in Tanzania, the market conditions arefavorable for future growth. With increasing unpredictability of rainfall for cashcrop production and falling prices on the global market for cash crops, tourismin Tanzania promises to be the most important source of foreign income for thenational economy (Komba, 1997).

Even if prehistoric and historic sites have long been known for their potentialfor tourist attractions (Leakey, 1983a,b; Mturi, 1983), they have not been fullyexploited so as to attract both local and foreign tourists. This is because a nationalstrategy for cultural tourism development has been lacking. As a result, only a fewsites (e.g., Olduvai Gorge) have been open to tourists, and despite the fact that thesefew sites have been generating revenue, nothing substantial has been reinvested intheir management. Thus, the cultural heritage resources have not benefited fromtourism of archaeological sites. If we seriously care as a nation about our pasthistories, this mismanagement of heritage resources needs to be stopped at once.

Planning and Management

Planning and management of cultural tourism is a complex issue because itincludes heritage sites as well as human habitats. Accordingly, planning of culturaltourism needs a careful management of customer satisfaction, heritage sites, andthe host communities.

As a rule of the thumb, cultural tourism should be carried out at professionallymanaged attraction sites. The antiquities office should post heritage managers orguides to all the sites that are considered potential tourist attractions. No touristvisitation should occur at sites that lack heritage managers or guides. The needs andreasons for cultural heritage management should be evaluated before any site orlocality is opened to visitors. The strategy of cultural tourism should view heritageresources as marketable products and should place priority on their management(protection, conservation, preservation, and curation).

Infrastructure

Facilities that provide access (e.g., roads, telephones, etc.) and direct serviceto tourists at the site (e.g., a rest house, rest rooms, and local field museum) mustbe either built where they are not available, or improved where they are available.



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To encourage the development and growth of cultural tourism, the Tanzanian gov-ernment may make available various developmental incentives (e.g., low interestloans, tax breaks, developmental grants) to local and foreign investors or selectivelyprovide infrastructure and promotional assistance in some areas.

Enhancement of Cultural Attractions

As noted earlier, cultural heritage materials are focal attractions. Nonetheless,these resources would be secondary to most visitors. Therefore, other features of thesite’s location will enhance the desirability of cultural heritage attractions. Thesemay include wildlife and unique physical features of the landscape (e.g., lakes,mountains, ocean, etc.). Other unique features may also enhance cultural tourism.These may include, for example, visiting Hadzabe foragers in the Eyasi Basin, vis-iting a traditional Maasaibomanear Olduvai Gorge and Laetoli, staying overnightin a traditional Wagogotembehouse in central Tanzania and/or excursions andtraditional boat rides along the coast of Tanzania. At the end of the tour, touristswill have broader educational knowledge and enjoyment of the archaeological,ecological, and contemporary cultures of the area.

Forming Partnerships with Local Communities

As noted in the previous section, the success of cultural tourism also dependson other amenities that enhance the potential value for the tourist trade. Therefore,forming partnerships with local communities and the tourist industry is vital to thesuccess of cultural tourism in Tanzania. Only in this way can cultural tourism ofheritage sites be coordinated with other sectors in societies (e.g., ritual activities,traditional celebrations, organized local entertainment, etc.) and other ecotourismitineraries.

As noted earlier, the best protectors of heritage resources are often the peoplewho live near the resources. Local communities must, therefore, be fully involved informulating and developing the cultural tourism industry. When people participatein decision making, they will be committed to conserving and managing the culturalheritage sites. Also the local people should be involved in the economic activitiesof the cultural tourism industry. Site rehabilitation works, building of local mainmuseums and the construction of roads leading to the sites can be given to localcommunity contractors. Likewise, site guards and tour guides should be employedfrom the local communities. Besides, communities can participate by establishinglocal enterprises that sell food and local material culture to tourists. An agreedpercentage in the form of revenue derived from cultural tourism should go back tothe development programs of the local communities living near the sites. It shouldbe made clear that the economic benefits and employment opportunities for the




local communities will largely depend on the quality of the sites and local people’scommitment to conserve and manage them (see also Marc, 1994).

Marketing and Promotion

In tourism, marketing is the management process of selecting tourist marketsand providing them with the tourism product in view of achieving optimal touristsatisfaction and maximizing organizational goals (Komba, 1997). Because tourismrequires that the tourist instead of the product be moved from his/her place to theplace where the product/service can be consumed, marketing of tourism shouldconsciously focus on identifying target markets and promoting the products. Thecurrent tourism of cultural heritage sites in Tanzania (e.g., at Olduvai Gorge) hasnot been successful in part due to lack of marketing and promotion.

Therefore, Tanzania should organize and launch very aggressive advertisingand promotion campaigns for her cultural heritage attractions. The main aim shouldbe to create knowledge of the cultural heritage attractions available in Tanzania andencourage tourists to visit the country. Tanzania should promote a “gentle culturaltourism” that is exotic, euphoric, community based, product oriented, long sighted,sustainable, educational, motivated by value; and a tourism in which communitiesparticipate in planning and management, and maximum revenue stays within.

In Tanzania, tourism activities are under the Ministry of National Resourcesand Tourism, and the Tanzania Tourist Board (TTB) under this ministry is respon-sible for promoting and developing all aspects of the tourist industry. Becausecultural tourism is different from conventional tourism, TTB should allocate fundsfor research to be done on this new area of tourism. Cultural tourism should beadvertised and promoted as a joint package with conventional tourism and shouldbe targeted for both internal and external markets.

Internal Market

The absence of internal demand has not only limited the range of infrastruc-ture and facilities needed at the sites, but also has seriously restricted the activevisitations of Tanzanians. For example, in 1998, only 930 Tanzanian adults and209 Tanzanian students visited Olduvai Gorge (Kileo, 1998). This unfortunatesituation has been due to lack of awareness of the cultural heritage attractionsavailable in the country.

Therefore, TTB and archaeologists need to publicize and educate, throughseminars and workshops, the tour operators, developers, investors, and the pub-lic at large about the socioeconomic benefits and tourist satisfaction that culturaltourism can bring to their business, the local communities, and tourists. As notedearlier, Tanzania has unique and largely untapped cultural heritage attractions. The



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challenge has been to provide the institutional and commercial facilities necessaryto ensure that the growth of cultural tourism is sustainable. The local market con-ditions are favorable, and thus, if we develop this cultural tourism, tour operators,safari companies, developers, and investors will invest in the infrastructures suchas resorts, roads, hotels, restaurants, shopping centers, etc. The economic profitswill benefit the business people, the local communities, and the cultural heritageresources. Also we need to educate and encourage Tanzanians, through archae-ology clubs and public forums, to visit cultural heritage sites so that they canunderstand and appreciate their biological and cultural histories. Presentation andinterpretation of the cultural heritage resources to indigenous visitors should bein Kiswahili, a language that they are familiar with. Only this way will peoplefeel a sense of pride and collective ownership of the material remains of their pasthistory and accomplishments. This might help to protect these important heritageresources for long-term survival and productivity.

External Market

The majority of the current and potential tourists in Tanzania are foreigners,particularly Europeans, Asians, and Americans, constituting the external market.Accordingly, people from these nations and other African nations (e.g., SouthAfrica) should also be the target for cultural tourism marketing and promotion.The external market conditions are favorable. For example, in 1998, a total of39,108 foreign tourists visited Olduvai Gorge alone, bringing in about US$ 60,000as entry fees (Kileo, 1998). The number of tourists visiting Olduvai Gorge andother sites will dramatically increase once the proposed cultural tourism programis implemented.

Until very recently, many tourist attractions in Tanzania were advertised andpromoted through brochures and pamphlets produced by the government ownedtourist board, TTB. However, in recent years, individual service providers (e.g.,tour operators, airlines, hotels, game lodges, national parks, game reserves, etc.)have begun to market and promote their own components of the total tourist prod-uct. Although these two levels of tourism marketing are becoming effective inpromoting and advertising tourism in Tanzania (Komba, 1997), cultural tourismis rarely covered. The reason for this is insufficient nontechnical literature. Thereis a great need for archaeologists to collaborate with TTB and other individualservice providers in producing archaeological and cultural information for touristand public consumption. Important promotional and advertising tools that canbe used to inform potential visitors include brochures, magazines, newspapers,radios, televisions, and the Tanzania web site. To reach a wider and larger marketfor our archaeological and cultural products, contact with foreign travel agents,tour operators, and hotels is indispensable. Moreover, we need to invite the pressand promote cultural tourism within the local and international media.




In promoting cultural tourism, we need to inventory and elaborate the cul-tural attractions, remembering that these inventories are different from those of astrictly scientific value. The cultural products should educate and, at the same time,present an attraction to tourists. Promotion should be focused on the public and,more specifically, on colleges, institutions, universities, the working and businessclasses, and retired people both inside and outside Tanzania.

Develop “Model Villages”

We should promote cultural tours that move from site to site, chroniclinghuman biological and cultural evolution and development from early hominidsites to Swahili settlements. These should be coordinated with exposures to currentliving lifestyles (e.g., foraging, pastoralism, traditional farming, traditional fishing,Swahili culture, etc.). Ultimately, we should develop “model villages” for eachstage of human cultural evolution and development. Nonetheless, care shouldbe taken so that we do not create highly artificial “model villages” that conveymisleading information in the name of entertainment (e.g., Disney World/Land).Nor should we want to create a situation where local populations become justanother attraction similar to wildlife.

Training of Cultural Tourist Guides

Cultural heritage attractions are difficult to understand just by looking at them;they need additional information to make them intelligible to visitors. Because themajority of the visitors are unfamiliar with the cultural (e.g., palaeoanthropologicalor historical) literature, we should ensure that the messages of the past encodedin the items of material cultures are interpreted and presented effectively. Cre-ative and meaningful interpretations and presentations that integrate scientific andnonscientific languages would, surely, benefit visitors.

Yet, the majority of the tour guides stationed at Olduvai Gorge, Kaole, andKilwa sites lack formal training in interpreting and presenting the information totourists. This deficit has meant that the interpretations and presentations of culturalheritage resources have not been effective and meaningful. One of the major goalsof the proposed cultural tourism is to develop locally trained labor to ensure thatcultural tourism is sustainable in terms of employment. Short-term training pro-grams for the employees stationed at cultural heritage sites are, therefore, necessaryto upgrade their efficiency.

Accordingly, the Archaeology Unit of the University of Dar es Salaam, incollaboration with the Antiquities, National Museum of Tanzania, Ministry ofNatural Resources and Tourism, and tour and safari operators, can design suchshort-term training programs. Lecturers from the Archaeology Unit can conduct



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these training programs at the various sites during vacations. Moreover, arrange-ments can be made for full-time training (e.g., 3, 6, or 12 months) programs aswell. Certificates and diplomas can then be offered to individuals who successfullyparticipate in full-time training programs. Nontechnical presentation and interpre-tation language should be emphasized during training. Moreover, interpretationand presentation of the cultural heritage resources to indigenous visitors should bein Kiswahili.

Symbiotic Relationship

One of the major goals of cultural tourism is to preserve, protect, manage,and conduct research on the cultural heritage resources of Tanzania by using thefunds generated from cultural tourism. Visitation fees and donations at touristsites are the major source of income for cultural tourism. Other financial sourcescould include selling relevant archaeological souvenirs to tourists at each site orlocal main museum. Such souvenirs may include T-shirts, caps, mugs, replicatedartifacts, hominid fossil casts, postcards, photographs of sites, and portraits ofoutstanding scholars such as the late L. S. B. Leakey and M. D. Leakey (afterpermission is sought from the Leakey family).

The income from cultural tourism should become a fund administered by aspecial committee and used exclusively for CHM projects, including preservation,conservation, maintenance, recovery, and research. Moreover, some of the incomeshould go to improving and benefiting the local communities living near the culturalheritage sites. The resulting symbiosis allows cultural tourism to develop furtherfor the benefits of tourists, CHM, and the local community.

Special Committees

For the development and success of the cultural tourism program proposedin this paper, two special committees need to be formed. First is a committee withreal power and a well-defined relationship to the government that will immediatelystart to advise private and public sectors on issues related to cultural tourismand to promote and formulate guidelines for cultural tourism in Tanzania. Thecomposition of this committee may vary but, to be viable, it should include:

(1) two to three archaeologists/paleoanthropologists;(2) one member from the Tanzania Tourist Board (TTB);(3) two members from the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism;(4) two to three members from tour and safari operators;(5) two to three members from Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA) and

Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA);(6) two to three members from lodging and hotel establishments (e.g., Serena

Lodges, Sopa Lodges, etc.);




(7) one legal advisor;(8) two to three members from Nongovernmental Organizations (NGO) in-

terested in CHM and rural community developments;(9) one member each from the Antiquities Department, the National Museum

in Dar es Salaam and the National Natural History Museum in Arusha;(10) one member from the local government of each village nearby the cultural

heritage resources; and(11) one member from the friends of museums.

Second, an effective advisory committee/council should be set up to managethe funds resulting from cultural tourism. As we know, improperly managed publicfunds may end up being misappropriated. One way to alleviate the problem ofthe misappropriation of funds is to include professionals and nonprofessionalsinterested in CHM in the committees/councils that manage the cultural tourismrevenue. I recommend that the committee/council for managing funds and propertyfrom cultural tourism, donations, grants, and other contributions should include:

(1) two archaeologists/paleoanthropologists with experience in CHM;(2) the directors of the Antiquities Department and the National Museums

of Tanzania;(3) one certified accountant from the Treasury Department;(4) two accountants each from the Antiquities Department and the National

Museums of Tanzania;(5) one member each from TTB, TANAPA, and NCAA;(6) one member from the Tanzania Association of Archaeologists and Pale-

oanthropologists (TAAP);(7) one member from NGOs interested in CHM and rural community devel-

opments;(8) two members representing all the communities near the cultural heritage

resources; and(9) one member from the friends of museums.

CONCLUSION

Given current economic difficulties, CHM in Tanzania will continue to receiveless funding than do areas perceived as issues of immediate concern. Yet there is nodoubt that heritage resource loss in Tanzania continues at an alarming rate (Karoma,1996; Mabulla, 1996; Mturi, 1996). As our natural and cultural environmentsbring irreparable damage to the resources that document our human history, weneed to preserve and protect them for present and future generations before theyvanish. CHM projects are long-term undertakings that require constant suppliesof funds. Unfortunately, such funds are not forthcoming from the Governmentof Tanzania or other international donors. Because developed countries are also



230 Mabulla

facing approximately similar problems in managing their past heritage resources,Tanzania should raise funds for the management of her heritage resources.

Carefully planned cultural tourism is one way Tanzania can gain funds forCHM. Sites and field museums that present an attraction to tourists should bedeveloped for cultural tourism. The major goal of cultural tourism should be man-agement of the heritage resources for the present and future generations. Withintheir itineraries, tourists should be educated on their impact on the cultural re-sources to increase their awareness of the irreparable damage they can bring. Theincome that is generated by cultural tourism should be used to preserve, con-serve, and manage the resources and to sponsor protection and recovery researchprojects. The development of participatory approaches and partnerships with localcommunities and other sectors of the tourist industry will benefit tourists, localcommunities, the public, the tour industry, and environmental and wildlife conser-vation. Cultural tourism in Tanzania is an essential approach to achieving CHMgoals without degrading the heritage resources or depleting society’s cultures. Priorto its implementation, the proposed cultural tourism program requires empiricalresearch in the areas of tourist industry, governance, community participation andorganizational life and public and private institutional assessments.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank S. A. Brandt, S. Thomas, A. L. Omar, B. B. Mapunda,P. Rogers, R. Tuttle, C. Magori, J. Buikistra, A. A. Mturi, and C. Musiba for theiruseful comments. Moreover, I thank the three anonymous reviewers for their usefulcriticisms and comments.

Different versions of this paper were presented at two international work-shops:Preservation and the Use of Olduvai Gorge, Laetoli, Rock Art and OtherPalaeoanthropological Resources in Tanzania, Bellagio, Italy, June 5–9, 1995,andUrban and Monuments Conservation, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi,Kenya, May 14–16, 1997.

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