stem-ed genetics pathway · traits. genes provide instructions for producing specific proteins. cfe...

LE

VE

LL

EV

EL

d1

Reproduction and Inheritance

Living things produce offspringof the sam

e species.CfE links - H

WB 0-47a, M

NU

0-20b,LIT 0-04a

Reproduction and InheritanceIn m

any cases offspring are not identicalw

ith each other or with their parents but

have similarities.

CfE links - SCN 1 -14a, M

TH 1-15a, M

NU

1 - 20b, MTH

1 - 21a, LIT 1 - 10a

Reproduction and InheritanceSom

e traits are solely inherited and othersresult from

interactions with the

environment.

CfE links - SCN 2-14b, SCN

2-03a, MN

U2-20b, M

NU

2-22a, HW

B 2-30a, HW

B 2-32a, SCN

2-14a, LIT 2-26a.

Genetics and Inheritance

Genetic Inform

ation is passed down from

onegeneration of organism

s to another

Key Themes:

DN

AG

enesInherited Characteristics

ReproductionTechnological Advances

Genetic inform

ation in a cell is held in the chemical

molecule D

NA in the form

of a genetic code. Genes

determine the developm

ent and structure oforganism

s. In asexual reproduction all the genes inthe offspring com

e from one parent. In sexual

reproduction one full set of the genes come from

each parent

&E

AR

LY

FIR

ST

S

EC

ON

D&

EA

RL

YF

IRS

T

SE

CO

ND

&L

EV

EL

LE

VE

L

LE

VE

L

d2

Reproduction and InheritanceH

ereditary information is contained

in genes which are passed from

parentto offspring during reproduction.

CfE links - SCN 4-14c

Technology and Genetics

Before individual genes on DN

A could be identifiedresearchers studied organism

s to assess the relativeinfluences of genes and the environm

ent. Advancesin technology have increased the reliability of theinform

ation obtained and the amount and type of

information that can be gathered and analysed.CfE links - SCN

4 -14c, SCN 4 - 20a

TCH 4 - 01a, M

NU

4 - 22a, SOC 4 - 05a, H

WB 4 -

15a, HW

B 4 - 16a, LIT 4 - 06a

Reproduction and InheritanceD

uring sexual reproduction one set of thegenetic m

aterial is inherited from the egg

cell of one parent and one set from the

sperm cell of the other parent, w

hereas inasexual reproduction all the genetic

information is inherited from

one parent.CfE links - SCN

4-14b

Molecular G

eneticsG

enes are specific nucleotide sequences, locatedalong D

NA m

olecules, that determine particular

traits. Genes provide instructions for producing

specific proteins. CfE links - SCN 4-14c

Reproduction and InheritanceFor offspring to inherit traits there m

ust be areliable m

echanism for transferring genetic

information from

one generation to the next.CfE links - SCN

3-14a

Molecular G

eneticsThe instructions for specifying the characteristicsof an organism

are carried in a molecule called

DN

A (deoxyribonucleic acid). All organisms use

the same genetic language for their instructions.

CfE links - SCN 3-14b


The uniqueness of the DN

A structure makes

it possible for scientists to create a profile ofan individual's D

NA and use it as a m

eans ofpersonal identification. D

NA analysis opens

up the potential to know m

ore and more

about individuals.CfE links - SCN

3-14b, SCN 3-12b, TCH

3-01a,SO

C 3-15a, LIT 3-08a, LIT 3-06a, MN

U 3-22a,

MN

U 3-20a, SCN

3-20a, SCN 3-20b

TH

IRD

&F

OU

RT

HT

HIR

D&

FO

UR

TH

LE

VE

L

NATIO

NAL 4 & 5

NATIO

NAL 4 & 5

d3

Reproduction and InheritanceThere are patterns of correlation betw

eenalternative form

s of the same gene and the

traits observed in offspring. The probabilityof offspring inheriting certain traits can bepredicted if it is know

n which form

s of thegenes both parents have.

Reproduction and InheritanceIn sexual reproduction the inheritance of different types ofalleles of the sam

e gene affects the traits observed in offspring.Som

e alleles are dominant, w

hile others are recessive andrem

ain masked unless the tw

o inherited alleles are identical.


Advances in technology make it possible to alter the

genetic makeup and create organism

s by DN

Am

anipulation, rather than using the traditional method

of breeding species for particular characteristics.

Molecular G

eneticsAlternative form

s of the same gene

are known as alleles and an individual

inherits two alleles for each gene, one

from each parent.

Molecular G

eneticsThe m

ajority of an organism's DN

Ais located in the nucleus of an

organism's cells in a packaged form

called a chromosom

e. DN

A isunpackaged and the m

oleculeunw

inds so that it can bereplicated during cell division andw

hen its instructions are requiredfor the production of proteins.

CfE links - SCN 4-14c

Reproduction and InheritanceM

any features of human heredity are explained by the fact that hum

an cellscontain tw

o copies of each chromosom

e (one inherited from each parent) and

therefore two copies of each gene. D

uring cell division the paired chromosom

esare duplicated and tw

o new cells form

ed with paired chrom

osomes identical to

the original cell. When gam

ete cells (mature sexual reproductive cells, such as a

sperm or egg) are produced the replicated paired chrom

osomes are selected at

random, sorted into tw

o single sets and each set allocated to a new gam

ete.

NA

TIO

NA

L 6

& 7

NA

TIO

NA

L 6

& 7

d4

Reproduction and InheritanceD

uring the production of the sex cells theselection of chrom

osomes at random

and onoccasion, chrom

osome m

utations andabnorm

alities, create genetic variation.

Molecular G

eneticsChanges to genes (m

utations) and the cellenvironm

ent (e.g. toxins) can alter thestructure and function of proteins producedby cells, and can change how

an organismlooks and functions (phenotype). Som

echanges can be neutral, som

e beneficialand others harm

ful to the organism.

Molecular G

eneticsProteins are the central elem

ents thatm

ediate genetic effects and connect genesto traits. Protein interactions at the m

olecularand cellular level result in the patternsobserved at the m

acro level. The overallstructure and properties of the protein,determ

ined by the amino acid sequence,

affords and constrains its function.

Reproduction and InheritanceThe inheritance of traits is often com

plex and canbe determ

ined by one or many genes, and a single

gene can influence more than one trait.

Understanding the patterns of correlation betw

eeninherited alleles m

akes it possible to: grouppopulations into distinct categories, predict traits

in offspring and trace heredity.


Advances in technology develop and expand ourunderstanding of genetic phenom

ena and thisenhanced understanding often leads to further

technological advances and new technologies. The

developments and new

technologies in geneticshave an im

pact on society requiring citizens to make

informed choices.

Molecular G

eneticsG

enes work by coding for proteins. The sequence

of nucleotides on the gene is translated intothe sequence of am

ino acids in the specificprotein encoded by the gene. Protein productionis regulated and a variety of proteins can be

produced from the sam

e gene.

Molecular G

eneticsThe genom

e is the complete D

NA sequence

of the organism's nuclear D

NA. An im

portantproperty of D

NA is that it can replicate itself

making it possible for each cell to have exactly

the same D

NA. Variation in D

NA can serve as

a way to identify individuals and species, and

can provide information on evolutionary

relationships and origins.

Genetics and InheritanceG

enetic information is passed dow

n from one

generation of organisms to another

Key themes:

•DN

A

•G

enes

•Inherited Characteristics

•Reproduction

•Technological Advances

Broad overview of the progression in Genetics and Inheritance

Storyline

Genetic inform

ation in a cell is held in the chemical m

olecule DN

A in the

form of a genetic code. G

enes determine the developm

ent and structure

of organisms. In asexual reproduction all the genes in the offspring com

e

from one parent. In sexual reproduction one full set of the genes com

e

from each parent.

Living things produce offspring of the same species, but in m

any cases

offspring are not identical with each other or w

ith their parents. Plants and

animals, including hum

ans, resemble their parents in m

any features because

information is passed from

one generation to the next. Other features, such

as skills and some behaviours, are not passed on in the sam

e way and have

to be learned.

The information that is passed betw

een generations is in the form of a code

represented in the way that the parts of a large m

olecule called DNA are put

together. A gene is a length of DNA; and hundreds or thousands of genes are

carried on a single chromosom

e (packaged DNA in cells). In the hum

an body

most cells contain 23 pairs of chrom

osomes w

ith a total of about twenty

five thousand genes. These provide the information that is needed to m

ake

more cells in grow

th and reproduction.

When a cell divides as in the process of grow

th and replacement of dead

cells, this genetic information is copied so that each new

cell carries a replica

of the DNA of the parent cell. Som

etimes an error occurs in replication,

causing a mutation, w

hich may or m

ay not be damaging to the organism

.

Changes in genes can be caused by environmental conditions, such as radiation

and chemicals. These changes can affect the individual but only affect the

offspring if they occur in sex (sperm or egg) cells.

1

Molecular

Genetics

Reproductionand

Inheritance

Technologyand

Genetics

Glossary of terms

Asexual reproduction - the formation of offspring from

the cell(s) of a single

parent.

Allele - an alternative form of a gene.

Base pair - two com

plementary DN

A nucleotide bases from opposite strands

of the DN

A molecule that pair up to produce the double helix structure

(with the base pairs form

ing the rungs on the spiral ladder like structure).

Biotechnology - the industrial use of living cells, usually microorganism

s,

or of their isolated enzymes.

Chromosom

e - a single piece of coiled DN

A packaged into a large thread-

like structure that is found in cells. Hum

ans have 46 chromosom

es (23

pairs inherited from each parent).

Cloning - the growth of identical cells from

a single cell or the development

of an animal or plant from

a single body cell.

Differentiation (differentiate) - the increasing specialisation of organisation

of the different parts of an embryo as a m

ulticellular organism develops;

the development of cells w

ith specialised structure and function from

unspecialised precursor cells.

DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid, the large m

olecule that carries genetic

information as a set of coded instructions. It is m

ade up of two entw

ined

strings (the double helix) of nucleotide subunits that contain the bases

(chemical m

olecules): A - adenine, T - thymine, G

- guanine and C – cytosine.

Fertilisation (fertilised) - the union of male and fem

ale gametes (e.g. sperm

and egg cells) to form a cell w

ith two sets of chrom

osomes.

Gam

ete (sex cell) - a reproductive cell (e.g. sperm or egg cell) w

ith one set

of chromosom

es.

In sexual reproduction, a sperm cell from

a male unites w

ith an egg cell from

a female. Sperm

and egg cells are specialised cells each of which has one

of the two versions of each gene carried by the parent, selected at random

.

When a sperm

and egg cell combine one full set of genes in the fertilised

egg is from the sperm

cell and one full set is from the egg cell. As the

fertilised egg divides time and tim

e again this genetic material is replicated

in each new cell. The sorting and recom

bining of genetic material (the process

in which DN

A is exchanged between chrom

osomes that contain the sam

e

sequence of genes) when egg and sperm

cells are formed and then fuse

results in an imm

ense variety of possible combinations of genes, and in

differences that can be inherited from one generation to another. These

variations provide the potential for natural selection, because some variations

result in organisms being better adapted to certain environm

ental conditions.

Asexual reproduction, which occurs naturally in a w

ide range of organisms

including bacteria, insects and plants, leads to populations with identical

genetic material unless a m

utation occurs. Biotechnology has made possible

the production of genetically identical organisms through artificial cloning

in a range of species including mam

mals.

More is being learned all the tim

e about genetic information by m

apping

the genomes (the com

plete genetic information of an organism

) of different

kinds of organisms. W

hen the sequences of genes are known, the genes that

give organisms certain characteristics can be identified and it is possible to

selectively change genetic information to produce desired features. In gene

therapy studies specific genes can be delivered using special techniques into

cells to replace, swap or repair the 'norm

al' gene and potentially cure diseases.

[Adapted from Principles and Big Ideas in Science edited by W

ynne Harlen]

2

Protein - a large molecule com

posed of amino acids (m

olecules that contain

both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups) that perform

s a specialised

job in the cell and is specified by a gene.

RNA - ribonucleic acid, the large linear m

olecule which is m

ade up of a

single chain of nucleotide subunits that contain the bases: A - adenine,

U - uracil, G

- guanine and C - cytosine.

Radiation - energy radiated in waves or particles e.g. electrom

agnetic

radiation or emissions from

radioactive sources.

Replication - the process in which an entity m

akes a copy of itself.

Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) - occur w

hen a pattern of two or m

ore

nucleotides are repeated and the repeated sequences are directly adjacent

to each other on the DN

A molecule. The pattern can range in length from

2 to 50 base pairs. They are independent of genes and can not be used to

identify genes, e.g. eye colour.

Sex marker - a portion of a gene that occurs on both the X and Y-

chromosom

e that is used to identify gender.

Sexual reproduction - reproduction involving the formation and fusion of

two different types of reproductive cell (e.g. sperm

and egg).

Species - in sexually reproducing organisms a group of interbreeding

individuals not normally able to interbreed w

ith other such groups.

Trait - a distinct visible or otherwise m

easurable physical or biochemical

characteristic, which m

ay be either heritable or environmentally determ

ined

or both.

Gene - the fundam

ental unit of inheritance. Genes are sequences of

chemical units (bases) on the D

NA m

olecule found at specific locationsand m

ost contain information for m

aking proteins.

Genetic code - the order of the chem

ical units (nucleotide bases) of theD

NA m

olecule determines the order of the chem

ical units of the proteins(am

ino acids). There are 64 three-letter 'words' in the code.

Genome - the com

plete genetic information of an organism

found in nearlyevery type of cell.

Molecule - m

ade up of atoms held together by chem

ical bonds, a molecule

is the smallest particle in a chem

ical element or com

pound that has thechem

ical properties of that element or com

pound.

Mutation - a change in the am

ount or the structure (sequence of nucleotides)of DN

A of an organism. M

utations can have a positive, negative or neutraleffect.

Nucleus - the area of the cell w

ere almost all D

NA is found. Its function

is essential to the survival of the cell.

Nucleotide - a sm

all molecule that joins w

ith other nucleotides to formchains of nucleotides called nucleic acids (such as RN

A and DN

A). Eachnucleotide is com

posed of a pentose sugar, a phosphate group and a base.

Nucleotide Base - the structural unit of a nucleic acid that m

ay be involvedin pairing (see base pairs); the m

ajor nucleotide bases in DNA are adenine

(A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thym

ine (T), and in RNA uracil (U

) replacesthym

ine.

Organism

- any living thing.

PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - technique for selectively replicating a

particular section of DN

A (in a laboratory vessel or other controlledexperim

ental environment) to produce a large am

ount of a particular DNA

sequence.3

Question:

Are we, and other organism

s, alike in every way?

Big Idea: Offspring resem

ble their parents and the characteristics that distinguish them can be described in term

s of a com

bination of traits.

4

The story begins in the early years by observing and comparing the offspring

of familiar anim

als, to one another and their parents. All animals have offspring,

usually with tw

o parents involved. When anim

als and plants reproduce sexually they produce offspring of their own type w

hichare sim

ilar, but not exactly the same (e.g. kittens in a litter w

ill usually have different markings). Exploring the likenesses and

differences between offspring and their parents reveals traits (characteristics that distinguish individuals and plants from

another)in anim

als and plants e.g. hair, eye and flower colour, and height.

Reproduction and Inheritance:Living things produce offspring

of the same species.

HW

B 0-47aM

NU 0-20b LIT 0-04a

Big Ideas & CfE Experiences &

Outcom

esI recognise that w

e havesim

ilarities and differences butare all unique. H

WB 0-47a

I can match objects, and sort

using my ow

n and others'criteria, sharing m

y ideas with others. M

NU 0-20b

I listen or watch for useful or interesting inform

ation and I use this to m

ake choices or learn new things. LIT 0-04a

By comparing generations of fam

ilies of humans, plants and anim

als, I can begin tounderstand how

characteristics are inherited. SCN 1-14a

I can compare, describe and show

number relationships, using appropriate vocabulary and

the symbols for equals, not equal to, less than and greater than. M

TH 1-15a

I have used a range of ways to collect inform

ation and can sort it in a logical, organisedand im

aginative way using m

y own and others' criteria. M

NU 1-20b

Using technology and other methods, I can

display data simply, clearly and accurately by

creating tables, charts and diagrams, using

simple labelling and scale. M

TH 1-21a

I can comm

unicate clearly when engaging w

ithothers w

ithin and beyond my place of learning,

using selected resources 1 as required. LIT 1-10a

i.There is a tendency to focus m

ore on the differences between individuals and som

etimes the sim

ilarities areneglected.

ii.Young people m

ay think that they inherit physical traits from other fam

ily mem

bers e.g. aunts, uncles, cousins and siblings because people often pointout resem

blances among relatives.

iii.Young people m

ay not recognise plants as living things.iv.

Young people often see the '=' symbol as an instruction to com

plete an operation. It is not always appreciated that the '=' sym

bol signifies 'the same as',

but not necessarily 'identical to'. It is not a request to do something and sim

ply states the situation. Emphasis should be put on the equivalence aspect of

the '=' symbol by using phrases such as 'is the sam

e as' or 'gives the same result as' in preference to 'm

akes' or 'leaves'.


Comm

on Misconceptions

Reproduction and Inheritance:In m

any cases offspring are not identicalw

ith each other or with their parents

but have similarities.

SCN 1-14a M

TH 1-15a

MN

U 1-20b MTH

1-21a LIT 1 10-a

Early p

rog

ressing

Early p

rog

ressing

into

First Level

1 This may include im

ages, objects, audio, visual or digital resources.

5

Curriculum Links, Skills and Interdisciplinary Learning O

pportunities•

Gathering inform

ation through observation and seeking patterns

•Evaluating by identifying and m

atching

•U

nderstanding by describing

•Com

municating in the activities and through discussion

Matching living things and their offspring, for exam

ple through structured play with m

odel representations or picture sortingactivities, and then observing the sim

ilarities and differences between them

. Observing the early stages of developm

ent andusing the differences betw

een the offspring to distinguish them e.g. follow

ing a litter of animals from

birth (for example using

the Scottish Sealife Centre webcam

s) or the growth of seeds from

parent plants. Fingerprinting, matching and sorting seeds

from different species of plants 2 and anim

als with their offspring, and draw

ing portraits/taking photographs of humans and

other animals and observing the sim

ilarities and differences. Activities at early level will be m

ore experiential and as young people move into first level they

should progress from describing to sorting and selecting based on criteria.

•G

athering information through observation, seeking patterns and exploration

•Evaluating by com

paring and classifying

•U

nderstanding by selecting, describing and sorting based on criteria

•Creating through m

aking

•Com

municating through discussion and displaying findings

Identifying similarities and differences (e.g. height, flow

er or eye colour, no. of leaves and leaf shape, ability to roll tongue, etc) between offspring from

thesam

e parents and with their parents (need to be cautious if children are com

paring themselves w

ith their parents and siblings), for example construct a fam

ilytree using pictures from

famous fam

ilies that go back a couple of generations (e.g. film stars and royalty), or produce then play a gam

e of 'Happy Fam

ilies'.Classifying the sim

ilarities and differences using the phrases 'is the same as' and 'is not the sam

e as' as well as the sym

bols '=' or '' and describing m

easurableattributes such as 'bigger' or 'sm

aller', 'more' or 'less', etc. O

ther activities could involve: the children producing a life size portrait of themselves, discussing

the similarities and differences betw

een them then using them

to create graphs (e.g. attach the pictures to a wall from

tallest to smallest to create a graph,

measure the height of the pictures w

ith blocks and colour in squares on graph paper to represent the number of blocks/height); displaying annotated

photographs of the growth process, from

seed to plant 2; using computer graphing packages and producing sim

ple tables of the similarities and differences

e.g. eye and hair colour; and creating groups for classifying objects and comm

unicating the justification for the choice of group clearly e.g. leaf shape orseed colour. Young people should be encouraged to verbalise w

hat they are doing and did in the activities.

2 http://ww

w.bbsrc.ac.uk/society/schools/keystage1-2/seeds-plant-grow

th.aspx

6

Introducing ideas about Science•

people learn about the world through careful observation

•som

etimes m

ore can be learned by people doing something and noting w

hat happens•

similar patterns are found in m

any places in nature•

it is important to describe things as accurately as possible because it enables people to com

pare their findings•

one way to describe som

ething is to say how it com

pares (is like/different) to something else

•w

hen people give different descriptions of the same thing, it is a good idea to m

ake fresh observations and see what the sim

ilarities and differences are•

people are more likely to believe ideas if there are reasons for them

•often people can find out about a group of things by studying just a few

of them

Learning Outcom

es and Assesment O

pportunities

Question:

Why are w

e, and other organisms, sim

ilar to our parents and siblings, but not identical?Big Idea:

Some traits are solely inherited and others result from

interactions with the environm

ent.

7

No individual organism

lives forever and reproduction is essential to thecontinuation of every species. Som

e traits in offspring are inherited fromtheir parents during reproduction - received by transm

ission from one generation to another such as physical traits e.g.

cleft chin, cheek dimples, free or attached earlobes, rolling your tongue and freckles, and som

e behaviours. Inheritedbehaviours are tendencies and offspring inherit the possibility (or predisposition) to exhibit that behaviour. O

ther traits areenvironm

ental - usually skills and behaviours that are acquired by experience in the organism's lifetim

e and make it

compatible w

ith its environmental and survival needs, for exam

ple, babies and toddlers are vulnerable to hazardous obstaclesbecause the instinct to avoid pain and injuries is a skill learned during infancy.There are sim

ilarities and differences between offspring and it is the com

bination of inherited and environmental traits that m

ake each individual unique.Environm

ental traits are not transferred genetically from one generation to another.

Behaviour in insects and many other species is determ

ined almost entirely by biological inheritance. Research suggests that in

humans only a sm

all amount of a person's 'm

ake-up' is purely down to genetics or to the environm

ent, and it is mostly dow

nto a com

plex combination of genes and the environm

ent (of nature and nurture). Scientists can now look at the com

plete geneticinform

ation of organisms (their genom

e) to discover the influence of genetics and the effect of the environment on traits.

Certain traits are easy to see, for example, curly hair or straight hair, w

hile other traits are more difficult to observe, for exam

ple,w

hether you have allergies or not (although it may be easy to conduct tests to find out).


Seco

nd

Level

Reproduction and Inheritance:Som

e traits are solely inherited and others resultfrom

interactions with the environm

ent.SCN

2-14b SCN 2-03a M

NU 2-20b M

NU 2-22a

HW

B 2-30a HW

B 2-32a SCN 2-14a LIT 2-26a

By exploring the characteristics offspring inherit when living things reproduce, I can distinguish betw

eeninherited and non-inherited characteristics. SCN

2-14bI have collaborated in the design of an investigation into the effects of fertilisers on the grow

th of plants. I can express an inform

ed view of the risks and benefits of their use. SCN

2-03aI have carried out investigations and surveys, devising and using a variety of m

ethods to gather information and have w

orked with others to collate, organise and

comm

unicate the results in an appropriate way. M

NU 2-20b

Comm

on Misconceptions

i.Young people assum

e that nearly all characteristics are inherited genetically. There is no recognition that som

e characteristics are inherited, some a result of environm

ental conditions and others a combination

of both environmental conditions and genetics.

Big Ideas & Curriculum

for Excellence Experiences & O

utcomes

CO

NTIN

UE

D O

N P

AG

E 8

8


pportunities•

Gathering inform

ation through observation, asking questions and social interaction•

Applying knowledge to different contexts

•Evaluating by selecting and classifying

•U

nderstanding by selecting and explaining•

Comm

unicating through creating texts, discussion and displaying findingsIdentifying and differentiating betw

een inherited and environmental traits, for exam

ple: looking at the effect of the environment (dark, different soils, etc.)

has on growing seeds from

the same plants; using activities (e.g. creating 'handy' fam

ily trees 3 with inherited physical characteristics on the fingers of one

handprint and environmental traits on the fingers of the other) to explore the traits of individuals and to find out the things that m

ake them unique;

investigating the traditions and characteristics of different ethnic groups; examining how

lifestyle and diet can affect traits (e.g. smoking and m

alnutritionin pregnancy can result in babies born w

ith lower birth w

eights and smaller organs, and unhealthy eating as w

ell as lack of physical activity is contributingto the rising level of obesity in the U

K); and creating Reebops 4 and writing about their characteristics (inherited and environm

ental). During these activitiesthere w

ill be opportunities to look at chance and the probability of exhibiting certain traits (e.g. play traits games 3 and find out w

hich traits are the most

comm

on in the class and/or compare yourself w

ith others using the Wellcom

e Trust Centre for Hum

an Genetics database

5).[N

B: Be careful when looking at inherited characteristics and com

paring learners, especially with m

embers of their fam

ilies. Some traits considered either recessive

or dominant 6, such as tongue rolling and eye colour, are not as straight forw

ard as they were form

erly believed to be and are actually a combination of m

echanisms,

therefore it is possible for two parents w

ho can't roll their tongue to have a child who can and parents w

ith blue eyes to have a brown eyed child.]

3learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/traits/activities/ 4ww

w.ise5-14.org.uk/Prim

3/New

_Guidelines/N

ewsletters/46/Reebop_1.htm

and

http://cbe.wisc.edu/cbe_pubs/reebops.htm

l5uniqueness.w

ell.ox.ac.uk/language_set/introduction.php 6http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/traits/activities/pdfs/Inherited%20H

uman%

20Traits%20Q

uick%20Reference_Public.pdf

I can conduct simple experim

ents involving chance and comm

unicate my predictions and findings using the vocabulary of probability. M

NU 2-22a

By applying my know

ledge and understanding of current healthy eating advice I can contribute to a healthy eating plan. HWB 2-30a

I understand that people at different life stages have differing nutritional needs and that some people m

ay eat or avoid certain foods. HWB 2-32a

By investigating the lifecycles of plants and animals, I can recognise the different stages of their developm

ent. SCN 2-14a

By considering the type of text I am creating, I can select ideas and relevant inform

ation, organise these in an appropriate way for m

y purpose and use suitable vocabularyfor m

y audience. LIT 2-26a

CO

NTIN

UE

D FR

OM

PA

GE

4

Learning Outcom

es and Assesment O

pportunities

Question:

How

do we, and other organism

s, inherit traits from our parents?

Big Idea: H

eredity is the passage of genetic information from

one generation to another. For offspring to inherit traitsthere m

ust be a reliable mechanism

for transferring genetic information from

one generation to the next. A molecule called

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is passed from

adult organisms to their offspring during reproduction. This m

olecule containsthe instructions for an organism

to develop, grow, survive and reproduce. The sequence of nucleotides on the DN

A molecule

is unique to an individual, with the exception of cloned (identical) organism

s which share the sam

e DNA. DN

A analysisopens up the potential to know

more and m

ore about individuals.

9

Third

Level

Genetic inform

ation is passed from one generation to another. Sexually

reproduced offspring are never identical to their parents. Many species,

of animals and plants, including hum

ans reproduce sexually. Specialised cells from a fem

ale (egg cell/ova) and male (sperm

)fuse together to begin the developm

ent of a new individual. The new

individual receives genetic information from

bothparents. W

hen a sperm and egg unite one set of the genetic m

aterial in the fertilised egg is from the sperm

cell and oneset is from

the egg cell. If a fertilised egg (egg and sperm united) splits to form

more than one individual then the offspring

have the same genetic inform

ation and are genetically identical.Follow

ing fertilisation, cell division produces a small cluster of cells w

ith the same genetic inform

ation copied in each newcell. This cluster of cells then differentiates to form

an embryo in w

hich each new cell continues to have the sam

e genetic material - a replica of the DN

A inthe fertilised egg.


Molecular Genetics

The instructions for specifying the characteristics of an organism are carried in the D

NA

(deoxyribonucleic acid) m

olecule. DN

A provides the information required for cell function, cell grow

th and reproduction. The chemical and

structural properties of DN

A explain how

the genetic information that underlies inheritance is both encoded (in a sequence of building blocks)

and replicated (by a templating m

echanism).

DN

A is a large polym

er and the instructions for genetic inheritance are stored in a code made up of four building blocks called nucleotide bases.

A strand of D

NA

contains millions of these four nucleotide bases. It is the order, or sequence, of the nucleotide bases on the strand that provides

the information for producing the proteins that build and m

aintain an organism. The sequence of nucleotides on the D

NA

molecule is unique to

an individual, with the exception of cloned (identical) organism

s (such as plants, Dolly the Sheep and identical tw

ins) which share the sam

e DN

A.

An im

portant property of DN

A is that it can replicate, or m

ake copies of itself. DN

A is m

ade up of two strands joined together

in a double helix (like a spiral ladder) that can separate and each separate strand of DN

A can serve as a pattern for replicating

the molecule. D

NA

is extraordinary reliable at replicating. It must replicate faithfully to ensure the continuation of the species,

but make som

e mistakes to enable evolution. In sexual reproduction, organism

s inherit DN

A from

both the male (in the sperm

)and fem

ale parent (in the egg). One set of genes contains 300 billion base pairs of D

NA

and during replication there are around200 m

utations per generation, therefore offspring inherit around 400 mutations. H

owever, only 1-2 %

of DN

A is involved in

genes and the chances of inheriting a defect are very low and m

ost mutations have no consequences.

Comm

on Misconceptions

i.Sam

e sex only inheritance - i.e. sons take after their fathers and daughters take after their mothers.

ii.Characteristics are inherited only from

the mother during gestation.

iii.Certain characteristics are alw

ays inherited from the m

other and the others from the father.

iv.Com

bined/blended characteristics are inherited from both parents.

10

Technology and GeneticsD

NA

profiling is the collection, processing and analysis of the unique sequences of m

olecules on the DN

A strand. The uniqueness of the D

NA

structure makes it

possible for scientists to create a profile of an individual's DN

A and use it as a means of personal identification. To produce

a DN

A fingerprint or D

NA

profile a small sam

ple of skin tissues or cells, body fluids, or hair (with attached roots) is

required. Profiles are now constructed using PCR (polym

erase chain reaction) technology and detecting differences inthe num

ber of short tandem repeats (STRs) - areas containing repeats of sequences located on different chrom

osomes

which can distinguish us as unique individuals. In the U

K a complete D

NA

profile of an individual consists of 10 STRs(and a sex m

arker) and comes w

ith a random m

atch probability (the probability of a specific STR profile occurring randomly in a population). D

NA

profiling is considered one of the most reliable and conclusive m

ethods of personal identification available to today's scientists. The probabilityof tw

o individuals DN

A m

atching has been estimated at less than one in a billion

7. It is routinely used in the field of forensic science and it hasalso becom

e an important tool in genealogy. Although the technology is reliable, like any technique that relies on hum

ans processing and interpretingsam

ples, there is the potential for human errors during the processing of the D

NA

. DN

A evidence does not solve a crim

e or establish a suspect'sguilt. It is sim

ply another form of circum

stantial evidence.

There are concerns about the use of genetic information and genetic privacy. In M

arch 2009 an estimated 4,859,934 individuals had their D

NA

profiles held in the UK D

NA

database8. A

t that time the database held sam

ples from people, including children, w

ho have been arrested (for anyoffence including not w

earing a seatbelt) and not all of them w

ill have been charged with a crim

e. In Scotland, DN

A samples taken during crim

inalinvestigations from

people who are not charged or later acquitted are destroyed.

The analysis of DN

A is a technology led area that has generated an abundance of data that requires people w

ith the biology and mathem

aticsknow

ledge to interpret it. Analysis of D

NA

can reveal if an individual has any genetic diseases or disorders and their predisposition to developingparticular conditions (som

e conditions are a result of the interaction of genes and the environment, e.g. obesity and certain cancers, and not all

individuals with the predisposition develop the condition). It opens up the potential to know

more and m

ore about individuals (e.g. their risk ofdeveloping a condition) and countries around the w

orld (in the UK there is a m

oratorium on the use of unfavourable predictive genetic test results

by insurance companies) are putting in place legislation to protect individuals. A

nother area where there are ethical and legal concerns is around

the patenting of genetic material.

7The probability of the DNA profiles of tw

o unrelated individuals matching is on average less than 1 in 1 billion (1,000,000,000).

Postnote, February 2006, Num

ber 258, The National DN

A Database; Parliamentary O

ffice of Science and Technology.8Annual Report 2007-09; N

ational DNA Database.

11

Molecular Genetics:

The instructions for specifying thecharacteristics of an organism

arecarried in a m

olecule called DNA

(deoxyribonucleric acid). All organisms

use the same genetic language for

their instructions.SCN

3-14b

Technology and Genetics:The uniqueness of the DN

A structure makes it possible

for scientists to create a profile of an individual'sDN

A and use it as a means of personal identification.

DNA analysis opens up the potential to know

more

and more about individuals.

SCN 3-14b SCN

3-12b TCH 3-01a SO

C 3-15a LIT3-08a LIT 3-06a M

NU 2-22a

MN

U 3-20a SCN 3-20a SCN

3-20b SCN 3-20a

Reproduction and Inheritance:For offspring to inherit traits therem

ust be a reliable mechanism

fortransferring genetic inform

ation fromone generation to the next.

SCN 3-14a

I understand the processes of fertilisation and embryonic developm

ent and can discuss possible risks to the embryo.

SCN 3-14a

I have extracted DNA and understand its function. I can express an inform

ed view of the risks and benefits of DN

A profiling.SCN

3-14b

I have explored the role of technology in monitoring health and im

proving the quality of life. SCN 3-12b

I have collaborated with others to find and present inform

ation on how scientists from

Scotland and beyond have contributed to innovative research and development.

SCN 3-20a

Through research and discussion, I have contributed to evaluations of media item

s with regard to scientific content and

ethical implications. SCN

3-20b

I can find the probability of a simple event happening and explain w

hy the consequences of the event, as well as its

probability, should be considered when m

aking choices. MN

U 3-22a

I can work collaboratively, m

aking appropriate use of technology, to source information presented in a range of w

ays,interpret w

hat it conveys and discuss whether I believe the inform

ation to be robust, vague or misleading. M

NU 3-20a

From m

y studies of technologies in the world around m

e, I can begin to understand the relationship between key scientific

principles and technological developments. TCH 3-01a

I can use my know

ledge of current social, political or economic issues to interpret evidence and present an inform

ed view. SOC 3-15a

To help me develop an inform

ed view, I am

learning about the techniques used to influence opinion and how

to assess the value of my sources, and I can recognise persuasion. LIT 3-08a

I can independently select ideas and relevant information for different purposes, organise essential

information or ideas and any supporting detail in a logical order, and use suitable vocabulary to com

municate

effectively with m

y audience. LIT 3-06a



utcomes

12

9ww

w.exploredna.co.uk/ and w

ww

.biology.ed.ac.uk/projects/GeneJury/learningzone_w

hoseDNA.htm

lhttp://w

ww

.bbsrc.ac.uk/web/FILES/Resources/fullbooklet.pdf

10teach.genetics.utah.edu/content/heredity/html/recipe.htm

l and ww

w.societyofbiology.org/education/educational-resources/genetics/hgl

11archive.planet-science.com/sciteach/index.htm

l?page=/sciteach/debating/ and ww

w.beep.ac.uk/content/15.0.htm

l12w

ww

.sciencemuseum

.org.uk/educators/classroom_and_hom

ework_resources/resources/do_you_w

ant_to_know_a_secret.aspx

13extra.shu.ac.uk/cse/geneticfutures/dream.htm

Learning Outcom

es and Assesment O

pportunities


pportunities•

Gathering inform

ation through asking questions, sourcing texts and social interaction•

Applying knowledge to different contexts and developing vocabulary

•Evaluating by selecting inform

ation, making inform

ed judgements, appraising and prioritising

•U

nderstanding by summ

arising, prioritising and through discussion•

Comm

unicating through creating texts, discussion and displaying findings•

Developing investigative and laboratory skills

Finding out about DNA

9, extracting it and being aware of the genetic language by using coded

10 DNA to identify traits and select them

at random to create

'organisms'. Exploring through debates 11 the ethical and m

oral issues surrounding the uniqueness of DNA and the inform

ation it can now reveal thanks to

advances in technology. Making inform

ed choices about how m

uch information you w

ant to know about you e.g. explore the issues surrounding genetic testing

by using sealed boxes (create personalised boxes/packaging in technology) to represent taking genetic tests 12. Predicting and discussing where the future m

aylead

13 and the decisions that might have to be m

ade.

Question:

Why do w

e, and other organisms, only inherit som

e traits from our parents?

Big Idea: H

ereditary information is contained in genes w

hich are passed from parent to offspring during reproduction.

During sexual reproduction one copy of a gene is inherited from each parent and each copy w

ill be different. In asexualreproduction all the genes are inherited from

one parent and the offspring are an exact copy (clone) of the parent. Genesare specific nucleotide sequences located along DN

A molecules that provide instructions for producing specific proteins

and determine particular traits. The m

ajority of an organism's DN

A is located in the nucleus of an organism's cells in a

packaged form called a chrom

osome. DN

A is unpackaged and the molecule unw

inds so that it can be replicated during celldivision and w

hen its instructions are required for the production of proteins. Before individual genes on DNA could be

identified researchers studied organisms to assess the relative influences of genes and the environm

ent. Advances intechnology have increased the reliability of the inform

ation obtained and the amount and type of inform

ation that can begathered and analysed.

13

Fou

rth Level

Some organism

s reproduce asexually. Asexual reproduction differs from

sexual reproduction in that it does not require two parents. The offspring are

produced from a single parent through cell division and are genetically identical to their parent, inheriting all their genetic inform

ationfrom

them.

Genes - the fundam

ental units of inheritance - are the instructions that determine particular traits. During sexual reproduction one

copy of a gene is inherited from each parent and each copy can be different. Each individual has the sam

e set of genes, but the variantof each gene m

ay be different. It is this genetic information - the precise genetic constitution of an organism

- that is its genotype.


Molecular Genetics

The majority of DN

A is located in the area of the cell called the nucleus. Since the nucleus is very small, and because

organisms have m

any DNA m

olecules per cell, each DNA m

olecule must be tightly packaged. The packaged form

of the DNA

molecule is called a chrom

osome and each DN

A molecule in a cell form

s a single chromosom

e. Not all organism

s have the same num

ber of chromosom

es, buteach species has a definite num

ber present in each cell and most cells have tw

o matching sets of chrom

osomes. DN

A is a two stranded m

olecule and spends alot of tim

e in its chromosom

e form. H

owever, during cell division the DN

A molecule unw

inds into the two separate strands so it can be copied, then an original

strand and newly copied strand are transferred to a new

cell. This is critical when norm

al cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the

DNA present in the original cell. DN

A also unwinds so that its instructions can be used to m

ake the proteins that carry out the functions of life.The instructions on the DN

A molecule that determ

ine particular traits are called genes. Each gene is a length of DNA that contains a specific sequence of

nucleotides, they are arranged in a line along the length of the DNA m

olecule, and work by providing instructions for the production

of specific proteins.The location of genes on the sam

e chromosom

e means that certain traits are usually inherited together. There m

ay be hundredsor thousands of genes on a single DN

A molecule, w

ith a total of about twenty five thousand genes in the hum

an body. Most genes

that an individual has are the same as other individuals in the species, but a sm

all number of genes are slightly different.

Reproduction and Inheritance:H

ereditary information is contained in genes

which are passed from

parent to offspringduring reproduction. SCN

4-14c

14

Before individual genes could be identified researchers studied organisms to determ

ine the relative influences ofgenes and the effect of the environm

ent on particular traits. For example, identical and non-identical tw

ins thathad been raised together in sim

ilar environments w

ere studied (identical twins that happened to be grow

ing upin different households w

ere also studied). Where characteristics differed m

ore in the non-identical twins this w

asconsidered m

ost likely due to differences in their genes. Advances in technology have enabled researchers to studythe genes of organism

s as well as the organism

, increasing the reliability of the information obtained and the

amount and type of inform

ation that can be gathered and analysed. Genetics is a rapidly advancing field. The w

orkof the H

uman G

enome Project and subsequent research is evolving our know

ledge and understanding of genetics,and is changing practices in m

edicine and molecular engineering. Enhanced know

ledge and understanding ingenetics is likely to have a substantial im

pact on the lives of individuals in future; particularly in relation to their medical care.


Comm

on Misconceptions

i.Students have difficulties understanding the relationship betw

een chromosom

es, DNA, genes and nucleotide

bases.ii.The role of genes is often m

isconstrued as determining one trait in all its observed com

plexity rather than providingthe instructions for proteins w

hose functions and interactions result in the traits we see.

Reproduction and Inheritance:During sexual reproduction one set of thegenetic m

aterial is inherited from the egg

cell of one parent and one set from the sperm

cell of the other parent, whereas in asexual

reproduction all the genetic information is

inherited from one parent. SCN

4-14b

Through evaluation of a range of data, I can compare sexual

and asexual reproduction and explain their importance for

survival of species. SCN 4-14b

I can use my understanding of how

characteristics are inheritedto solve sim

ple genetic problems and relate this to m

yunderstanding of DNA, genes and chrom

osomes. SCN

4-14cI have researched new

developments in science and can explain

how their current or future applications m

ight impact on m

odernlife. SCN

4-20aBy applying m

y understanding of probability, I can determine how

many tim

es I expect an event to occur, and use this information

to make predictions, risk assessm

ent, informed choices and

decisions. MN

U 4-22aI can com

pare traditional with contem

porary production methods

to assess their contribution in the world around m

e and explainthe im

pact of related technological changes. TCH 4-01aI can present supported conclusions about the social, politicaland econom

ic impacts of a technological change in the past. SOC

4-05aI can independently select ideas and relevant inform

ation fordifferent purposes, organise essential inform

ation or ideas andany supporting detail in a logical order, and use suitable vocabularyto com

municate effectively w

ith my audience. LIT 4-06a



utcomes

Molecular Genetics:

Genes are specific nucleotide sequences,located along DN

A molecules, that determ

ineparticular traits. Genes provide instructionsfor producing specific proteins. SCN

4-14c

Molecular Genetics:

The majority of an organism

's DNA is located

in the nucleus of an organism's cells in a

packaged form called a chrom

osome. DN

A isunpackaged and the m

olecule unwinds so that

it can be replicated during cell division andw

hen its instructions are required for theproduction of proteins. SCN

4-14c

Technology and Genetics:Before individual genes on DN

A could be identified researchers studied organisms to assess

the relative influences of genes and the environment. Advances in technology have increased

the reliability of the information obtained and the am

ount and type of information that can

be gathered and analysed. SCN 4 -14c SCN

4 - 20aTCH

4 - 01a MN

U 4 - 22a SOC 4 - 05a H

WB 4 - 15a H

WB 4 - 16a LIT 4 - 06a

15

14http://teach.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/traits/ReproductiveStrategies.pdf15w

ww

.teachengineering.org/view_activity.php?url=http://w

ww

.teachengineering.org/collection/duk_/activities/duk_genetics_mary_act/duk_genetics_m

ary_act.xml

and http://teach.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/dna/findagene.pdf and http://w

ww

.woodrow

.org/teachers/biology/institutes/1997/makeface/teacinfo.htm

l

Learning Outcom

es and Assesment O

pportunities


pportunitiesCom

paring reproductive strategies 14 and starting to explore how traits are passed from

one generation to another 15.

Reproduction and Inheritance:In sexual reproduction the inheritance ofdifferent types of alleles of the sam

e geneaffects the traits observed in offspring. Som

ealleles are dom

inant, while others are recessive

and remain m

asked unless the two inherited

alleles are identical.

Question:

Why do w

e, and other organisms, not have the sam

e traits as our siblings?Big Idea:

Across generations there are patterns of gene transfer that affect the traits offspring inherit. Many features

of human heredity are explained by the fact that hum

an cells contain two copies of each chrom

osome (one inherited from

each parent) and therefore two copies of each gene. Individuals all have the sam

e genes and chromosom

es, but chromosom

escan have different versions of specific genes (alleles). The inheritance of different alleles affects the traits observed inoffspring. Som

e alleles are dominant, w

hile others are recessive and remain m

asked unless the two inherited alleles are

identical. Patterns of correlation between alternative form

s of the same gene m

ake it possible to predict offspring inheritingcertain traits w

hen the forms of the parents' genes are know

n and to breed offspring with particular traits.

16

Natio

nal Levels 4

& 5

Comm

on Misconceptions

Big Ideas, Curriculum Links and Useful ResourcesM

olecular Genetics:Alternative form

s of the same gene are know

nas alleles and an individual inherits tw

o allelesfor each gene, one from

each parent.

Reproduction and Inheritance:There are patterns of correlation

between alternative form

s of the same

gene and the traits observed in offspring.The probability of offspring inheritingcertain traits can be predicted if it isknow

n which form

s of the genes bothparents have.

Reproduction and Inheritance:Advances in technology m

ake it possible to alter the genetic makeup and create organism

sby DN

A manipulation, rather than using the traditional m

ethod of breeding species forparticular characteristics.

Reproduction and Inheritance:M

any features of human heredity are explained by

the fact that human cells contain tw

o copies of eachchrom

osome (one inherited from

each parent) andtherefore tw

o copies of each gene. During cell divisionthe paired chrom

osomes are duplicated and tw

o newcells form

ed with paired chrom

osomes identical to

the original cell. When gam

ete cells (mature sexual

reproductive cells, such as a sperm or egg) are produced

the replicated paired chromosom

es are selected atrandom

, sorted into two single sets and each set

allocated to a new gam

ete.

17

16http://ww

w.sqa.org.uk/sqa/2565.htm

l17http://w

ww

.wellcom

e.ac.uk/Education-resources/Teaching-and-education/Big-Picture/All-issues/Genes-G

enomes-and-H

ealth/index.htm18http://w

ww

.philipallan.co.uk/biologicalreview/index.htm

Learning Outcom

es and Assesment O

pportunities


pportunitiesFurther inform

ation on curriculum content can be accessed on the SQ

A website

16. Useful resources include the m

agazines: Big Picture - Genes, G

enomes

and Health (Issue 11: January 2010) produced by the W

ellcome Trust 17 and Biological Sciences Review

-aimed at advanced level biology students 18.

Reproduction and Inheritance:The inheritance of traits is often com

plex andcan be determ

ined by one or many genes, and a

single gene can influence more than one trait.

Understanding the patterns of correlation between

inherited alleles makes it possible to: group

populations into distinct categories, predict traitsin offspring and trace heredity.

Question:

How

do we, and other organism

s, express traits and how do changes in genetic inheritance occur?

Big Idea: Inherited traits can be determ

ined by one or many genes, and a single gene can influence m

ore than one trait.Cellular and m

olecular mechanism

s are responsible for the patterns of gene transfer across generations and result in geneticvariation. Unless a m

utation occurs all of the cells in an organism contain the sam

e genetic information. Cells are able to

regulate which inform

ation is used (expressed) and the proteins that are produced.

18

Natio

nal Levels 6

& 7

Comm

on Misconceptions

Reproduction and Inheritance:During the production of the sex cells the selection

of chromosom

es at random and on occasion,

chromosom

e mutations and abnorm

alities, creategenetic variation.

Big Ideas, Curriculum Links and Useful Resources

i.U

nderstanding that genes contain information is not enough to be able to explain how

the geneticinform

ation brings about its effects on specific traits. It is important to understand w

hat the information

specifies and how it translates in to instructions.

ii. Students are often unaware of the centrality of proteins in genetic traits. They do not conceive of the genetic inform

ational contentbeing expressed as the m

akeup of proteins. They do not distinguish the role of genes (DN

A) as carrying inform

ation for the make up of

proteins and instead attribute their role to coding for the structure and function of cells, tissues and organs at higher organization levels.

Molecular Genetics:

Genes work by coding for proteins. The sequence

of nucleotides on the gene is translated into thesequence of am

ino acids in the specific proteinencoded by the gene. Protein production is

regulated and a variety of proteins can be producedfrom

the same gene.

Molecular Genetics:

Proteins are the central elements that

mediate genetic effects and connect genesto traits. Protein interactions at the

molecular and cellular level result in the

patterns observed at the macro level. The

overall structure and properties of theprotein, determ

ined by the amino acid

sequence, affords and constrains itsfunction.

19

19http://ww

w.sqa.org.uk/sqa/2565.htm

l20http://w

ww

.wellcom

e.ac.uk/Education-resources/Teaching-and-education/Big-Picture/All-issues/Genes-G

enomes-and-H

ealth/index.htm21http://w

ww

.philipallan.co.uk/biologicalreview/index.htm

Learning Outcom

es and Assesment O

pportunities


pportunitiesFurther inform

ation on curriculum content can be accessed on the SQ

A website

19. Useful resources include the m

agazines: Big Picture - Genes, G

enomes

and Health (Issue 11: January 2010) produced by the W

ellcome Trust 20 and Biological Sciences Review

-aimed at advanced level biology students 21.

Molecular Genetics:

Changes to genes (mutations) and the cell

environment (e.g. toxins) can alter the

structure and function of proteins producedby cells, and can change how

an organismlooks and functions (phenotype). Som

echanges can be neutral, som

e beneficialand others harm

ful to the organism.

Technology and Genetics:Advances in technology develop and expandour understanding of genetic phenom

enaand this enhanced understanding oftenleads to further technological advances

and new technologies. The developm

entsand new

technologies in genetics have anim

pact on society requiring citizens tom

ake informed choices.

Molecular Genetics:

The genome is the com

plete DNA sequence of the

organism's nuclear DN

A. An important property of

DNA is that it can replicate itself m

aking it possiblefor each cell to have exactly the sam

e DNA. Variation

in DNA can serve as a w

ay to identify individuals andspecies, and can provide inform

ation on evolutionaryrelationships and origins.

STEM-ED Scotland is hosted by the U

niversity of Glasgow

The research team gratefully acknow

ledgesthe support of the colleagues, individuals,groups and organisations that havecontributed to the developm

ent of this work.

The research team acknow

ledges the financial support from the Scottish

Governm

ent. They would also like to express gratitude for the financial

support and encouragement from

the Esmée Fairbairn Foundation that

enabled them to begin w

orking on learning progressions in STEM.

List of sources consultedA Learning Progression for Deepening Students' Understandings of M

odernGenetics Across the 5th-10th Grades. Journal of Research in Science Teaching(2009) Ravit G

olan Duncan, Aaron D. Rogat, Anat Yarden.

Atlas of Science Literacy. AAAS (2001) Washington, DC: AAAS and N

STA.

Benchmarks for Science Literacy. AAAS (Am

erican Association for theAdvancem

ent of Science (1993). Project 2016. Oxford U

niversity Press.

Curriculum Focal points for Prekindergarten through Grade 8 M

athematics:

A Quest for Coherence. (2006) N

ational Council of Teachers of Mathem

atics.

Curriculum coherence: an exam

ination of US mathem

atics and science contentstandards from

an international perspective. William

H. Schm

idt; Hsing Chi

Wang; Curtis C. M

cKnight. (2010) Journal of Curriculum Studies.

Designing Project-Based Instruction to Foster Generative and Mechanistic

Understandings in Genetics. Science Education (2010) Ravit Golan Duncan,

Katie Ann Tseng.

Learning Progressions in Science. Prepared by Tom Corcoran, Frederic A.

Mosher, Aaron Rogat. (2009) Consortium

for Policy Research in Education,An Evidence-based Approach to Reform

, Center on Continuous InstructionalIm

provement Teachers College-Colum

bia University.

Making Sense of Secondary Science. Driver, R., Squires, A., Rushw

orth, P., andW

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