steel-concrete composite bridges

5/21/2018 Steel-concrete Composite Bridges

1/22

Steelconcrete compositebridges

David Collings


2/22

Published by Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd,

1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.

www.thomastelford.com

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

USA: ASCE Press, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4400, USA

Japan:Maruzen Co. Ltd, Book Department, 310 Nihonbashi 2-chome,

Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103

Australia:DA Books and Journals, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132,Victoria

First published 2005

Figures 5.2, 10.10, 11.2 courtesy of Benaim

Figure 10.9 courtesy of T Hambly

Figures 5.4, 5.5 courtesy of Amec Group Ltd

Figure 10.12 courtesy of Arup.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 0 7277 3342 7

# Thomas Telford Limited 2005

All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright, Designs and

Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system

or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,

without the prior written permission of the Publishing Director, Thomas Telford Publishing,

Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.

This book is published on the understanding that the author is solely responsible for the state-

ments made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily imply

that such statements and/or opinions are or reflect the views or opinions of the publishers.

While every effort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed

in this publication provide a safe and accurate guide, no liability or responsibility can be accepted

in this respect by the author or publishers.

Typeset by Academic Technical, Bristol

Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Bodmin


3/22

Dedication

For my father

iii


4/22

Contents

Foreword ix

Acknowledgements x

Notation xi

1. General concepts 1

Introduction 1Structural forms 1Materials 2Codes 2Concrete 3Steel 6Composite action 11Shear connectors 13

2. Simple beam bridges 16

Introduction 16Initial sizing 16Example 2.1 16Initial design of girder 20Bracing of the steelwork 20Initial design of the concrete slab 25Initial shear connector design 26Safety through design 26Environmental issues 27

3. Integral bridges 29

Introduction 29Soilstructure interaction 30Example 3.1 31Weathering steel 34Compact sections 38Portal frame structures 38Example 3.2 38Effects of skew 40Example 3.3 41

v


5/22

Painting 42Shrinkage 44Differential temperature 44

4. Continuous bridges 46

Introduction 46

Motorway widening 47Momentshear interaction 49Example 4.1 50Moment rounding 51Cracking of concrete 53Bearing stiffeners 55Precamber 55Natural frequency 57Through-girder bridges 58Example 4.2 60Shear lag 61Fatigue 63

5. Viaducts 66

Introduction 66Concept design 66Example 5.1 68Articulation 69Construction methods 71Deck slab 74

6. Haunches and double composite action 78Introduction 78Haunches 78Longitudinal shear at changes of section 79Double composite action 80Example 6.1 80Slender webs 81Lightweight concrete 83

7. Box girders 85

Introduction 85Behaviour of boxes 85Diaphragms 87Example 7.1 88Example 7.2 92Noise from bridges 93Shear connectors for composite boxes 94Composite plates 95Example 7.3 97

vi


6/22

8. Trusses 98

Introduction 98Example 8.1 99Member type 101Steel sections under axial load 101Joints in steelwork 102Example 8.2 103

Enclosure 104Local loading of webs 107Continuous trusses 109High-strength steel 110

9. Arches 111

Introduction 111Example 9.1 112Composite compression members 114Example 9.2 117Fabrication of curved sections 118

Nodes in tubular structures 118Aesthetics 120Tied arches 122Example 9.3 123Arch buckling 124

10. Cable-stayed bridges 129

Introduction 129Deckstay connection 130Example 10.1 131High-strength concrete 131

Buckling interaction 137Shear connection 138Towers 139Tower top 140Example 10.2 141Stainless steel 142Strain-limited composite section 143

11. Prestressed steelconcrete composite bridges 145

Introduction 145Displacement of supports 145

Prestress using tendons 146Design of prestressed composite structures 147Prestress losses 148Example 11.1 149Durability 151Prestressed composite box girders 151Corrugated webs 151Example 11.2 152Extra-dosed bridges 153

vii


7/22

12. Assessment of composite bridges 155

Introduction 155History 155Structure types 157Inspection 157Loads 157Materials 159

Testing of the shear connection 160Analysis 160Incidental and partial composite action 161Cased beams 161Strengthening 162Life-cycle considerations 162

Appendix A: Approximate methods 164

Appendix B: Calculation of section properties 165

Section properties for steel sections 165Section properties for steelconcrete composite sections 165Section properties for cracked steelconcrete composite sections withreinforcement 166

Appendix C: Section properties for examples 167

Appendix D: Plastic section properties for steelconcrete compositesections 168

Appendix E: Torsional properties for steelconcrete compositesections 170

Appendix F: Momentaxial load interaction for compactsteelconcrete composite sections 171

References 172

Index 177

viii


8/22

ForewordThe bridge crossing it, with its numberless short spans and lack of bigness, beauty and

romance he gazed upon in instant distain. It appeared to creep, cringing and apologetic,

across the wide waters which felt the humiliation of its presence . . . Yet he received a

shock of elation as the train had moved slowly along the bridge, carrying him with it, and

he gazed downward upon flowing waters, again he marvelled at what men could do; at the

power of men to build; to build a bridge so strong . . . [1].

I see this book as a journey. A journey of experience from the first simple rivercrossing to the more complex suspended spans of the early twenty-first century.

A journey across the world from the bleak post-industrial landscapes that are stillscattered across Britain, around the broad untamed rivers of Bengal and into theracing development of South East Asia. But it is also a subjective journey, overand under the numberless spans of motorway bridges that are the bread andbutter of many bridge designers, through to the countless bridges that performtheir task with pride, and always marvelling at how we build so strong, alwaysquestioning.

This book has its origins in the composite bridge chapter of the Manual of BridgeEngineering[139]. This book expands upon that chapter and provides details of moresteelconcrete composite bridges. It is intended to show how composite bridgesmay be designed simply from basic concepts without the need for a clause-by-

clause checking of codes and standards. All chapters use examples of variousbridges to illustrate the design and construction methods. The book looks impar-tially at this construction form and compares composite bridges with other types,and often places limits on their use. The book is intended for a number ofreaders, first those who use the Manual of Bridge Engineeringand wish to find moredetail on steelconcrete composite bridges. Second, it is for those engaged indesign who require a deeper understanding of the methods used as well as howthey are verified against design codes. The book aims to show how to choose thebridge form, and design element sizes to enable drawings to be produced. Thebook covers a wide range of examples, in all of which the author has had aninvolvement or interest.

ix


9/22

AcknowledgementsMany of the examples and photographs are derived from work carried out atBenaim, and the support of the staff and directors is gratefully acknowledged.Particular thanks go to Rup Shandu for his help with drafting some of the morecomplex figures and to Robert Henderson for patiently reading the drafts of eachchapter.

I would like to thank John Bowes and Phil Girling for the aerial views of theDoncaster Viaduct and Brian Bell for the photographs of the Irish bridges, notall of which were used in the final version. I am also indebted to Naeem Hussainand Steve Kite of Arup for the information on the Stonecutters Bridge tower,and to Sally Sunderland for the information on Brunels Paddington Bridge.

x


10/22

Notation

A areaAa steel areaAac composite sectionAc concrete areaAs reinforcing steel areaB widthD depth of girder, rigidityE Youngs modulusEa steel modulus of elasticityEc concrete modulus of elasticityEc0 long-term concrete modulusF force or loadFF force on fixed bearingsG permanent load, shear modulusH heightI second moment of area

J torsional constantJm mass moment of inertiaK stiffness of member, soil pressure coefficientL length of beam or slabLe effective lengthM momentMD design resistance momentMf design resistance moment of flangesMu ultimate momentM0 reduction of momentN axial loadND design resistance loadNo number of connectors

Npk chord plastification-k jointNpx chord plastification-x jointNu ultimate axial resistanceNul squash loadP load on single connector, bolt capacity, wind susceptibility factorPi initial prestressPo prestress force after lossesPu resistance of a connectorPUL resistance of a connector in lightweight concrete

xi


11/22

Q variable loadQl longitudinal shearR reactionS Strouhal numberT torsion, tension, periodV shear force, wind speedVarch punching shear resistance

Vcf critical wind speed-flutterVcv critical wind speed-vortex sheddingVD design shear resistanceVw design shear resistance of web onlyW loadZ section modulusZb bottom flange modulusZc modulus of concrete elementZt top flange modulus

a web panel lengthb width of sectiond depthe eccentricity

f stress, frequencyfck concrete cylinder strengthfcu concrete cube strengthfu ultimate tensile strengthfy yield strengthg gaph height of sectioni integerk coefficient, constantm mass per length unitmf relative flange stiffnessn modular ratior radius of gyration, radiussb spacing of reinforcing barstf flange thicknesstw web thicknessv shear stressx distance along member

y distancez lever arm

axial contribution factor, prestress lossfl partial load factorfm partial material factorf3 partial factor (BS 5400) deflection, settlement" strain angle slenderness parameter

xii


12/22

creep function dynamic increment

Subscriptsa steelac steelconcrete composite

b bottomc concretecr critical bucklingcs steelconcrete composite, cracked sectiondes destabilisingf flangei integerm momentmax maximummin minimums reinforcing steelt topu ultimateua ultimate strength of steel shear connectorv shearw weby yieldC compressionDW distortional warpingN axial effectsT tensionTW torsional warping0,1,2 general number, construction stage

xiii


13/22

Steelconcrete compositebridges

David Collings


14/22

Published by Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd,

1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.

www.thomastelford.com

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

USA: ASCE Press, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4400, USA

Japan:Maruzen Co. Ltd, Book Department, 310 Nihonbashi 2-chome,

Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103

Australia: DA Books and Journals, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132,Victoria

First published 2005

Figures 5.2, 10.10, 11.2 courtesy of Benaim

Figure 10.9 courtesy of T Hambly

Figures 5.4, 5.5 courtesy of Amec Group Ltd

Figure 10.12 courtesy of Arup.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 0 7277 3342 7

# Thomas Telford Limited 2005

All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright, Designs and

Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system

or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,

without the prior written permission of the Publishing Director, Thomas Telford Publishing,

Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.

This book is published on the understanding that the author is solely responsible for the state-

ments made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily imply

that such statements and/or opinions are or reflect the views or opinions of the publishers.

While every effort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed

in this publication provide a safe and accurate guide, no liability or responsibility can be accepted

in this respect by the author or publishers.

Typeset by Academic Technical, Bristol

Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Bodmin


15/22

Dedication

For my father

iii


16/22

Index

Page numbers for figures and illustrations are shown in italics. Bridges cited are in theUK unless otherwise stated.

A13 London bridge 152153aesthetics

colours 4344

detail 122fashion 121political influences 120proportion 122scale 121122visual unity 121

Ah Kai Sha Bridge (China) 149150, 149analysis

cable-stayed bridges 142143continuous bridges 5051, 51grillage

beam and slab bridges 19, 19

integral bridges 33

34, 33, 35through girder bridges 61, 61

approximation methods 164arched bridges

bucklinganalysis 125127, 125loadings 124125, 124

composite bowstring 123124composite interaction curves 116,

116

composite tubular arches 117compression members 114116,

116construction

falsework 113, 114sequences 113, 114

curved sections, fabrication 118forms 111, 111geometric ratios 112loadings

abnormal 112113analysis 112113, 117118

stiffening 113, 113thrust 111112tied 122124, 123

construction sequences 126intersections 127128, 127

tubular nodesjoint capacities 119120, 119, 120K joints 119, 119profiling 120X joints 119, 119

atmospheric corrosion, steel 42

bar connectors, capacity 14beam and slab bridges

analysis, grillage 19, 19

construction, non-composite stage 20,20

girdersbracing 2024, 21, 22, 24design 20, 2223, 22flange stability 23maximum loading 20vertical stiffeners 24, 24web thickness 2324

loadingsdead 18, 18, 19HA vehicular 18, 19

HB vehicular 18, 19risk mitigation 2627shear connectors, numbers 26slabs

depths 18design parameters 2526, 26HB vehicular loadings 25, 25

spandepth ratios 16, 17beams seegirdersbearing stresses, truss bridges 108

177


17/22

bearingscontinuous bridges, stiffeners 55viaducts, expansion joints 6971, 70

boltsHSFG, properties 103truss joints 102103, 102, 105106

box girder bridgesbracing, torsional analysis 97

composite, shear connectors 94

95, 95composite plates

compression 95failure 95, 96longitudinal shear 95

curved interchange 96, 97connectors 97, 97effective shear 97loadings 97

history 85intermediate diaphragms 86

elimination of 91, 91

stiffness requirements 87, 88types 8788

longitudinal distortional warping8687, 87

prestressed concrete 151, 152153corrugated webs 151152, 152

railway bridgesbending stresses 90deflection limits 9293details 89finite element analysis 9091high speed lines 9293, 92

loadings 88shear stresses 8890skew crossings 92, 92weld details 90, 91

steel 85torsional distortion 8586, 86uses 85

bridge designcodes of practice 23environmental issues

concrete substitutes 28energy use 27

recycled steel 27

28British Standards seecodes of practicebuckling interaction coefficients, cable-

stayed bridges 137138, 137

cable-stayed bridgesanalysis 142143anchorages, forces 129130, 129axial loadings 139back spans, concrete 130, 130

buckling interaction coefficients137138, 137

cable load analysis 136cable-out scenarios 136construction, cantilever phase 138extra-dosed 153154, 153loadings

dead 132

highway 132wind 132136, 133, 134, 142

stay-deck connections 130131, 130towers

analysis 143144, 144forms 139140, 141, 141inclination 140, 140top anchorages 140141, 141

channel connectors, capacity 14codes of practice

bridge design 23, 1617European 17

colours, aesthetics of 43

44composite actions

curves 116, 116interface connections 12modular ratio 1112

composite bowstring arched bridges123124

composite bridgesassessments 155

cased beams 161162shear connections 160161, 160, 161

definitions 1

embedded joists 156

157, 156history 155156inspections 157life cycles 162163loadings

highway 157158, 158railway 158159, 159

slab formation 157span ranges 12, 2

composite structureseffective lengths 8, 8momentaxial load interaction 171

plastic modulus 38plastic section properties 168169,

168

section properties 165166torsional properties 170, 170

composites, definitions 1concrete

bending moments 56, 5corrosion, chloride contaminated water

151, 162

178

Index


18/22

crackingcauses 5354hogging limits 5455, 54

creep 5heat, reinforcement control 35high-strength 131132

tensile strength 131lightweight 8384

modulus 3, 4properties

compressive strength 2, 3tensile strength 3

shrinkage 44, 44strain curve 4, 5

strength, assessments 159strengthening 162stressstrain curves 3, 4substitutes 28

concrete boxes, prestressed, viaducts6869, 68

concrete structures, moment rounding5153, 52

connectorsbox girder bridges 97, 97capacity 14continuous bridges, fatigue stresses

6465, 64number of 12shear

flexible 13, 13rigid 14

shear planes 15, 15

constructionbeam and slab bridges 20, 20continuous bridges 55, 55tied arched bridges 126viaducts

connectors 8283, 83crane erection 7173, 72and piers 82slab launching 7374

continuous bridgesanalysis 5051, 51deflections

construction phase 55, 56long-term 57predicting 5657railway limits 5556vibration frequency effects 58

fatigue stress, assessments 6364frequencies, natural 5758, 57hogging, limiting 5455, 54loadings 50moment rounding 5153, 52

motorway widening 4749, 48piers

bearing stiffeners 55steelwork bracing 5253, 52

shear lag 6163, 62slabs, pour sequences 56spandepth ratios 46through girder types 5861, 59

uses 46

47continuous truss bridges 109, 109corrosion

concrete, chloride contaminated water151, 162

stainless steel 142steel

atmospheric 42blast cleaning 43cladding resistance 104rates of 42submergence 42

weathering 34

deflectionscontinuous bridges

construction phase 55, 56long-term 57predicting 5657railway limits 5556vibration frequency effects 58

limits, high-speed railway lines 9293Doncaster North Viaduct 6869, 68

bearing layout 7071, 70

construction 71

72, 72slab design 74

double composite piersflanges 81, 81loadings 8081, 81stress build-up 82

environmental issuesaesthetics

colour 4344detail 122fashion 121

proportion 122scale 121122surroundings 120121visual unity 121

bridge constructionconcrete substitutes 28energy use 27recycled steel 2728

noise emissions 9394, 94European codes of practice 17

179

Inde


19/22

expansion jointsviaducts

bearings 6971, 70uses 69

fatiguerailway bridges 11steel 11

fatigue stresscontinuous bridges

assessments 6364connectors 6465

flexible connectors, types 13, 13floods, steel, corrosion 42frequencies, continuous bridges, natural

5758, 57

girdersbottom flange, stresses 3435bracing

cross 21, 21ineffective 21, 21piers 5253, 52plan 21, 21U-frame 21, 21

cased, assessments 161162fabrication 910, 10

welding 10flange stability 23longitudinal-shear flow 35, 37, 37momentshear interaction 49, 49vertical stiffeners 24, 24

websshear capacity 49slenderness effect 8182thickness 2324

haunchingforms of 79, 79longitudinal shear 7980viaducts, moments 7879, 78

high-strength concrete 131132tensile strength 131

high-strength steel 110

welding 110highway bridges

continuous motorway 47, 47fatigue, assessments 64motorway widening 4749, 48noise emissions 9394, 94vehicular loadings

abnormal 112113HA 18, 19, 132, 132, 158HB 18, 19, 2526, 25

Himi Bridge (Japan) 153hogging, limiting 5455, 54hoop connectors, capacity 14HSFG bolts, properties 103

inspections, composite bridges 157integral bridges

see also semi-integral bridges

analysis, grillage 33

34, 33, 35deck slabs, shrinkage 44, 44definitions 29girders

bottom flange stresses 3435longitudinal-shear flow 35, 37,

37

portal structuresdesign 29, 29, 38, 38skew effects 40, 40, 4142, 41soil loadings 39, 39

reinforcement, details 37, 37

soil pressure coefficients 30

31,30

soilstructure interactions 3031uses of 29

jointsbolted 102103, 102, 105106tubular nodes

capacities 119120, 119, 120K 119, 119profiling 120X 119, 119

welded 102

Kuala Lumpur highway intersection 96,97

launch sequencestruss bridges 106, 107

patch loadings 107108, 108viaducts, slabs 7374, 74

limit statesserviceablity 3, 1112ultimate 3

longitudinal shear, haunching 79

80low temperatures, steel, brittle 11

Maupre Bridge (France) 91, 91metal arc welding (MAW) 10moment rounding 5153, 52momentaxial load interaction, composite

structures 171momentbending interaction, girders 49,

49

180

Index


20/22

motorwayswidening

costs 47highway bridges 4749, 48

Nanny Bridge 4142, 41Nantenbach Bridge 109noise emissions

railway bridges 93

94vehicular 93viaducts 9394, 94vibration frequencies 9394

resund Bridge (DenmarkSweden) 109

paintingsteel 4344

costs 34piers

continuous bridges, bearing stiffeners 55

double composite 80

81, 81steelwork, bracing 5253, 52

plastic modulus, composite structures 38plastic section properties, composite

structures 168169, 168political influences, aesthetics 120portal structures

integral bridgesdesign 29, 29, 38, 38skew effects 40, 40, 4142, 41soil loadings 39, 39

prestressed composite box girders 151,

152

153corrugated webs 151152, 152

prestressed composite bridgesconstruction stresses 149, 150extra-dosed 153154, 153limiting stresses 147148stress analysis 147148, 147support displacement 145146

prestressingdefinitions 145losses

concrete creep 149

concrete shrinkage 148misalignment 148relaxation 148slip 148

tendonsbonded 146, 147deviators 146unbonded 146147

Quakers Yard Bridge 1618, 17

railway bridgesbox girder bridges, steel 8893, 89, 91,

92

deflection limits 5556, 6162expansion joints 69fatigue

assessments 64steel 11

loading assessments 158

159, 159noise emissions 9394, 94through deck 5960, 59trusses, spandepth ratios 99

reinforcing steel 6permanent formwork 37, 37

rigid connectorsbehaviour 1314static strengths 14

Rittoh Bridge (Japan) 153River Blyth Bridge 3134, 31, 34, 35

steelwork details 36

road bridges see highway bridgesRunnymede Bridge (new) 117118, 117

aesthetics 122Runnymede Bridge (old) 112114, 113,

114

aesthetics 122construction sequences 113, 114

safety, risk mitigation 2627Second Severn Bridge 131136, 139

construction, cantilever phase 138wind loads 133134, 134

section propertiescomposite structures 165166examples 167steel 165, 165

semi-integral bridges 3132, 31definitions 29loadings

dead 32live 32soil 32thermal 32

serviceablity limit state 3, 1112

Severn BridgeSecond 131136, 139

wind loads 133134, 134shear connectors

assessments 160161, 160, 161bar connectors, capacity 14beam bridges, numbers 26box girder bridges, composite 9495,

95

channel connectors, capacity 14

181

Inde


21/22

shear connectors (continued)flexible 13, 13

tension 13hoop connectors, capacity 14rigid, behaviour 1415shear studs, capacity 14, 26

shear lag, continuous bridges 6163, 62shear planes, connectors 15, 15

shear studs, capacity 14, 26skew effects, portal structures, integral

bridges 40, 40, 4142, 41slabs

beam bridgesdepths 18design parameters 2526, 26

trusses 9899viaducts

arching 7576, 75insitu stitches 7475, 74interaction curves 7677, 76

launching 73

74limiting shear stress 77punching shear capacity 77, 77shear resistance 77

slenderness parameter, through girderbridges 63

soil loadings, portal structures, integralbridges 39, 39

soil pressure coefficients 3031, 30soilstructure interactions 3031, 32span ranges, composite bridges 12, 2spandepth ratios

beam and slab bridges 16, 17continuous bridges 46trusses 99

stainless steel 142steel

beams, ultimate design shear resistance9

bendingcold rolling 118induction 118

buckling limits 68, 8composite structures, effective lengths

8, 8compressive loads, limitations 9corrosion

atmospheric 42blast cleaning 43cladding resistance 104rates 42submergence 42weathering 34

elastic modulus 6

fatigue 11girders

fabrication 910, 10welding 10

high-strength 110welding 110

paintingcosts 34

systems 43

44properties 2recycled 2728reinforcement 6

permanent formwork 37, 37section properties 165, 165stainless 142strength, assessments 160stressstrain curves 6, 7structural 6, 8temperatures, low 11tensile loads, limitations 89

yield strengths 6, 7steel beam and concrete slab bridges see

beam bridgesStonecutters Bridge (Hong Kong) 130

towers 141142, 141, 143144, 144submerged arc welding (SAW) 10superstructures, viaducts 69

temperaturesbridge movements 2930concrete curing, reinforcement control

35

differential 44

45low, brittle steel 11

through girder bridges (U deck)grillage analysis 61, 61limitations 5960railways 5960, 59shear lag 6263slenderness parameter 63uses 58

tied arched bridges 122123, 123construction sequences 126intersections 127128, 127

torsional properties, composite structures170, 170

towerscable-stayed bridges

forms 139140inclination 140, 140top anchorages 140141, 141

truss bridgesbearing stresses 108buckling 108109

182

Index


22/22

continuous 109, 109design criteria 100joints

bolted 102103, 102, 105106welded 102

launch sequences 106, 107patch loadings 107108, 108

limiting compressive stresses 101, 101

loadingschords 104105, 105dead 104105

member types 101slabs, formation 9899spandepth ratios 99

railway bridges 99types 98underslung 100, 100

advantages 99100weightstiffness analysis 99100, 100

two-girder system, viaducts 67, 67

U deck bridges seethrough girder bridgesultimate limit state 3

shear planes 15, 15

viaductsbearings, expansion joints 6971, 70concrete boxes, prestressed 6869, 68construction methods

connectors 8283, 83crane erection 7173, 72and piers 82

slab launching 73

74, 74cost benefits 66

definitions 66forms 6669, 67, 68haunching, moments 7879, 78noise emissions 9394, 94slabs

arching 75, 75design 7475insitu stitches 74, 74

interaction curves 76

77, 76limiting shear stress 77punching shear capacity 77, 77shear resistance 77

superstructures 69two-girder system 6768, 67

vibration frequencies, natural 5758, 57

Walsall Road Bridge 5051, 50steelwork details 52

Wanxian Bridge (China) 113, 115weightstiffness analysis, trusses 99100,

100welding

details, box girder bridges 90, 91high-strength steel 110joints 102metal arc 10submerged arc 10

wind loadscable-stayed bridges

flutter 134, 135static 132typhoons 142

vortices 134, 134, 135wind tunnel testing 135

183

Inde

steel-concrete composite bridges

Documents

concrete slab

girder bridges

cracking of concrete

lightweight concrete

thomas telford publishing

integral bridges

continuous bridges

double composite action