standard plumbing engineering design - 2nd edition

8/6/2019 Standard Plumbing Engineering Design - 2nd Edition

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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTOF PLUMBING ENGINEERING

HISTORY OF PLUMBINGThe history of plumbing has special significance to all who arc involvedin the design and installation of plumbing systems. It provides depthof knowledge, broad objectivity, helpful guidance, needed cautions, andinformative records of plumbing performance and adverse experiences.Recognition of past mistakes and learning from them provides an elevated basis for plumbing system design and installation.

The progressive development of sanitary standards in Americaevolved from very primitive and rude beginnings. Intolerable healthconditions and epidemics of waterborne diseases caused strong healthprotection measures to be adopted in highly populated metropolitanareas. Extcnsive disastrous tires in congested city rcgions led to construc-tion of large public waterworks s y ~ l e m s used for both fire-fighting pur-poses and for potable water supply to buildings.

Introduction of plumbing systems in buildings brought with it uniqueproblems related to public health, personal hygiene, building design,plumbing- materials, advanced techniques, and governmental regula-tions. As these problems evolved during a revolutionary period of indus-try, the solutions den'loped were intimately related to new materials,methods, standards, and standardization.HislOry provides a clear record of many m i ~ l a k e s , bad practices,shoddy materials, and insanitary installations which were made in theintroduction of plumbing systems into buildings. In each case, appropri-ale corrections had to be made and precautions prescribed for the future.

Performance required of building plumbing systems gradually becamea recognized subject, and a long list of plumbing p r i n c i p l e ~ was developed and published. The broad performance objective is to provide


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2 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGN

reasonable safeguards for sanitation in and adjacent to buildings to protect the public heahh, safety, and welfare against the hazards of inadequate or insanitary plumbing installations.

ANCIENT PLUMBINGIn ancient tImes, plumbing and san ita tion wen: not alwavs pnmltive.Human beings e leva ted them to significant levels in past ages. HislOryreveals that one of lhe hmdamental diHerences between civilization andbarbarism is related tu the imtallation of piping systems for providingan adequate, pressurized supply of safe drinking water, sanitary disposalof sewag-e, and efficient, unobjectionahle disposal of storm water. Thisis evidenced by the fad that those peoples who enjoyed high ('ivili/.ationsin the past had developed plumbingsystems for protening healrh.

Confirmation un this matter is provided in the reports of discoveriesby archeologists while dig-g-ing in various parts of the world where ancientcivilizations were known to have Hourished. For example , the ruim ofa plumhing svstem estimated to be from 3000 to {iOOO years old were{(lUnd in excavations in the Indus River valley in India. In Egypt, sectionsof copper waler pipe estimated to he about .1500 years old were unearthed along with palace apartments in which each bedroom apparentlybad b t TH provided with a !>;lthroom.In the ancient empire of Balwlonia, a nation centered in lhe generalarea between the Euphrates and the Tigris Rivers, the science ofhydraulie engineering- seems to have had its beginning. A nctwork of canals,all skillfully planncd


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HISTORICAL Dl::Vf-LOPMENT or PLUMBING rNGINF[RING 3in shape the ust-iron bathtub-on-base widelv installed il l America inthe latter part of the nineteenth century. Another fixture was a walercloset, abo ofh


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4 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGNbonic plague swept the continent and England reponedly killed 25 mil-lion people. To improve sanitary conditions in Paris in 1395, theauthorities ordered a stop to the practice of throwing sewage out ofbuilding windows onto the streets below. But this was a common practicethat continued unabated in other cities.As late as the


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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 5tight privy vaults began to be installed instead of earth-pit privies astoilet facilities. S ~ a v e n g i n g regulations governing tht-, disposal of privyvault w


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6 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGNaction and led to developments of great significance and benefit. Peopk-became aware of the ne(:essity for having an adequate pre,surized watersupply system readily and constantly available for fire lighting in builtup areas. They also realized that there was great need, both as a sanitarymeasure and as a laborsaving convenieIKe. fur having an adequate pres-surized water supply system from which sale drinking water could bepiped directly to buildings. Soon after the fire, plans were proje(:tedfor providing a large public water supply system which would satisfyboth of these Il('eds.

This p [ ( ~ j e c t was completed seven years later, in 1842, at whidl timethe original Croton Aqueduct System was placed in operation. In thissystem, water from th(' Croton River was collected in Croton Reservoir,40 mi north urthe city, and supplied tlu:,refrulll through ,m und(,rgroundpiping system to two distribution r e s e l " \ ' o i L ~ in the city, one at42d Streetand another in Central Park. From these reservoirs, water was d i ~ t r i b u t e dthrough a system of cast-iron water mains installed underground in citystreels, and fire hydrants were installed on ~ i d e w a l k s at appropriate locations along the curb. Building owners were permitted to have waterservice connections made to the public main, and water service pipingextended therefrom to supply laucets or hydrants in building cellarsor yards. At that time, the population of the city of ;'\Jew York was about: ~ O O , O O O .

PLUMBING SYSTEMS IN BUILDINGSThe installation 01" pressurized water services into building cellars andyards in New York City in 1842, upon u)mpletion of the (:rotoll AqueductSystem, marked the start of a radical change in building comtrunion-the imtallation of plumbing systems in bui ldings. Pres;;urized water sup-ply piping systems made it possible to satisfy, at the turn of a faucet,the need of building ol:(:upants for a safe and abundant supply of watetfor all domestic purposes and to eliminate the drudgery, lahor, andinconvenience of having to carry water Irom the source. No plumbingfixtures had been installed within buildings prior to this time, exceptfor a few nude sink installations reportedly made in kitchens and pro-vided with water supply by meam of adjau:,nt hand pumps that drewwater from shallow wells.As late as HH5, records indicate that buildings were not providedwith interior drainagt-" piping systems. Most buildings were equippedwith exterior leaders which conveyed storm water from roofs to pavements and sidewalks from which the water ran into street gutters. Insome cases where branches had been installed !i'om the public sewerto buildings, the exterior leaders discharged directly into slH:h branches


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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 7

or building sewers. Before fixtures could be installed with water supplyand drainage piping systems, building sewers had to be installed firstso as to ~ o n v e y sewage away from the buildings lo a suitable disposalterminal, such as a publi(: sewer system. To satisfy this need in NewYork City in 1845, sanitary building sewers were permined to be connected to the existing public sewer system which originally had beenprovided just for storm water disposal. These building sewers, and themain drains installed underground in buildings at the time, were constructed with Hat stone tops and bo{{oms and brick masonry sidewalls.

By 1850, plumbing fixtures had been installed in a number of NewYork City homes. These were principally private residences owned bywealthy people who could afford to alter their buildings to accommodalesuch bH:ilities. Provision had to be made to protect the fixtures andpiping against frost damage by means of healing equipment, or insulation, or both. Earliest installations consisted of woodell and sheet-metalsinks in kitdlells, wooden washtubs in kitchens or in cellar or basementlaundry rooms, and sheet-metal bathtubs in special bathrooms or closets.

For Ihese early installations, waler supply and drainage piping wereattached to building walb and either left e x p o . ~ e d in rooms or concealedin boxwork. A bandmade trap was installed in the drain of each individualfixture to prevent escape of obnoxious odors and sewer gases fromfixUlre wasle outlets . However, these traps often losl their water sealsowing to siphonag-e


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8 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGNfor Hushing fixtures and also could safely and efliciendy dispose of sewage and other wastes from buildings. Extensions were built on manyhomes specifically to provide bathrooms at the upper stories of existingbuildings. Lavatories, bathtubs, and water closets were installed in theseextension bathrooms, many of which were also provided with heatingequipment. Double doors were placed in passageways between extensionbathrooms and the main building in order to prevent bathroom odorsand sewer gases from entering the living quarters.Dire(:tly f()llowing the Civil War, immigration swelled the populationsof industrial cities in the eastern part of the country. In many cities,rows of attached three- and lour-story tenement houses were built totake care of the additional population. These buildings were providedjust with yard hydrants for drinking water supply, while toilet facilitiesconsisted of rows of privies built above watertight privy vaults locatedin the backyards of the buildings. Extremely objectionable, unsanitarynmditions soon devt'loped under such circumstances. Health authoritieshad to take stringent action to hah the spread of dise'lse. To protectthe health of building OCCUp'lnts, the public was alerted to the necessityof equipping buildings with ' ldequate means for supplying safe drinkingwater for domestic purposes and with adqu'lle facilities for sanitary dispos'll of sewage. Health amhorites advocated the installation of plumhingsystems in buildings, and as 'l result this became a subject of re!!;ulationin sanit 'lry codes.

In the early IH70s, water-supplied kitchen sinks came into generaluse in private homes and other small buildings. Fireboxes of coal-tiredkitchen ranges were equipped with water backs and water fronts, andcirculation piping was installed between these water-heating units andhot water storage t'lnks so as to make pressurized hot water availablein volume at Jixtures. The use of outdoor privies and privy vaults forprivate homes was discontinued gradually 'lS indoor water dosets, directly connected to building drains, were installed in toilet rooms an:essihie from backyards.

A major stymie to more rapid introduction of plumbing systems inbuildings was the fact thaI, as latc as IH74, no way was known for preventing fixture trap seals from being lost because of siphonage and backpressure conditions in the drainage systern. Where fixture trap sealswere lost, objectionable odors and sewer gases escap


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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 9After receiving this complaint, the plumbing contraClor discussed it

at a conkrence with other New York City master and jounleymenplumbers. At this conference in 1874, the theory of protecting fixturetrap seals by means of vent pipes was originally proposed. The theorywas that air pressure in the drain at the outlet of a fixture trap had {()be in relatively exact balance with the atmospheric pressure at the inletof the trap, and this balance could be maintained by means of a ventpipe connected to th


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10 SIAN[)AHO PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGNI I I buildings were dearly recognized by health ollicials in Cities. Prior{O this time, in New York City, 90 percent of


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tltSTOrllCAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBtNG cNGINF!,-RING 11fixtures in lonvenient locations for the use of building- on:upants. Ingeneral, . ~ l l C h areas were larg-e municipal it ies where public water supplvand public sewer s y ~ t e m s were available for building- connertions. Inareas beyond the limits of public sptems, it was deemed unreasonableto require insTallations of plumbll1g- systems and fixtures. Nevertheless,people des ired sanitary plumbing hICilities and sought to equip theirbuildings with appropriate sntellls. Hol water supply was especially desired as manufacturers publicized their new ckvdopments in W,Her heaterequipmelll. Coal- and g-as-fired sidearm water healers


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12 STANDARD f1LUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGN

the laner part of the decade. This period was devoted principally tothe correction and modernization of plumbing systems and equipmentin existing buildings. Many buildings with inadequate plumbing facilitieswere improved by the installation of additional, new plumbing fiX{lJresand the replacement of old, obsolete types. lmportantcorrenions weremade in the potable water supply systems of huildings to diminate allwater supply piping connections and fixture supply connections whichwere recognized as potential sources of contamination. This drive forcorrection of systems was led by health, water supply, and building o f ficals so as to avoid a repetition of the amoebic dysentery epidemicwhich occurred in the city of Chicago during its World's Fair in 1933.Other imponam improvements were made in the hot water supply s y s ~terns in existing buildings. Many were equipped with modern, automatically control led hot water heaters designed for use with gas, oil, orelectricity as the source of heat. During this period , the public utilitysystems around the country extended their electric supply lines into agreat portion of the rural area. This provided a soun:e of power forpumping water from wells and for supplying plumbing systems withall the water needed to maimain the same sanitary standards that weree I ~ o y e d in the cities. Private sewage disposal systems were providedby means of undergT(mnd septi(: tank and leaching field installationsin appropriate locations. In this way, modem sanitary plumbing systemsand fixtures became available even in remote regions of the country.

In the latter 1940s, following World War II, and continuing throughthe 1950s, 1960s, and imo the 1970s, there was a tremendous expansionof housing developments and industrial plant construction outside thecemral areas of cities in the United States. New buildings were erectedalong new principal highways, and public water, sewer, gas, and electricsystems were provided for building service needs in most areas. Privatesystems were utilized in many areas where public systems were not availa-ble. All such buildings were equipped with modern plumbing systemsconforming to sanitary standards elevated to a higher level than everpreviously e l ~ o y e d by people. In the central areas of cities, many oldbuildings were removed, and in their places large skyscraper office build-ings and residential buildings were erected. They too were equippedwith modern plumbing systems designed in accordance with the higbestsanitary standards in history in order [0 serve the g r ~ ' a t e s t occupancyloads of all time.

Tower building LOllstruetiorl aCLelerated in the late 1950s and early1960s, and necessitated changes in design to meet changing conditions.Increased building heights and increased water usage, including waterfor air conditioning, required water supply tanks so large that they causedsignificant space problems and were uneconomical. To meet the chang-


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HIS rORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 13

ing conditions, desig-n was changed to provide tankless, automatic c o n ~stant-pressure booster-pump systems which required a minimum ofvaluable building- space and which also provided a sealed-in supply ofpotable water from the source of supply to the plumbing fixture outlet.

In 1966, a critical shortage of copper occurred in the United Statesbecause of stoppage of shipments frolll foreign sources of supply. Inventories of copper UWV tube and fittings were rapidly exhausted. Largedevelopments of single family residences were hal ted for most of 1966hecause of the unavailability of copper DWV piping which had originallyheen planned to be installed. This urgent need was soon filled by nonmetallic, plastic DWV pipe and filling-s, which were then introduced intouse for building- plumbing systems under carefully prescribed installationconditions.A most significant change in the design of buildings used by thepublic began in 1961. The object of the chang-e was to make all buildingsand facilities, including plumbing, used by the public accessible lo , andfunctional for, the physiully handicapped, lo , through, and within theirdoors, without loss of function, space, or facili ty where the general publicis concerned. The changes were set forth in the American National Standards Insti tute standard, Specifications for Making Buildings and Facilities Accessible to and Usable by Physically Handil'apped People,originally issued as A117.1-1961 (Reaffirmed 1971) and recently superseded by A117.1-1980. By 1971, governmental regulations were enactedmandating the necessary changes including many related lo plumbingsystems in buildings.

Since 1974, when the supply of foreign oil to the United States wasinterrupted and oil prices rose sharply, ways to conserve energy havebeen a constant concern. Some important conservation measures relateto the design of plumbing systems. Elimination of water waste, limitationof water use to a reasonable minimum, limitation of hot water supplytemperature and rate of flow from hot water faucets, insulation of halwater heaters, tanks, and piping, and use of heat reclaiming systemsand solar heating systems are some of the conservation measures tobe applied in the design of plumbing systems for buildings.

FIXTURE DEVELOPMENTThe modern sink, laundry tray, lavatory, bathtub, water closet, and otherfixtures did not evolve overnight. Their development extended over aperiod exceeding 130 years. Even after appropriate fixture designs wereachieved, public demand for them had to be stimulated. Expressionssuch as "Cleanliness is next to Godlinl'ss," were adopted and popularizedto induce people to practil:e sanitary habits . Fixtures were sold more


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14 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEI:f-lING DESiGNon the basis of the comfort, convenience, and privacy they afforded tou ~ e r s than on health protection benefits.

Portable fixtures were used at first. In bedrooms, a wooden washslandand toilet set were provided. The top of the w a ~ h ~ t a l l d was usuallycovered with a marble sbb on wbi(:b were placed a glazed pouery washbasin and large water pitl'heL Other items included a glazed pottery slopjar and a chamber pOI, which were generally concealed in a compartmenlin lhe lower part of the ~ t a n d . T o w c l ~ were hung from bars attachedto the sides of til(' stand. Portable wooden w a ~ h t u b ~ and wooden and~ h e e l - m e t a l hathtubs were commonly u ~ e d . One oflhe early sheet-metaltubs used in France ,,'as shaped like a ~ l i p p e r . The bather ~ a upon aseat in the "hed" and extended his feel into the "toe" of the tub,Beneath the heel was a grill upon which charcoal w a burned to heatwater in the tIIb.

For all sucb bcilit ies, water had to be carried 10 them, and w a ~ l e sand sewage had to be carrico aW(ly co (In appropriale plal:e lor disposal.The lahor and inconvenience inw)lved thereby were lactors which influenced many people against adopting and practicing sanitary habits, I tgradually became evident that in order to raise sanilary standards andprotect heahh, it was n e c e ~ ~ a r y to provide pressurized water ~ u p p l ypiping systems to convey an adequate, safe supply of water direcdy tofixtures and to provide sanitary drainage piping systems {() convey sewagedirectly from h x t u r e ~ to an unobjectionable lermiual for d i s p o ~ a l .

In the 1840s, pressurized w,Her ~ L l p p l y systems and ~ a l l i t a r y drainagesvstems were first introduced into buildings in the United Slates. Thereafter, plumbing fixtures began to be installed with connections to suchsvstems, and the development of plumbing fixtures proceeded al a rapidpare to salisfy a constanTly increasing- demand. The first fixtures to beinstalled in buildings reportedly were ki tchen sinks and water dosets.Shortly afterward, w a ~ h t u b s , bathtubs, and lavalories were installed.

Earl\' w a ~ h t u b s were Ill


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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEeRING 15iron sink was of the rectangular flat-rim type and was installed on asupporting wooden frame or was placed against the wall with the rearrim resting on a wall cleat while tbe front was supported from the Aoorby means of two cast- iron legs inserted into slots on the front of thesink. Often a cast-iron splash back was fastened to the wall above therear rim of the sink. A single hole was provided in the center of the. ~ p l a s h back so as to permit a faucet to be connected there and firmlyfastened above the sink. Later models of splash backs were providedwith two holes to permit installation of both hot and cold water faucets.

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the waterline, supplied directly from an elevated water-storage tankwhich often was located in an attic. Elevated Hush tanks, installed justabout 5 II (1.5 m) above the fixture, were later used to flush pan waterclosets.

Around 1850, long hopper water closet bowls came into commonuse. They were made of glazed poltery and shaped like a long funnelor hopper, aller whidl they were named. This type of water closet wasinstalkd so as to be relatively frost-proof. It discharged into a trap locatedbelow the Hoor and was flushed by means of a valve in the water supplypiping- which was directly conne("(ed to the bowl of the fixture. Exposedwater supply piping was covered with insulation, and the water supplyvalve was located below the Hoor. This .....alve was operated by a rodconneded to the underside of the water closet seat, so that the bowlwas flushed continuously throughout the Jwriod a user sat on the seal.

Almost coincidentally, short hopper wakr closet bowls were producedfor installations where frost protection was not a problem. These bowlswere of glazed pOllery and shaped like a short hopper. This type 01"water closet was designed to be installed on, and attached to, the topHange of a cast-iron P trap equipped with a Hoor standard. The jo imbetween the bowl and the trap flange was made with pUlly and securedby means of damps. The bowl was Hushed by water from an elevatedflush tank.About 1870, the plunger closet was introduced and gained popularity.It too originated in England. For about ~ ( years, it was widely installedin buildings where it was not subject to frost conditions. But it requiredfrequent maintenance and repairs to keep it functioning properly.

In the 1870s bathing became much more popular. This was partlydue to the lact that in 1872 the 'Hlcient arts of loullding and enamelingwere united in the production of the first enameled cast-iron bathtubwhich featured durable, smooth white-enameled surfaces. Two yearslater, mass production of such bathtubs was started by a New Yorkmanufacturer. This was the beginning 01" modern enameled cast-ironplumbing fixtures.

Soon thereaher , solid procelain bathtubs were imported from England. They had smooth white hard-glazed surfaces which made themeasy to maintain in sanitary condition. However, they were prone tocrazing and were heavier and more expensive than enameled cast-ironbathtubs. The popularity of porcelain tubs was relatively limited, theenameled tubs being both lower-priced and reasonably durable.Two-compartment and three-compartment washtubs, made of millcut soapstone slabs, were marketed. At first, the installer had to assemblethe fixture at the building site, install it on standards, and seal the jointsbetween slab sections with a paste mixture of litharge and glycerin.


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Completely assembled soapslOne washtubs were later manufactured tomeet the competition of solid porcelain and solid concrete washtubs.

About IR80, the first all earthenware w'ater doset, known as the wa.\houtdoset, was developed in England. An integral trap was built inlu its design,and it had provision for auaching a toilet seat directly to the top ofthe bowl. This lauer feature eliminated any need for installing frameworkand legs to support a toilet seat above the bowl, as was the case withall the earlier designs. Sinct: this waler doset was made completely ofearthenware, it was easier to maintain in sanitary condition. In addition,il had better flushing characteristics than any of the earlier water closets.I t was flushed by means of an elevated flush tank located on the wallabout 5 ft (1.5 m) above the fixture.

Up unti l 1880, the d e s i ~ p l of plumbing fixtures originated principallyin England. Hut, thereaher, developments in plumbing fixture designproceeded independently and at an a n ~ e l e r a t e d pace in the United States.Much of this may he attributed to the


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the f ixture and between the !LxLUre and the adjacent wall. As a result,many free-standing bathtubs ""'ere later proYidcd with cast-iron bases,rather than short cast-iron legs, m order to keep the floor under thebathtub dean.

By 1900, American pOllery manufaclIlrers had developed glazed vitreous chinaware with smooth, impervious surfaces. Tbis materi


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HISTORICAL DFVFI Of1MENT OF PLUMBING ENGIN[[RING 19hung wate r close t allc! lowdown Hush lank combinatiol l of simplifieddesign, weighillg leSs. !han the other wall-hung models and providedwIth a lightweigh! concealed metal fixtun: carrier of simplified des.ignhv which it can be attal.:hed to stnH'tur;JI elements of walls.

Great improvements have also been made in the design of sinks andlaundry trays. Prior to 1900, the A,lt-rim and roll-rim sinks wen: equippedwith separate splash backs on whidl se.:parate [mcets \\,er(' mOlllued.But, about that tllne, the.: need fllr improved sanitatIon in kiTchens ofdwelling unilS resuh('d in ,1 trend away from the use of Hat-rim sinks,wooden enclosures heneath sinks, and separate.: splash backs. One-pieceroll-rim and apron-type sinks with irllegral splash backs appeared about1910. and faucets wen: mounted on the vertical back wall of sinks. Theseone-piece sinh were designed for ins ta llat ion on walls by means ofIlie.:tal bracke.:ts securely attached to the structural clements of the walland were not provided with legs flU' support from the floor. Largerone-piece roll-rim and apron-lype sink and drainooard combination fixtures were introduced about 1920. Tbey had integra l splash backs and\\Tn' desig'ned to be ins!alled on walls with me!al hrackets, But owingto the gTeater weight and size of the.: combination, thev also had to besupported ftom the floor hy means of two legs set beneath tbe /i'Onlrim of the fixture.

One-pie


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These improvements in the design of sinks and laundry trays weremade principally in enameled cast-iron fixtures. However, they werealso included in enameled pressed steel fixtures following- their introduction in the late 1920s, In 1950, one-piece lIat-rim counter-top sinksmade of stainless steel were imroduced. Thus, improved sanitary designhas now been built into sinks and laundry trays in several differem kindsof durable materials,

In the early 1950s, the design of kitchens was changed so as {Q provideextended counter-top space, with cabinets above and below. This changewas utilized to permit the under-counter installation of two householdplumbing appliances, the domestic dishwashing machine, and the domestic automatic laundry washing machine. In large multistory residentialbuildings, automatic laundry washing machin


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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 21Table 1-1STANDARDS FOR PLUMBING MATERIALS'

A1I2.11.3-1973 ANSIAI12.21.1-1974 ANSIA 112.18.1M-1979 ANSIWW-S-001913-1975 FSAI12.6.1-1978 ANSI

AI12.5.1-1973 ANSI816.12-197\ ANSI301-75 CISPI310-78 CISPIA21.6-1975 ANSIA21.8-1975 ANSIA21.12-1971 ANSIA2l.1O-1977 ANSIA120-77 ASTMBI6.3-1971 ANSIBI6.14-1971 ANSIAI12.21.2-1971 ANSI

MaterialsPlumbing' fixtures and fittings:Vilreous chinaEnameled Last ironSlainless steel, residential usePorcelain enameled formed steelGel-coated glass-tiber reinforced polyes-te r n ~ s i n bathtub units

Gel-coaled glass-fiber reinforced polyeste r resin shower receptor and showerstall units

Laundry equipment, householdDishwashers, householdDishwashers, Lommt.'rcialDrinking fountains and drinking walercoolers, self-contained, mechanicallyrefrigerated

Floor drainsFinished and rough brass plumbing fixture fillingsShower head, hall joint (inlegral volumecontrol)

Supports for off-the-ftoor plumbing fixtures for public use

Ferrous pipe and filtings:Cast-iron soil pipe and fittings, extraheavy and service weightCast-iron threaded drainage fittingsHubless cast-iron sanitary system pipeand fittings

Iluhless stainless-sted couplingsCast-iron water pipe, cast-in-metalmolds

Cast-iron water pipe, Lasl-in-sand linedmolds

Cast-iron water pipe (2")Cast-iron water pipe liningsSted pipe, seamless and welded, zinccoatedMalleable iron fitlings. threaded, 150 lb

Pipe finings, threaded (bushings, locknuts, and plugs)

Roof drains

Siandards

A1I2.19.2-1973AI12.19.1-1979AI12.19.3-1976AI12.19.4-1977ZI24.1-1974

ZI24.2-1974AI97.2-1973AI97.1-1973AI97.3-1973

SODrcet

ANSIANSIANSIANSIANSI

ANSIANSIANSIANSI


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AII2.14.1-1975 Al'\STWW-\'-58b-1971 FSWW-N-35IB(I)1970 1'S\\'W -V-53! 0-1973 FSB43-76 ASTMB135-74 ASTMB42-78 ASTMH26.2-76 A:\SIBSS-7M ASTMB306-78 AS1'MBI6.15-78 A:\SIBI6.18-78 A:\"STB 1t-1.2:i7ii A'S!BI6.24-71 A'SIBI6.26-7.1) A:"SIB16.22-73 A'SIBIG.29-73 Ai'SlW\V -P-:i25A-191:i7 FSW\V -lJ-516A-1967 FSWW-V-35B-1973 FS\VW-V-.'l4D-1974 1'5

22 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGNTable 1-1 (Continued)

MaterialsFerrous pipe and fItting's (conlmlled)\'


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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PllJM81NG [NGINEERING 23Table , - , (Continued)

Materials Standards SourcetNonmetallic pipe and filtings (mil/inned)

Bitumillized-liber pipe, l < l m i n a t l ~ o wall(sewer)Bituminizcd-fiber !-_)lpe, laminated wall,

pedoraledCby pipe, perfor


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24 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGNTable 1-1 (Continued)

Materials

Miscellaneous materials:C l e a n o m . ~ , metallicC a l k i l l ~ lead, type ICement liningCoal-tar enamel, protective coatlllgs forsteel water pipe

Fixture setling compoundGrease inteneptorsHose dampsHydrants for utility and maintenance usePipe hangers and supportsRdiefvalves, pressure and temper


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24 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DFSIGNTable 11 (Continued)

Materials

Miscellaneous materials:Cleanuuts, metallicCalking lead, type 1Cement liningCoal-tar enamel, protective cuatings forsteel water pipe

Fixture setting compoundGrease interceptursHose dampsHydrants for utility and maintenance usePipe hangers and supponsRdiefvalves, pressure alld temperature,and automatic gas shutoff devices lo rhot waler supply systems

Rubber gaskets for asbestos-cement pipeRubber gaskds for cast-iron soil pipeand fillings

Rubber gaskets for concrcle sewer pipeWater hammer arreSlersWater healers, automatic storage typeWater healers, electric, storage tankWater heaters, instantaneousWater meters, cold, displacement typeWater meters, cold, current lypeWater meters, cold, compound typeSheet copperSheet lead, grade ASoft solder

Standards

A112,36.2QQC-40(2}-1970A21.4-1974C203-78TI"-P-OO 1536-196HG 101WW-C-440B(2) 1973.'\112.21.3-1976WW-H-171D-1970

Z21.22-1979Dl86978C564-76C443-78AI12.26.1-1975Z21.10.1-1975WW-11-19611-1971WW-H-19IB-1970C700-71C701-70C702-70B152-76QQL-20IF(2) 1970QQS571E-1972

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by individual manufacturers for their products in England in the early1800s. Similar standards wert applied in th(' United States by manufacturers in the production of pipes, fittings, and fixtures, which reportedlybegan about IH42. Prior to this t ime, plumbers had to make their ownlixtures, traps, and Iitlings. The trend toward manuhtctured piping andfixtures gained momentum coincidtllt with the installation of publicwater supply systems ill large (:ities. Clay, cast iron, and lead were theearliest kinds of materials 1l1anufactured for plumbing systems, followedshortly thereafttT by wrought iron, brass, and copper in the 1850s. Castor factory-made traps became available abollt 1871.

The development of standards for plumbing materials may be classified gcnerally into four stages: (1) by individual wmpanies; (2) by industrial associations, technical societies, and government bureaus; (3) ona national scale; and (4) on an illlernational scale. From one stage tothe next, the importance of, the difficulties involved in, and the numberof organizations interested in a given standard increase grcatly. Usually,two or more stages develop simultaneously as the result of a significantand apparent need to resolve many problems which affect numerousdiverse industries and require a common solution. In this Wt,ly, standardsare vitally necessary to establish the best way known for produl'ing anygiven item. Generally at:cepted standards falilitate the integrating processes necessary for large-scale production and distribution and for satisfying the demand of the ultimate consumer or user.

National standards for plumbing materials began to appear dur ingand shortly after World War L In the 1 9 ~ O s , such standards were developed rapidly to embral'e most of the range of plumbing materials. Sincethen, these standards have been changed in accordance with evidentneeds, and new standards have been developed coincident with the introduction of new materials and new methods and with changing conditions.Since World War II, the use of new materials, methods, and techniquesfor plumbing systems has resulted in a broad advance in the developmentof new standards and the updating 01" old standards to meet currentneeds. Standards for the principal kinds of plumbing materials currentlyused in building construction are listed in Table 1-1.

PLUMBING SYSTEM REGULATIONS AND STANDARDIZATIONEvery stale has police power to protect the health, safety, and welfareof its people. Many states exercise such power directly through stateagencies, while some states delegate specific powers, duties, and responsibilities t.o mllTlicip


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26 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGNnecessan to protect health. The design, installat ion, and maintenanceof plumbing systems ;lre subjens wilhin Ihe category of regulalions neressary 10 protect health.

When plumbmg fixtures were first introduced into buildings in America, about 1 8 4 ~ , no plumbmg regulations exisled other than those dealillg with the m


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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT or PLUMClING ENGINEERING 27The enanrnent of plumbing- system r e ~ u l a t i o n s in other densely popu

lated cities of the countrv pr()(:eeded almost simultaneousl\" with thoseput into dICct in New York City, as cited in the f()regoing discussion.All m


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28 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGNrelaxed further to pennit flush valves to be supplied simply from separater isers for water closets and urinals.

By 1913, the plumbing codes of cities throughout the nation hadbecome comprehensive documents which specified how almost everydetail of plumbing systems in buildings was to he installed; what fixtureshad to be instaIled for the use of building occupants; minimum permissible sizes for drains and vents based upon established methods of d e t c r ~mining loads on such piping-; minimum permissible sizes for water supplypiping; the various types and kinds of materials which had been approvedfor various uses; and administrative proc('dures which had to be followedin securing permits to do plumbing- work, inspection and testing of installations, and other related details. Plumbing codes had become lengthy,detailed, and very complicated. Nevertheless, the codes of different litil'svery closely paralleled each other in most respects. Differences in thevarious codes related principally to items such as kinds of venting meth-ods pl'rmiued, kinds of materials recognized as durable under serviceconditions in different areas, and numerous minor poims of relativelyhull' sig-nificance.

The need for standardization of plumbing system regulations hadlong btTn realized and voiced by master plumber associations, plumbinginspector associations, and plumbing equipment manufacturers associations. Experiem:e with standardization in the mass production of prod-ucts by industry, and the tremendous benefits that resulted therefrom,as especially evidem by the end of World War I, further promoted theidea of trying to achil"Ve standardization of plumbing


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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 29reconvened in 1928 to review the resuhs of 5 years of use of its 1923model plumbing requirements. Several changes were made, chieHy inpipe sizes, and a revised reporl was issued. This reporl appeared inthe publication Building and Housing' Repon No. 13, "RecommendedMinimum Requirements for Plumbing," dated August 30, 1928, andpublished by the U.S. Deparlment of Commerce, National Bureau ofStandards. Supplemental revision.s were made up to May 1931, and thefinal repon combining the original and supplemental reports was published in 1932.

During the early 1930s, hot water storage tank explosions began tooccur frequently and demonstrated the need for hot water supply systemsto be equipped with positive means for preventing excessive pressureand temperature conditions. Pressure and t


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30 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DE'SIGN

calor impossible to make. But necessily was the mother of invenlion,for vacuum breakers were soon developed as satisfaclory proleclive devices for use in cases where fixtures had to be equipped with belowrim potable water supply connections. In 1938, regulations dealing willipermissible vacuum-breaker installations on fixture water supply connections appeared in many plumbing codes.

The L.S. Department of Commerce iii 1935 established a CentralI lousing Committee to sludy ways of improving the housing situationin the nation. In 1938, a subcommittee was formed to study plumbing.This group picked up lhe work ot" the previous building code commineesand proceeded to develop a st.mdard plumbing manual for use in connect ion with low-cost housing where the special need was to take advantageof all legilimate economics. This committee's repor l appeared in thepublication Building Materials and Structures Repon No. 66, "PlumbingManual," dau,;cl November 22,1940, and published by the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards.

From the day it was organized in 1883, the National Asso


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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 31Office for Emergency ~ I a n a g e m c n t as the Emergency Plumbing Standards f(Jr Defense Housing. It was based upon plumbing requirementsmntained in Building Materials and Structures Report No. 66, "Plumbing Manua!," but appropriate changes were made as required for theconservation 01"uitical metal.s. This emergency plumbing c"ode was applicable throughout the natioIl for the balance of the war period.

In 1946, as a result of favorable experience with the EmergeIlcyPlumbing Standards dunng the war period, the United States Housingand Home Finance Agency sponsored a joint committee, known as theUniform Plumbing Code Committee, to engage in research on the nation's plumbing needs and to drali a plumbing mde suitable for adoptionby code autborities throughoul the nation. Participating with representatives of many federal agenc'ies on this commiuee were representativesof the ~ a t i o n a l Association 01" Master Plumbers and the United Association of Journevmen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe FittingIndustry of the United States and Canada. Research work at the :-.JationalBureau of Standards and ,It the Public Health Service Environmental,Health Center provided lht" committt"e with scientific data to resolvesome of the controversial matters in plumbing system regulations. Thecommittee's work resulted in the publication "Report of the UniformPlumbing Code Committee," dated July 1949, and published by theV.S. Department of Commerce and the Housing and Home FinanceAgency.

For lIlany years, tbe \Vestern Plumbing Officials Association (WPOA)had also worked anively to develop uniformity of plumbing code regulations. This association produced a model plumbing code in 1938 anddesignated it as the Uniform Plumbing Code


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32 STANDARD PLUMBING ENGINEERING DESIGNstandard plumbing code. In 1936, the association's A40 sectional com-mittee organized a subcommittee to undertake the task of establishingminimum requirements for plumbing, but little progress was made andthe subcommittee was disbanded in 1939. A new subl'ommitLee wasorganized in 1941 to develop an American Standard plumbing codt".This nt"w group was made up of official representatives from a widerangt" of interested organizations. The final report of the subcommitteewas approved by the A40 sectional committee and its sponsors, theAmerican Society of Mechanical Engineers and the American PublicHealth Association, and then was suhmitted to the American StandardsAssociation for adoption and designation as an American Standard. Thisstandard was adopted on February 17, 1949, and designated AmericanStandard Plumbinp; Codt", A40.7-1949.In 1949, the existence of several different model plumbing codesrt"commendt"d by various authoritative associations dearly indicated thedesirability of reconciling differences between the various codes anddeveloping a single standard plumbing code which would be generallyaccepted for adoption by code authorities throughout the nation. Under,joint sponsorship of the U.S. Department ofComml'n:e and the Housingand Homt" Finance Agency, a Coordinating Committee for a NationalPlumbing Code was formed. Represented on this commitLee were theAmerican Public Health Association, American Society of MechanicalEngineers, American Society of Sanitary Engint"t"ring, Building OfficialsConference of America, Conference of State Sanitary En,l,.-ineers, National Association of Plumbing Contractors, Western Plumbing OfficialsAssociation, the Housing and Home Finance Agency, and the U.S. Department of Commerce. The committee was assis ted by labor.,uory research at the National Bureau of Standards and the State Universityof Iowa, and by advisory committee work of representatives of manyfederal agencies. The report of this committee appeared in the publica-tion "Report of the Coordinating Committee for a National PlumbingCode," dated June 1951, and published by the U.S. Department ofCom-merce and the Housing and Home Finance Agency.

Soon thereafter, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers andthe Amt"rican Public Health Association, sponsors of the American Stan-dards Association A40 sectional committee project, conducted a surveyof organizations interested in the plumbing code standardization project.Favorable response to the coordinating committee's report was received.Several suggestions for improvement of the report were considered andincorporated into the draft of a proposed American Standard NationalPlumbing Code. Following approval by the sponsor organizations, theproposed new standard was submitted to the American Standards Association for adoption. This new standard was adopted on January 25, 1955,and designated American Standard National Plumbing Code, A40.8-


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1955. It soon became the recognized, generally accepted standard forthe engineering design of plumbing systems in buildings.

The need 10 update the A40.l:l-1955 standard became evident withnew developments in materials, methods, and technology. A new American National Standards Commiuee A40 was organized in 1964 and proceeded to update the A40.l:l standard. In this revision project, theNational Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Comraclors servedas one of the sponsors.

In 1968, the proposed revision was submitted for approval to thelJnit


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34 STANDARD PLlJMBING ENGINEERING DESIGNhousing deve!opmt'uts which mushroomed afier the Wdr period in suhurban and rural areas, most of which had no effective protection in theform of plumhing- system regulations, Rj.' 1956, twentv-six states hadcodes to regulate p lumbing system imtal1ations, These codes va riedin form alld applicability, Of theM' codes, R were mandatory statewide,n were mandatory statewide with cerra in exceptions, 10 establishedminimum standards below \...hich local municipal codes could not providealdlOugh they uHlld provide higher s tandards , 3 were IIIdlHlatory oulywhere adopte d o r dn'epted by municipalities, and 5 were model codes[{'colJlHleuded to muncipal it ies for adoption,

A significant challge ill p lumbing system regu la tions, the establishment of perf(lrmance requirements in codes. rather than specific requirements prescribing use of certain Hlethods, devices, materials, and,techniques. appeared in the State Building COllstruoion Code of NewYorL: State as the various portions of this (:ode were prolllulgated in1951, 1953, 19,I)G, I(l5R, and in suhsequcn t amended editions, Thiswas OIH' of the three state codes which were mandatory only wheremunicipalities voluntarily accepted applicability of the code, Tbe reasonfor the establislullent of performance requin:ments wa,s given in Ihe!\ew York SLl\e Building Code Law. enacted in 1949, and appeared inthe s ta tl 'mer lt of l e g ' i . ~ l a t i \ ' e findings and purposes, part of which is asfollows:A.nlOng the E u t o r ~ inducing high c u ~ b uf lOllstructioJl are various I a w ~ ,o r d i n a J l c e ~ , ruks, r e g u l a t i o n ~ ami c o d e ~ regulatinK the COJlstruction ofb u i l d i l l g ~ and the l l ~ e of m;nerials therem, The)' sene to increase cost,wahout providing corrdative bl'llehb or sakt , to owners, b u i l d l ' l ~ , t e J l a J l t ~and usns of hllildings, It i lhe purpose 01 this 'let to insti tute the preparalion of a stale code of building c o n ~ t r l l ( 1 i o n to pro\'lde, so far as mil}'he pranicahle, h;Jsir


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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMeNT OF PLUMBING ENGINEERING 35

of generally accepted standard plumbin!{ codes does noT assure adequateperformanre of inslallations, t : ~ p e c i a l l v where code requiremellls art:inappropriaTe or inadequate for conditions of the.: installations.

L:nder a performance code, such as the :'\Jew York Statt: BuildingConstnu:tion Code, complianu.: ",,'ith its plumbing- performancT require.:mellts l I l a ~ he achieved in (,it her of two wap, The hrst way is to complywith applicable provisions of a generally an:eptt:d standard rt:cog'nizedand listed by The code-writing authoriiY. In ~ t : w York Statt:, the applicable standard is the Standard ~ a t i o l l a l Plumbing Code, datnl 197ft

' rhe second way to a('hinT compliatHT with performance requirements applies to installations which dn'1I11f from applicable proviSIOnsof generally , l C C ( ~ p t t : d standards. In such cases, rompliarl(e may ht:deemed to he achieved only when it shall have been conclusively prove.:dthat tbe deviations rtlt:et the petformance requirements of the code.

The second way has been proved to he of great value. ~ e ideasin building design and technolog'y, which ar t' in ad\'allCe of ,ItHI deviatefrom rnognizl 'd stan


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performance under suds-flow conditions is discussed under appropriatesubjects in other chapters.

Much still remains to be done before generally acceptable standardiza-tion of plumbing syslCm regulations is achieved. In any event, regtIiationsmust keep pace with changing conditions and should not be allowedto restrict the development of new methods, devices, materials, andtechniques. The present trend is toward performance requirements,making adequate performance the test of acceptability. This is a reasona-ble and objective hasis upon which to establish regulations to proteClthe health, safety, and welfare of the people.


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standard plumbing engineering design - 2nd edition

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