Sentence Structure

Good writers vary the structure of their sentences so that some are short and others are long, and they include a variety of simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences.

The structure of a sentence is determined by the number and the type of clauses within them.

**************************************************************************First, you need to know the difference between

a phrase and a clause.

Clauses

A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb.

A phrase does NOT have a subject AND a verb.

Notice that these phrases do not have a subject AND a verb:

prepositional phrases: in the morning, with a sigh,

according to the plan, under the car,

between Mary and me, after the game,

into the ditch, before the test

appositive phrase: John, my best friend, is moving soon.

gerund phrase: Watching football on Sundays is a popular

pastime.

participial phrase: Peering over the cliff, Sean saw the raging

river below.

The concert scheduled for tomorrow

has been postponed.

infinitive phrase: Sarah worked for hours to revise her

essay.

(infinitive = to + a verb; to run, to hope, to accept;

these are NOT infinitives: to the room, to Mary)

Compare these phrases and clauses:

Phrase: Feed the dog before dinner. (NO subject & verb)

Clause: Feed the dog before you eat dinner . (You is the subject; eat is the verb.)

Phrase: since Tuesday (NO subject and verb)

Clause: since she moved back (She is the subject; moved is the verb.)

Phrase: after the test (NO subject and verb)

after the test was over (Test is the subject; was is the verb.)

Practice Distinguishing Phrases from Clauses

Label each of these as a phrase or a clause:

1. because of France’s six-sided shape

2. because France is shaped with six sides

3. during the reign of King Louis

4. out of an abundance of caution

5. after we returned from an exciting vacation in Costa Rica

Exercise #1 from Sentence Structure Worksheet

Label each of these as a phrase or a clause:

1. praying for a long, soaking rain

2. a little-known language of the Athbascan family

3. after settling in the region

4. since the Navajo language is difficult to learn

5. when the United States became involved in World War II

************************************************************************Now you need to be able to distinguish the two main types of clauses: independent clauses and subordinate clauses.

An INDEPENDENT (or main) CLAUSE can stand alone as a sentence because it expresses a complete thought.

A SUBORDINATE (or dependent) CLAUSE cannot stand alone as a sentence. It has a subject and a verb, but it does not express a complete thought.

Practice

Each of the following sentences has two clauses.

Is the underlined clause an independent clause or a subordinate clause?

1. Because we were late, we missed the first touchdown.

2. Take the umbrella that is in the hall closet.

3. Did you know that the dance is Friday evening?

4. You should talk to the drama teacher, who is in the auditorium.

5. We go to the beach whenever we get the chance.

6. While you were out, this package arrived for you.

7. Levi Strauss, who had a dream of success, went to San Francisco

during the gold rush.

8. He continued to work even though he was exhausted.

Exercise #2 from Sentence Structure Worksheet

Each sentence below has two clauses. Label each clause as an independent clause or a subordinate clause. The first of the two clauses is underlined.

1. Unless the rain stops soon, mudslides will engulf these hillside villas.

2. The Greeks were conquered by Rome, but culturally the Greeks were the conquerors.

3. I finished reading the book that you loaned to me.

4. A clarinet has an almost cylindrical tube, while an oboe has a conical pipe.

5. The oldest instrument family consists of idiophones, and they are also the most widespread of instruments.

************************************************************************Now you need to be able to tell

a simple sentence from a compound sentence.

SIMPLE SENTENCES

A simple sentence has ONE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE.

It doesn’t matter how many phrases it has.

participial phrase

Example: Following the television announcement, Matt Johnson,

appositive phrase prep. phrase

the $20 million lottery winner, went into hiding

infinitive phrase

to avoid his greedy relatives.

Example: Rita and Pauline will move to Austin and live in the dorm for a semester .

COMPOUND SENTENCES

A compound sentence hasTWO (or more) INDEPENDENT CLAUSES.

Notice the three correct ways to join two independent clauses together.

1. independent clause , FANBOYS independent clause

FANBOYS = for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

( ,for = because)

examples: Penguins cannot fly ,but they can dive into the ocean.

The essay is due tomorrow ,so I’m going to finish it

tonight.

The streets flooded ,for it rained for several hours. (because)

2. independent clause ; independent clause

example: Football is an autumn sport ; baseball is a spring sport.

3. independent clause ; conjunctive adverb , independent clause

Common conjunctive adverbs:

furthermore, in addition, moreover, also, in fact,

however, instead, nevertheless, otherwise,

as a result, therefore, thus, consequently, hence,

then

IMPORTANT NOTE: All conjunctive adverbs have FOUR letters or more. You must not put a comma in front of a joining word that has four letters or more. You must put a semicolon in front of a conjunctive adverb that joins two independent clauses.

examples: The instructor handed out the papers ;then she left the room.

Fred was late paying his bill ;therefore, his water was cut off.

The jury deliberated for hours ;however, they had no verdict.

PRACTICE

Label each sentence as a SIMPLE sentence or a COMPOUND sentence.

1. A sponge is not a plant ; it is an animal covered with flesh.

2. The sponge is alive, yet it has no fins and legs.

3. As a result it attaches itself to some firm object.

4. Nature’s plan for the sponge was ingenious, for tiny holes exist in the sponge.

5. Food and oxygen are carried into these holes with the flow of water.

6. Through these same holes, waste materials are carried out.

Exercise #3 from Sentence Structure Worksheet

Label each sentence as simple (S) or compound (Cd).

1. Nora and Carrie drove to school and decorated the cafeteria for the spring sports banquet.

2. After an hour, they took a short break; then they went back to work.

3. They agreed not to take any more breaks; otherwise, they would be late getting home.

4. To pass the time, they talked about school and told stories about their families.

5. Finishing their work, they complimented each other on the results.

Exercise #4 from Sentence Structure Worksheet

Add the correct punctuation to each of these compound sentences.

1. The Tropic of Cancer goes through Mexico so the area to the south can be extremely hot.

2. The outfielders missed easy fly balls moreover the infielders were throwing wildly.

3. Mexico’s full name is the United Mexican States it is known as Estados Unidos Mexicanos in Spanish.

4. The U.S. controlled the Panama Canal Zone after 1914 then the Republic of Panama assumed complete control of the canal on January 1, 2000.

5. Veins carry blood to the heart but arteries carry blood away from the heart.

Practice Combining Independent Clauses to Make a Compound Sentence

Join each pair of independent clauses into a compound sentence.Be sure to choose a conjunction that correctly expresses the relationship between the two clauses. Punctuate correctly.

1. Jaguars and leopards hunt and attack other animals.They rarely attack humans.

(Choose from these conjunctions: for, and, then, however, moreover)

2. We were frightened. We thought there might be an avalanche.

(Choose from these: nevertheless, for, and, but, so, then)

3. The explorers had to make travel arrangements to the southern tip of South America. They had to arrange for air travel to the American Antarctic outpost.

(Choose from these: instead, or, yet, then, thus)

**************************************************************************Now you need to recognize a complex sentence.

COMPLEX SENTENCES

A complex sentence has ONE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE and

ONE (or more) SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.

There are three types of SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.

THE FIRST TYPE OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSE:

1. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES begin with one of these words (sometimes that is omitted):

who whose whom which that

when where

NOTE: Adjective clauses NEVER appear at the beginning of the

sentence. They must have a noun or pronoun in front of them.

The adjective clause may split the independent clause into two parts.

Sentences with adjective clauses:

Three o’clock is the time when we’ll leave .

Rockwall is the town where I have lived my whole life .

Jacqueline , who is from France , just moved to Rockwall.

The new student , whose family is from France , is already well-liked.

The president whom I admire most is Abraham Lincoln.

John’s project , which took 12 hours to complete , won the first prize.

The car that my dad bought last week has amazing technology.

Sentence Combining

Learning to combine independent clauses to form a complex sentence with an adjective clause:

Choose who, whose, or whom if the sentence is about a person or persons.

If the clause is not about a person or persons, choose which or that.

Choose which if the clause contains nonessential / unnecessary information. Place commas around the adjective clause.

Choose that if the clause contains essential information. Don’t use commas with an adjective clause beginning with that.

A. The man hid from his greedy relatives. The man won the lottery.

The man who won the lottery hid from his greedy relatives.

B. Mr. Jackson teaches chemistry. Mr. Jackson’s room is on the third floor.

Mr. Jackson , whose room is on the third floor , teaches chemistry.

C. The book is my all-time favorite. The book was finished last week.

The book that I finished last week is my all-time favorite.

The book I finished last week is my all-time favorite.

(That is omitted.)

D. Route 66 has been reopened. Route 66 was closed for construction.

Route 66 , which was closed for construction , has been reopened.

Punctuating Nonrestrictive (Nonessential) Adjective Clauses

Rule: If the adjective clause contains information essential to the meaning in the sentence, do not set it off with commas.

Rule: If the adjective clause contains information that can be omitted without affecting the sentence’s basic meaning, it is a nonrestrictive clause, so it must be set off with commas.

ESSENTIAL The oboe is the only instrument that I can play well.

The adjective class is essential because omitting it would change the basic meaning of the sentence.

NOTE: If the adjective clause begins with that , it is essential and should not be set off with commas.

NONRESTRICTIVE Lamar , who can play many instruments ,taught me how to play the oboe.

The adjective clause is nonrestrictive / nonessential because omitting it would not affect the basic meaning of the sentence.

Practice

Combine the two independent clauses to form a complex sentence with an adjective clause.

Punctuate correctly.

Change the blue sentence into an adjective clause by taking away the subject and replacing it with the appropriate relative pronoun.

Choose who, whose, or whom if the sentence is about a person or persons.

If the clause is not about a person or persons, choose which or that.

--------------------------------------

Choose which if the clause contains nonessential / nonrestrictive information. Place commas around the adjective clause.

Choose that if the clause contains essential information. Don’t use commas with an adjective clause beginning with that.

1. The third letter was picked up by the Harris boy.The third letter was accidentally dropped.

(which, that)

2. Sekhar’s boss was not happy with the criticism of his singing.Sekhar’s boss had spent considerable money on singing lessons.

(who, whose, whom)

3. The evidence is enough to convict Mr. Sampson.The evidence was discovered at his home last Thursday.

(which, that)

Activity #1—Changing an Independent Clause into an Adjective Clause

Each student will receive an independent clause printed on a strip of paper. He or she should find the other student who has a related independent clause. (Related clauses have the same font.) Together, the two students determine how to combine the independent clauses into a complex sentence with an adjective clause. The sentence must be punctuated correctly. Write the complex sentence on your sentence structure worksheet.

THE SECOND TYPE OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSE:

2. ADVERB CLAUSES always begin with a subordinating conjunction like these:

after as long as before provided that unlessalthough as soon as even if since untilas as though even though so that when(ever)as far as as well as if than where(ever)as if because in order that though while

Examples: The following sentence is an independent clause:

The sun went down.

When a subordinating conjunction is added to the beginning of the independent clause, it becomes an adverb clause, and it can no longer stand alone as a sentence.

after the sun went down

although the sun went down

as soon as the sun went down

because the sun went down

before the sun went down

even though the sun went down

since the sun went down

though the sun went down

until the sun went down

when the sun went down

while the sun went down

Punctuation Rule:An introductory adverb clause must be followed by a comma.

Subordinating conjunctions are NOT joining words, like FANBOYS and conjunctive adverbs. DO NOT USE SEMICOLONS WITH A SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION.

complex sentences Because Sekhar told the truth , the headmaster with adverb clauses: punished him.

The corn crop will be ruined if the drought doesn’t end soon.

Before the trial could begin , the defendant escaped from jail.

She looked as though she had seen a ghost .

If you give a pig a pancake , then he will ask for syrup.

In the above sentence, why is there a comma in front of then instead of a semicolon?

Sentence Combining Practice

Change one of the independent clauses into an adverb clause by adding the appropriate subordinating conjunction to the beginning of the independent clause. Join the remaining independent clause and the adverb clause together to form a complex sentence. Punctuate correctly.

Example:

___________The water levels of area lakes are dangerously low.

City officials have mandated water conservation.

Choose one of these subordinating conjunctions:

although , as if , because , before

Complex sentence with one independent clause and one subordinate clause:

Because water levels of area lakes are dangerously low , city officials have mandated water conservation.

1. _____________The Harris boy delivered the dropped letter to

Don Crane. Miss Strangeworth’s ugly secret was revealed.

Choose one: unless , than , until , as soon as , while

2. People were understandably upset by Miss Strangeworth’s

letters. _______________There was no truth in them.

Choose one: as if , provided that , while , even though , if

3. The author of the letters may never have been discovered.

_____Miss Strangeworth hadn’t dropped the one to the Cranes.

Choose one: after , if , since , until , where

4. ________________Miss Strangeworth was sleeping.Someone, perhaps Don Crane, was destroying her roses.

Choose one: while , even if , so that , as well as , as if

PRACTICE

Label these sentences as simple, compound , or complex.

Look for sets of subjects and verbs. Are the subject and verb part of an independent clause or a subordinate/dependent clause?

If the sentence has a semicolon, it is a compound sentence.

1. The warning lights flashed for five minutes before the arrival of the train.

2. The warning lights flashed for five minutes before the train arrived.

3. The warning lights flashed; then the gates lowered into position.

4. Because southern California has a very warm climate, the houses there are often built without furnaces.

5. A male walrus may weigh 3000 pounds, but a female rarely exceeds 2,000 pounds.

6. Many of the pioneers were rough individuals who hated crowded cities.

7. An Indian birch-bark canoe, which could easily be carried by one person, could still transport an entire family and its dogs and equipment.

8. Intelligent and fearless, retrievers can be trained as hunting dogs.

Key to the Practice Exercise

Independent clauses are blue. Subordinate clauses are red.

Transitions such as FANBOYS and CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS are black.

1. The warning lights flashed for five minutes before the arrival of the train.

SIMPLE sentence with 2 prepositional phrases

2. The warning lights flashed for five minutes before the train arrived.

COMPLEX sentence with an adverb clause

3. The warning lights flashed ; then the gates lowered into position.

COMPOUND

4. Because southern California has a very warm climate, the houses there are often built without furnaces.

COMPLEX sentence with an adverb clause

5. A male walrus may weigh 3000 pounds , but a female rarely exceeds 2,000 pounds.

COMPOUND

6. Many of the pioneers were rough individuals who hated crowded cities.

COMPLEX sentences with an adjective clause

7. An Indian birch-bark canoe, which could easily be carried by one person, could still transport an entire family and its dogs and equipment.

Notice that there is only one independent clause. Its subject is before the adjective clause, and its predicate is after the adjective clause.

COMPLEX sentence with an adjective clause

8. Intelligent and fearless, retrievers can be trained as hunting dogs.

SIMPLE sentence

**************************************************************************Now you need to recognize a compound-complex sentence.

COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES

A compound-complex sentence has

TWO (or more) INDEPENDENT CLAUSES and

ONE (or more) SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.

The subordinate clause is red. The independent clauses are blue.

The FANBOYS or conjunctive adverbs are black.

If a color-blind woman marries a man with normal vision ,

all the daughters will have normal vision ,but

all the sons will be color-blind.

The time when severe weather occurs is here ,so everyone needs to be prepared.

Notice that the first independent clause is split into two parts by the adjective clause.First independent clause = The time is here.

The computers were installed as quickly as possible ;however,

there were problems that took time to solve .

The woman who wrote the hateful letters seemed to be respectable ,but

the townspeople soon discovered otherwise.

Activity #2—Creating a Compound-Complex Sentence by Combining Three Independent Clauses

Working in pairs, combine the following independent clauses into one compound-complex sentence. Choose the best transition to show the relationship between the ideas. Punctuate correctly.

Example: 1. The storm dragged the fuselage out to sea.

2. The storm hit after the plane crash. (Change to an

adjective clause beginning with a relative pronoun.

Choose from these: which, that. Insert into the first

independent clause.)

3. The boys were left without any shelter on the deserted

island.

Choose from these transitions to join the two independent

clauses: however, for, instead, so, but

Compound-complex sentence:

The storm that hit after the plane crash dragged the fuselage out

to sea , so the boys were left without any shelter on the deserted

island.

A. 1. Jack is a friend of Ralph’s in the beginning.

2. Jack will become a symbol of evil. (Change to an adjective

clause beginning with who. Insert into the first

independent clause.)

3. He will become Ralph’s enemy later in the novel.

Choose from these transitions to join the two independent clauses:

but, otherwise, so, for, so that

B. 1. Help continues to come from all over Texas. (Change to an

adverb clause beginning with a subordinating conjunction.

Choose one of these: so that, before, even though,

as soon as, if

2. The fertilizer explosion in West was incredibly destructive.

3. It will take many years to recover.

Choose from these transitions to join the two independent clauses:

nor, for, therefore, nevertheless, yet.

C. 1. The sponge is not a plant.

2. It is an animal.

3. The animal is covered with flesh. (Change to an adjective clause beginning with that. Add to the end of the second independent clause.)

Choose from these transitions to connect the two independent clauses: moreover, instead, then, also.)

D. 1. People plant sponge fragments.

2. They are harvested two or three years later.

3. They have grown large. (Change to an adverb clause beginning with a subordinating conjunction. Choose from these: when, even if, while, until. Add to the end of the second independent clause.)

Choose from these transitions to connect the two independent clauses: and, nor, however, in fact.)

Key to Activity Two

The subordinate clause is red. The independent clauses are blue.

The FANBOYS or conjunctive adverbs are black.

A. Jack , who will become a symbol of evil , is a friend of Ralph’s in the

beginning ,but he will become Ralph’s enemy later in the novel.

B. Even though help continues to come from all over Texas ,

the fertilizer explosion in West was incredibly destructive ;therefore, it will take years to overcome.

C. The sponge is not a plant ;instead, it is an animal that is covered

with flesh.

D. People plant sponge fragments ,and they are harvested two or

three years later when they have grown large.

PRACTICE

Label the following sentences as

simple one independent clause

compound two (or more) independent clauses

complex one independent clause;

one (or more) subordinate clauses

(adjective clause or adverb clause)

compound-complex two (or more) independent clauses;

one (or more) subordinate clauses

(adjective clause or adverb clause)

If you see a semicolon, the sentence is compound OR compound-complex.

1. The Bugatti Motor Club hosted an exhibit of old motoring prints.

2. When our team finished the project, we all went out to lunch at Chili’s,

and our friend Aaron met us there.

3. The hotel guests were surprised when the alarm went off.

4. Bill gave an excellent speech in world history class, and I took notes.

5. Georges Bizet was the French composer who wrote Carmen, my favorite

opera.

6. The store employees decorated the storefront, the manager put on his

best suit, and the customers arrived promptly at eight.

7. We students were proud of Mr. Ashram, our prize-winning principal.

8. The weather inland was unseasonably cold and frosty, but

on the coast a mild wind was blowing from the south.

9. Our short film was shown on one of the theaters downtown;

despite our dire predictions, it was fairly well received.

10. Mr. Nelson, who just moved to Rockwall, will teach chemistry, and

he will sponsor the Interact Club.

Key to the Practice Exercise

Independent clauses are blue. Subordinate clauses are red.

Transitions such as FANBOYS and conjunctive adverbs are black.

1. The Bugatti Motor Club hosted an exhibit of old motoring prints.

SIMPLE

2. When our team finished the project , we all went out to lunch at Chili’s, and our friend Aaron met us there.

COMPOUND-COMPLEX with an adverb clause

3. The hotel guests were surprised when the alarm went off.

COMPLEX with an adverb clause

4. Bill gave an excellent speech in world history class , and I took notes.

COMPOUND

5. Georges Bizet was the French composer who wrote Carmen, my favorite

opera.

COMPLEX with an adjective clause

6. The store employees decorated the storefront , the manager put on his

best suit , and the customers arrived promptly at eight.

COMPOUND (three independent clauses)

7. We students were proud of Mr. Ashram, our prize-winning principal.

SIMPLE sentence with an appositive

8. The weather inland was unseasonably cold and frosty , but

on the coast a mild wind was blowing from the south.

COMPOUND

9. Our short film was shown on one of the theaters downtown ;

despite our dire predictions, it was fairly well received.

COMPOUND

10. Mr. Nelson, who just moved to Rockwall, will teach chemistry , and

he will sponsor the Interact Club.

COMPOUND-COMPLEX with an adjective clause

Exercise 5

Label the following sentences as

simple one independent clause

compound two (or more) independent clauses

complex one independent clause;

one (or more) subordinate clauses

(adjective clause or adverb clause)

compound-complex two (or more) independent clauses;

one (or more) subordinate clauses

(adjective clause or adverb clause)

If you see a semicolon,the sentence is compound or compound-complex.

1. Records and tapes are rarely used today, but compact discs are still in

fairly widespread use.

2. Compact discs are often called CDs.

3. Although a CD may look like a small vinyl record, it doesn’t work like

one.

4. Records have a thin groove, and different sounds are recorded

as bumps and dents in the groove’s sides and floor.

5. The sound is produced when a needle moves up and down and from

side to side along the groove.

6. A CD, however, is covered with microscopic pits that make up a digital

code.

7. When you play a CD, a laser bounces off the CD and reads the little pits,

and the code is translated into sound.

8. In spite of the cost of CDs, they have many advantages.

9. They produce extraordinary sound, and because a needle never touches

them, they last and last.

10. In spite of the advantages of CDs and other digital formats, some music

lovers would still rather listen to vinyl records.

Key to Exercise 5

Independent clauses are blue. Subordinate clauses are red.

Transitions such as FANBOYS are black.

1. Records and tapes are rarely used today , but compact discs are still

in fairly widespread use. COMPOUND

2. Compact discs are often called CDs. SIMPLE

3. Although a CD may look like a small vinyl record, it doesn’t work like

one. COMPLEX

4. Records have a thin groove , and different sounds are recorded

as bumps and dents in the groove’s sides and floor. COMPOUND

5. The sound is produced when a needle moves up and down and from

side to side along the groove. COMPLEX

6. A CD, however, is covered with microscopic pits that make up a digital

code. COMPLEX

7. When you play a CD, a laser bounces off the CD and reads the little pits , and the code is translated into sound. COMPOUND-COMPLEX

8. In spite of the cost of CDs, they have many advantages. SIMPLE

9. They produce extraordinary sound , and because a needle never

touches them, they last and last. COMPOUND-COMPLEX

10. In spite of the advantages of CDs and other digital formats, some music

lovers would still rather listen to vinyl records. SIMPLE

3. NOUN CLAUSES A noun clause is a part of the independent clause. The noun clause is not separate from the independent clause.Complex sentences with noun clauses:

What you decide to write is completely up to you.

I was surprised by what happened during the football game.

I understand that I need permission to photograph people.

Mrs. Foster announced, “The test will be tomorrow.”

Sentences from Spring Final Exam Review

XIII. Sentence StructureIdentify each sentence as simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.

1. I enjoy camping when the weather is cool; therefore, I am going to take a trip to Colorado at the end of May.

1. I enjoy camping when the weather is cool; therefore, I am going to take a trip to Colorado at the end of May.

2. Suzanne’s 16th birthday is this Saturday, so all of her friends have planned a surprise party at Lila’s house.

2. Suzanne’s 16th birthday is this Saturday, so all of her friends have planned a surprise party at Lila’s house.

3. Dianna Moon Glampers shot Harrison and the ballerina so that they would be examples to the rest of society.

3. Dianna Moon Glampers shot Harrison and the ballerina so that they would be examples to the rest of society.

4. Hazel, Harrison’s mother, had tears on her cheeks, butshe had no memory of Harrison’s murder because she could not remember anything for very long.

4. Hazel, Harrison’s mother, had tears on her cheeks, but she had no memory of Harrison’s murder because she could not remember anything for very long.

5. I like to read when I have free time, so I frequently go to the library where I can check out my favorite type of novel.

5. I like to read when I have free time, so I frequently go to the library where I can check out my favorite type of novel.

6. Janice entered the school’s art contest, and she won a ribbon for her oil painting.

6. Janice entered the school’s art contest, and she won a ribbon for her oil painting.