sports and music, children as audience

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SPORTS ANDMUSIC,CHILDREN AS AUDIENCE

Dr.MinaTsay CM380:TheoryandProcessofCommunication



Whatdefinesa“fan”?



Sports Fandom (Thorne&Bruner2006)

• Commoncharacteristics• Internalinvolvement

• Desireforexternalinvolvement

• Wishtoacquireskills/knowledge

• Desireforsocialinteraction



SportsFandom:Coviewing



ExternalInvolvement:FantasySports



Dr.Tsay’sFantasyLeague



SportsasVicariousExperience

Identification Emotional(Empathy)

Cognitive(MutualUnderstanding)

Transportation

Absorption/Immersion



VicariousLearning

ModelingEffect Directduplicationofbehavior

E.g.,Battingthewayabaseballplayerbats

ElicitingEffect

Performsbehaviorsimilartomodel’s

E.g.,CelebritydonationtocharityencouragesyoutovolunteerataLittle

Leaguebaseballgame



Levelsofmotivationforwatchingsports(Wenner&Gantz,1998)

Fanship(e.g.,thrillofvictory) Learning

Release

Companionship

Passtime



SocialIdentityTheory(Tajfel&Turner,1986)

Socialidentity Selfconceptderivedfromperceivedmembership

ofsocialgroups

Malesfoundtoturntosportstoderivean

important“socialidentity”

Higherratingsofachievement,empathy,andknowledge



SocialIdentityTheory(Tajfel&Turner,1986)

Merecategorizationofthemselvesas“group

members”“IngroupFavoritism”

Influencedby:

Identificationwithingrouptointernalizethatgroup’smembershipasanaspectoftheirself‐

concept

Perceivedrelevanceofingroup



EvidenceofSportsFandomEffects

Strongsportorteamidentification Gameattendanceandpredictionoffuture

teamsuccess(Murrell&Dietz,1992)

Greaterteamknowledge(Wann&Branscombe,1995)

Persistenceinteamcommitment(Dietz‐Uhler&

Murrell,1999)



GenderDifferences

Malesandfemalesequallylikelytobesports

fansand attendingsportingevents(Dietz‐Uhler

etal.,2000),except:

Malesspendmoretime:

discussingsports

watchingsportsonTV

hadgreatersportsinterest/knowledge

What about motivetobea sports fan?



GenderDifferences(cont.)

Motives:

Femalesmorelikelytobesportsfansfor

socialreasons

Malesmorelikelytobesportsfansbecause:

theyplaysports

enjoy/learningaboutsportsingeneral



SportsRepresentationsinMediahttp://www.mediaed.org/cgi

‐bin/commerce.cgi?preadd=action&key=208



SocialComparisonTheory(Festinger1965;Goethals,1986)

Welooktomediaimagesthatweperceiveto

be:

Attainable

Realistic

Makecomparisonsamongourselves,others,andidealizedimages.



TwoTypesofComparisons

UpwardSocialComparison

Comparingtothosedeemedsociallybetter

thanus.

Tryingtofindsimilaritiestothosemoreelite.

DownwardSocialComparison

Comparingtothoselessfortunatethanus. Emphasisonpositiveeffectsofcomparisons.



InfluenceofSportsMediaonHealth

Applyingobjectificationtheory to:

SportsMediaViewer’sBody

Perceptions



ObjectificationTheory

(Fredrickson&Roberts,1997)

“Girlsandwomenaretypicallyacculturated

tointernalizeaviewer’sperspectiveasa

primaryviewoftheirphysicalselves.”

Processofself‐monitoring

Self‐objectification

Tendencytoperceiveanddescribeownbodyaccordingtoexternalratherthaninternal

traits



Leanvs.Non‐LeanSports



FindingsfromHarrisonandFredrickson(2003)

426females(10‐19years)

Sportsmagazinereading

Greaterbodysatisfactionamongolderadolescents

Self‐objectificationmentalhealthrisksBodyshame

Disorderedeating

Depressions



Music:Context‐DependentMemory

• Applicationtocontext‐dependentmemory

(CDM)

• Memorydependingonrelationbetween

learning+context

e.g.,Learningisbetterinparticular

environments



Music:Context‐DependentMemory(Smith,2007)

• Variationsofbackgroundmusic:

• Mozart

• Jazz

• Quiet(control)• Procedure:

• Initialrecalltest+2nd recalltest(5days

later)• 3(M,J,Q—initialtest)x3(M,J,Q—final

test)experimentaldesign



Music:Context‐DependentMemory(Smith,2007)

• Findings:

• Contextmatters(inducingcontext‐

dependentmemory)

• Samecontextleadingtomorewords

remembered

• Sound(ascomparedtonosound)actsasa

memorycue



ClassicConditioningwithAdvertising(Gorn,2007)

• AssociationsbetweenProduct +Music

Productpreferences

• Rationale

• Valenceofemotionsgeneratedbymusic

becomingassociatedwithproduct(process

ofclassicalconditioning)



ClassicConditioningwithAdvertising(Gorn,2007)

Likedmusic74 20

30 71Dislikedmusic

AdvertisedPen Non‐AdvertisedPen



Shiftinggearstowardunderstanding

childrenasaudience…



Takingonconstructivistapproach

Howdoesourintelligencegrow?

Howdoweaccuratelyrepresenttheworld

andoperateontheserepresentations? Weacquireschematathrough

“developmentalstages”

TheoryofCognitiveDevelopment(Piaget,1977)



AssumptionsofPiaget’s

DevelopmentalStages

Learningoccursbyanactiveconstructionof

meaning,ratherthanbyreceivingit

passively.

Mustbuildcognitivestructuresthroughthe

useofmentalmaps



Eachstagelaysfoundationfornextstage

Everyonegoesthroughsamestagesinorder

Universal(notculturalspecific)

Eachstageisqualitativelydifferent(thinking)

AssumptionsofPiaget’s

DevelopmentalStages



FourDevelopmentalStages

1st :SensoryMotor

Birthto2yearsold

Dependentonphysicalinteraction

Developmentofspatialabilities



SensoryMotorStage

Objectpermanencedevelopedlaterinthestage

Understandingobjects

throughphysicalcontact



FourDevelopmentalStages(cont.)

2nd:Preoperational

2to7years

Stilllackinginareasofcognitivematuration

Unabletoconceptualizeabstractly Egocentrism

Seeseverythingfromownpointofview

Centration/Concreteness

Focusononlyoneaspectofasituation

Conservation

Difficultyunderstandingtransformations



PreoperationalStage



FourDevelopmentalStages(cont.)

3rd:ConcreteOperational

7to11years

Intelligencebothsymbolicandlogical

Acquiringoperations:generalrulesandstrategies




(cont).

Seriation:Abilitytoarrangeobjectsinanorder

Classification:Abilitytonameandidentifysetsof

objects

Decentering:Abilitytotakeintoaccountmultiple

aspectsofaproblem

Reversibility:Numbers/objectscanbechanged

EliminationofEgocentrism:Abilitytoviewthings

fromanother’sperspective.



Preoperationalvs.ConcreteOperationalhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815o




4th: FormalOperational

Startsaround11yearsintoadulthood

Abstractthinking,logicalreasoning,

drawingconclusionsE.g.,Understandinglove,developingmoral

judgment/values

“ ’ll l ”



“I’llNeverHaveaClowninmyHouse”:

WhyMovieHorrorLivesOn (Cantor,2004)

“I’ll N H Cl i H ”



• Examinedtwotypesofeffects:• Bedtimebehavioreffects

• Wakinglifeeffects






• “I would jump frommy doorway tomy

bedroomtomy bed,sonothingunder

my bed could grabme…I could not fall

asleepwithmy closet door open….I

would freak

out

whenever

the

cable

would goout.”

• Emphasisonprotectivebehaviors/uneasinesswithnonthreatening

objects(e.g.,clowns,TVsets,trees)






• “Whenever I swim

in

the

ocean,

or

evenamurky lake,whereI cannot see

beneathmy feet,I feel increasingly

panicky and

claustrophobic,

and

in

a

short time,must leavethewater.”

• Emphasisonbehavioralinterference(e.g.,swimming)






• “I felt

completely

unaffected

until

I

closed my eyes…I couldn’t sleepand

left all thelightsoninmy apartment

for three

days.”

• Emphasisonwakingeffects(e.g.,

homealone,camping,indarkplaces/woods)








• “I am

now

very

conscious

about

who

is

home.If I’mhomealone,however,I

amalwayslistening for unknown

soundsand

where

they

are

coming

from.”

• Emphasisonwakingactivities(e.g.,homealone,babysitting)



LingeringEffects

• Bedtimebehavioreffects(46%)

• Wakinglifeeffects(75%)

• Nospillovereffects(neither‐12%)

Supportforlongtermfrightresponses

Reasonsfortheseeffects?



LingeringEffects

• Developmentalpsychology

• Preschoolers’inabilitytodifferentiate

betweenfantasy/reality



LingeringEffects

• Perceptuallylimited

• Dependentonstrongvisualimages

• Difficultywithtransformations



LingeringEffects

• Fearingevenknowingit’sfictitious

• Willingnesstosuspenddisbelief

• Suspense/surprisefeatures

• Reminderofrealthreats

• Moresensationalizedevents

Betterrecall

Overestimationofchanceofoccurrence



RealLifeEvents



LingeringEffects

• Fictionvs.Fantasyboundaries– blurred

• Plausibilityofsupernaturaleventscanbeambiguous



Explicitvs.ImplicitMemory

• Explicit:Consciousmemoryoffear‐inducingevents

• Notalwayscorrect • Morelikelytobemalleable

• Implicit:Subconsciousemotionalmemories

• Highlyresistanttochange



Explicitvs.ImplicitMemory

FearConditioning

e.g.,Implicitfearreactionsbecomeconditionedtostimulirelatedtothoseinmovies(conscious

fearmemories),triggeringsubconscious

reactions.

sports and music, children as audience

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