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Sport as a school of life:

The mental and physical characteristics, developmental objectives and coaching methods of youth sport

By Arne Barez Consultant

Copyright © International Labour Organisation 2008 The designations employed in ILO Publications, which are in conformity with United Nations practice, and the presentation of material therein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the International Labour Office concerning the legal status of any country, area or territory of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers. The responsibility for opinions expressed in signed articles, studies and other contributions rests solely with their authors, and publication does not constitute an endorsement by the International Labour Office of the opinions expressed in them. Reference to names of firms and commercial products and processes does not imply their endorsement by the International Labour Office, and any failure to mention a particular firm, commercial product or process is not a sign of disapproval.

March 2008

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Introduction Many people believe that sports build character. These people feel that athletes develop certain positive qualities such as self-discipline, dedication or leadership skills as a result of their participation in competitive sports. Athletic involvement is, therefore, viewed as a school of life. Others argue that sports cannot positively impact character development because of its emphasis on winning. The win-at-all-costs-mentality, prevalent in competitive sports, is supposed to drive unethical or even dangerous behaviours like cheating, overly aggressive play or drug abuse. So what is the true value of sports? Simply playing a sport certainly does not make you a better, wiser or more powerful person. Sport merely provides the opportunity to test and develop both athletic and personal abilities such as sportsmanship, commitment or goal-orientation. The social context of the team experience, thereby, determines how athletes define success, relate to each other and perceive themselves. To control the kind of lessons athletes learn on the playing field, coaches must examine their own values, design activities with specific outcomes in mind and lead by example. Personal qualities such as self-confidence, courage and responsibility are not automatic by-products of the experience, but depend on a positive and encouraging team environment. This paper addresses how athletic coaches can assist young athletes in the development of physical, intellectual, social, emotional and moral capabilities. It is written for coaches, club administrators, league officials and policy makers who wish to use sport as a vehicle for personal development. The findings are based on a review of relevant literature from different disciplines including human development, coaching education, sports psychology and physical education as well as my personal experience as a youth coach. The discussion includes a review of the mental and physical characteristics of children ranging from early childhood to late adolescence and culminates in a curriculum of age-appropriate learning objectives followed by some specific advice on how to achieve them (Table 1). The age brackets attached to the following growth stages (early childhood, late childhood, early adolescence and late adolescence) are arbitrary and can be extended to encompass variations in growth and development.

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1. Early Childhood 1.1 Mental and physical characteristics Early childhood is structurally defined by the pre-school years and generally refers to the time period when children are between 3 and 6 years of age. It is during this developmental stage that children acquire and refine a variety of fundamental motor skills such as running, jumping, balancing or climbing through play and playful activities (Origer, 2007). Play also assists in the development of social, emotional, moral and cognitive competencies: It provides opportunities to interact socially, explore different emotions, gain an understanding of right and wrong and discover how different objects function. Fortunately, young children love to play. They enjoy running around, are extremely curious and have a strong desire to test and improve their motor skills. But they also fatigue easily and have very short attention spans. Thus, it is not unusual, if children take frequent breaks from play or switch activities altogether. Young children are also very imaginative: They love to play different roles, naturally engage in symbolic play and have a special fascination for fairy tales. One of the major challenges of early childhood is to overcome the anxiety associated with the gradual separation from home and the transfer into other environments. In addition, all children must learn how to control emotions such as fear, anger and jealousy. Unfortunately, many children today grow up in a world of physical inactivity. They often lack independent playing opportunities and demonstrate significant deficiencies in terms of both motor skills and creativity (DFB, 2006). They spend much more time at home watching TV or surfing the Internet than any other generation. The accessibility of new media, the increase in street traffic and the lack of playgrounds all contributed to this trend and its consequences. Only a few decades ago children used to have ample opportunities to play in the anonymity of the streets, alleys and city-parks. They played a variety of self-organised games, invented new rules and managed conflicts independently. This not only contributed to their physical but also to their personal development. Today, pre-schoolers often rely upon organised sports programmes for playful activities, sports and physical education. 1.2. Developmental objectives Free play is a very important and special part of childhood. It is particularly important for the development of basic motor skills, social competencies and creativity (DFB, 2006). Modern-day children often lack these developmental objectives. Organised sports programmes, therefore, have to compensate for the competencies children used to develop through free play by providing age-appropriate experiences. Specifically, they have to provide independent learning opportunities that stimulate creativity as well as a sense of mastery. In terms of motor development the primary objective is to promote a variety of fundamental movement skills such as running, jumping, balancing, climbing, throwing, catching and kicking. The most important objective, however, is to have fun. Young children should have the opportunity to enjoy themselves in a friendly and stimulating environment. This enjoyment of the game will eventually translate into a long-term appreciation of physical activity and a healthy life-style. 1.3. Coaching guidelines The most important rule coaches of this age-level must follow is to create a safe and positive environment. Coaches who field a team based on talent, assign permanent positions or constantly interfere with the game, clearly apply inappropriate adult standards and expectations (United States Soccer Federation, 2006). Negative influences such as

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performance-pressure, obsessive coaching or aggressive parents are unacceptable and must be prevented. For children, participation, joy and fun are much more important than winning. They need attention, encouragement and the feeling of having someone they can trust and relate to. Coaches should, therefore, take great care to ensure age-appropriate objectives, training methods and activities. Success should be measured in terms of fun, creativity and general motor development rather than wins and losses. 1.3.1. Enjoyment of the activity Young children enjoy a variety of exercises, games and activities. They love to compete in relays, enjoy games such as tag and have fun experimenting with different sized-balls and materials. Small groups guarantee high involvement and lots of valuable experiences. Feelings of success, such as scoring a goal, are particularly motivating and foster a child's sense of accomplishment. This is the reason why coaches must set up practice groups according to ability, emphasise individual progress and praise successes constantly (DFB, 2006). Allowing children to play different roles such as cowboys, pirates or policemen stimulates their imagination and creativity. The coach may add to this enjoyment, by actively participating in the activity. 1.3.2. Creativity and sense of mastery The development of creativity requires a certain amount of uninterrupted play. Free play provides children with the opportunity to actively explore and interact with their environment (NASPE, 2000). It encourages them to test their motor skills, interact socially and solve problems independently. Coaches who organise everything, impose different rules or constantly interfere with the game provide few opportunities for spontaneity and free expression. In order to stimulate creativity and a sense of mastery coaches must offer a variety of unstructured activities, encourage decision-making and applaud effort. Don't always tell children what to do, involve them, ask open-ended questions and let them play. 1.3.3. Fundamental movement skills Childhood is the ideal time to learn and refine a variety of fundamental movement skills. Basic coordination provides the foundation for more complex motor skills, facilitates the later development of speed, strength and mobility and reduces the risk of injury (Weineck, 2004). General games and activities with a focus on gross motor development should, therefore, precede any sport-specific specialization. Performing a broad range of exercises such as running with and without a ball, climbing over different obstacles or balancing on a bench in a series of fun activities promotes every aspect of a child's physical development. Moreover, coaches should keep all activities short and simple in order to account for children's limited ability to stay focussed on a single task for longer periods of time.

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2. Middle Childhood 2.1. Mental and physical characteristics Middle childhood corresponds to the primary school years and generally refers to children between 7 and 12 years of age. During this time period, children begin to spend much more time away from home and with other children. They frequently participate in extracurricular activities and often wish to play sports on a regular basis. For many children, these larger networks are important sources of social learning and emotional support. Towards the end of this period, more complex relationships are formed: friendships are becoming more and more important, while peer pressure may start building up. Most children develop rapidly during the primary school years (Origer, 2007). They are now able to concentrate for longer periods of time, think in more concrete and logical ways and make more mature moral choices. The ability to master challenging situations such as unfamiliar tasks, jealousy or aggression also increases during this time period. Due to these developmental changes, primary school children tend to be emotionally stable, optimistic and open. They are in a state of mental and physical balance. But they are also very sensitive to criticism and can be easily influenced by parental figures as well as their peers. In terms of physical development, most primary school children experience a relative plateau in growth (Weineck, 2004). Their body appears to be undergoing a period of refinement: the changes that do occur are gradual. The slow growth process as well as the child's increased attention span and improved cognitive ability allow for the development of more complex motor skills. The children learn how to write, draw and play musical instruments. They also refine a variety of gross motor skills and gradually exhibit greater rhythm, smoothness and control over their bodies. The activities of children between 10 and 12 years of age are particularly directed and controlled. They often work consciously to coordinate and perfect sport-specific techniques. 2.2. Developmental objectives Middle childhood is a critical time period for children to develop confidence in all areas of life including social, emotional, mental and physical aspects. The central development task, therefore, refers to the acquisition of feelings of self-confidence and mastery. Children who develop these competencies are more likely to seek out new challenges, interact socially and resist negative influences. One of the most important tasks of the coach at this age level is to teach sport-specific motor skills in a safe and positive environment. A combination of playful activities and planned movement exercises is most appropriate. In addition, all children must learn how to cooperate and compete constructively, resolve conflicts independently and assume different responsibilities. Values such as honesty and fairness should be at the core of any programme. 2.3. Coaching guidelines The most important rule coaches of this age-group must follow is to include and support any child that wishes to play sports regardless of skill level or general physical ability. Age-appropriate activities are all about fun, active participation and motor skill learning (NASPE, 2001). Primary school children should be allowed to test and refine newly acquired skills in a positive and encouraging environment without fear, criticism or harassment from the coach or other children. There should be no penalty for missing practise and no discussion about commitment. In a team sport, such as football, substitutions should be used to provide equal playing opportunities rather than to punish a player for a mistake (United States Soccer

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Federation, 2006). 2.3.1. Self-confidence Confident children feel good about themselves, are more likely to assume responsibility and often approach challenging situations with enthusiasm. In order to build self-confidence, coaches should rely upon positive reinforcement rather than punishment as a means of controlling behaviour (Smith, 2005). Complimenting children on the execution of a difficult skill, applauding good plays or recognizing sincere effort provides them with an incentive to perform and strengthens desired behaviours. Punishing mistakes, on the other hand, works by arousing fear and often causes the child to choke under pressure or avoid difficult situations altogether (Smith, 2005). From this point of view the objective is not to eliminate mistakes but to encourage the correct or desired behaviour. 2.3.2. Sport-specific motor skills The primary responsibility of the coach at this age-level is to teach a variety of motor skills within a positive and encouraging atmosphere. Skill development requires systematic training, sound technical demonstration and countless repetitions. The skills and techniques selected must be age-appropriate following a clear progression from simple to more complex movement patterns. Activities should alternate between playful games and more deliberate exercises. Individual or team competitions are particularly motivating. Playing and practising in small groups provides frequent learning opportunities and builds competences. A good demonstration facilitates the learning process by providing a visual reference until the skill is performed both accurately and consistently (DFB, 2006). Another important variable contributing to the development of sport-specific motor skills is the coach’s ability to provide clear and concise performance feedback (Smith, 2005). Good communication begins with a compliment about effort and any part of the skill that was performed correctly. In a next step, the coach provides just enough information to correct the most fundamental error in the movement pattern: Do not overload children with too many or too specific details and try to involve them in the learning process as much as possible. Asking questions is particularly helpful in order to ensure the effectiveness of the performance feedback. 2.3.3. Honesty, fairness and mutual respect Primary school children pay close attention to the behaviour of coaches and peers. They observe and often imitate the way you celebrate victory, cope with defeat, handle conflict and treat other people. Coaches, who want to have a positive influence on moral development, should, therefore, create an environment guided by honourable principles and values. If honesty, fairness and mutual respect are important lessons to learn, the coach should never compromise those values and always act accordingly (Alberts, 2003). Specifically, the coach should use a respectful tone of voice, avoid disrespectful or obscene gestures and use manners regularly. Respect for rules is just as important as punctuality or a friendly attitude.

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3. Early adolescence 3.1. Mental and physical characteristics Adolescence, the transitional stage of development between childhood and adulthood, has been linked with the onset of puberty and generally refers to the teenage years from 13 to 19. The early years of adolescence (from 13 to 16) are characterized by great variations in general physical, emotional and cognitive development (Origer, 2007). Characteristic features such as excessive height, breast development or voice changes often embarrass young adolescents. These physiological changes require the development of a new body image and frequently cause emotional stress or instability. Supportive reassurance as well as an understanding of the growth process can facilitate the adjustment. Great variations in height or strength also raise concern over the ability to compete in athletics. Physically more mature children have a temporary advantage over their smaller or less developed peers. Other children may experience significant motor problems during periods of extreme growth. The accelerated adolescent, for example, may run awkward or have difficulties executing fine motor skills due to changing body proportions (United States Soccer Federation, 2006). A four-year spread in physical development within a group of 14-year old teenagers is not uncommon. Coaches should, therefore, put biological age ahead of chronological age, when assessing talent or selecting athletes for competitive sports programmes. Puberty is a particular dynamic and sometimes turbulent period of life. Psychological characteristics during early adolescence include a highly critical attitude, emotional instability and interest in sexual activity (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2006). As the adolescent is gradually withdrawing from parental guidance and support, peer groups are becoming increasingly important. Youth groups and sport teams often provide significant feelings of belonging as well as valuable lessons about the use of social power and the ability to work cooperatively towards a common goal. Role models such as professional athletes, movie stars, peers or coaches provide additional sources of direction. 3.2. Developmental objectives Young adolescents often strive to develop a sense of independence by establishing their own values and beliefs. They frequently question authority, dislike close supervision and want to take on more responsibility. The major developmental task during this stage consequently relates to the acquisition of cognitive, social and emotional competencies that facilitate this transition. Teenagers still need to learn how to act independently, control their emotions and make responsible choices. Promoting respect for rules is, therefore, just as important as fostering sportsmanship. Communication skills are crucial in order to express concerns, resolve differences in opinion and address personal problems. 3.3. Coaching guidelines Competitive sport programmes are popular among young adolescents and often contribute to powerful feelings of success and self-development. But they can also cause considerable stress, endorse overly aggressive play or promote unreasonable expectations. To create a developmentally appropriate learning environment, coaches should reinforce competitiveness as much as fair play. Young adolescents must learn to take pride in their efforts, play by the rules and compete with dignity. If winning is the only aspect of the sport experience that matters to a coach, athletes may choose to sacrifice values such as honesty or fairness. Specifically, a coach may promote performance excellence and positively impact character

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development by establishing some basic principles and expectations. Alberts (2003, pp. 31) provides the following examples for competitive sports teams:

- Show respect for the game by playing by the rules, both in the spirit and their literal interpretation.

- Show responsibility by coming prepared and on time for practices and games. - Display commitment and perseverance by giving consistent effort in practices and

games. - Accept victory with humility and defeat with pride in the effort made. - Show self-control and respect for others by accepting officials’ calls without

inappropriate comments or gestures. - Show care for others by being supportive of teammates through comments and actions

during practices and games. - Maintain self-control and composure when things don’t go in desired ways.

3.3.1. Respect for rules Establishing clear rules and expectations provides young adolescents with important boundaries for appropriate and inappropriate behaviour. The coach who wants to promote qualities such as punctuality, self-control and respect for others should maintain order by enforcing team rules consistently and uniformly (Alberts, 2003). This may mean to substitute your leading goal scorer for disrespectful behaviour or bench your most talented defender for missing practice. As long as the players know the rules and the repercussions associated with breaking them, the coach will be perceived as fair and consistent. When it comes to promoting respect for rules, a good axiom to remember is that actions speak louder than words. 3.3.2. Sportsmanship Creating boundaries for behaviour and enforcing them consistently is important, but true sportsmanship goes beyond the application of rules and regulations. It involves a deeper understanding of the connection between behaviour and moral standards (Alberts, 2003). For instance, helping an opponent up after a fall demonstrates caring and consideration, while accepting defeat with pride in the effort made is a demonstration of composure. Stimulating discussions about athletes who, for example, refuse to shake hands after a game, intentionally foul an opponent or use performance-enhancing drugs is a good way to help adolescents make these connections and to keep the game in perspective. 3.3.3. Communication skills Young adolescents need to learn how to express their thoughts, feelings and concerns in a socially appropriate and constructive manner. Effective communication requires the ability to describe a situation, listen attentively and express both positive and negative feelings (Yukelson, 2005). Coaches may help athletes to develop such communication skills by stimulating frequent discussions, asking open-ended questions and displaying sincere interest in their opinions and beliefs. Most importantly, however, coaches must act as role models when it comes to approaching team members, challenging officials’ calls or responding to malicious comments. The constant screamer certainly does not exhibit the kind of behaviour young adolescents should strive to emulate.

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4. Late adolescence 4.1. Mental and physical characteristics Late adolescence refers to the last period of transition from childhood to adulthood and generally includes teenagers from 17 to 19 years of age. For most adolescents, this is a time of considerable uncertainty as well as some important decisions about personal relationships, higher education, vocational training and career opportunities (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2006). Potential problems such as unemployment, financial difficulties, career confusion, unsatisfying work experiences or a lack of family support may cause concern and anxiety. Personal qualities that may help young adults to deal with such negative experiences and to enter into the career path of their choice include high levels of self-esteem, goal-orientation, perseverance and self-discipline. The primary developmental objective during late adolescence therefore relates to the acquisition of feelings of self-competence and independence. Young adults frequently strive to take on more complex responsibilities, make professional experiences and earn their own money. As they begin to think of themselves in a specific role, most adolescents start to build their future by establishing personal and career related goals. They evaluate different opportunities, solve problems independently and take great pride in accomplishments. Effort no longer depends on the recognition from parents, peers or coaches, but is often sustained simply because it is of critical importance to the adolescent’s personal goals and development (Gould, 2005). In terms of physical development, adolescents experience further growth of the muscular and skeletal system leading to greater physical capacity, motor performance and self-confidence (Weineck, 2006). The most talented and motivated athletes now develop the strength, speed and endurance to compete at the senior-level. They often qualify for athletic scholarships, participate in national tournaments or even sign professional contracts. Meanwhile, less skilful adolescents compete in local leagues or events training two to four times a week. For others, sport participation is all about recreation, fitness and fun. They train to stay in shape while spending some valuable time with friends or family. 4.2. Developmental objectives As young adults move towards further education or into the labour market, qualities such as goal-orientation, self-discipline and perseverance become extremely important. To succeed, all adolescents must learn how to identify their current and future needs, manage time effectively and plan meaningful activities. The process of formulating individual goals facilitates the development of these competencies, but also increases the motivation to do well in life. Another important aspect of goal-orientation is to follow through on your commitments and to display high levels of self-discipline and personal responsibility. To become an autonomous and self-regulated individual, young adults, furthermore, have to learn how to deal with intense competition, defeat and failure. 4.3. Coaching Guidelines Effective coaching is based upon high levels of trust and mutual respect. Young adults are more likely to comply with rules, fulfil expectations and accept coaches as role models, if they feel that their input is appreciated and the coach genuinely cares about them as athletes and human beings (Yukelson, 2006). Creating positive and trusting relationships also facilitates communication. Coaches should be approachable, open and fair. Remember that life off the field can impact performance on the field and be ready to listen and help, if an athlete has a

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sincere problem or needs someone to talk. Most young adults like knowledgeable coaches with high standards and expectations. Constantly negative coaches, on the other hand, often fail to gain their trust and respect. 4.3.1. Goal-orientation Goals are great motivational tools: They help us direct our attention to important aspects of our lives, encourage us to be persistent and foster the development of more effective learning strategies (Gould, 2005). Teaching young adults how to set realistic goals can, therefore, facilitate personal growth as well as athletic performance. To be successful, however, athletes must have clearly defined goals, work consistently to attain them and monitor progress on a regular basis. In addition, all goals must be specific, measurable, challenging and rewarding. When setting goals, athletes and coaches should focus on performance and training goals rather than outcome goals. The secret is to focus on those aspects of your ultimate objective that are within your control. It may not be surprising that athletes and coaches, who define goals in terms of skill development, consistent effort, and performance excellence often find themselves winning championships, too. 4.3.2. Self-discipline and personal responsibility Establishing short- and long-term goals will not be successful unless the athlete displays the self-discipline and personal responsibility necessary to follow through on his or her commitments. Self-disciplined individuals are intrinsically motivated. They will train, work and study without any external supervision or control, display high degrees of consistent physical effort and comply with rules and expectations because they recognize the reasons for them (Alberts, 2003). To promote self-discipline and personal responsibility coaches must explain the relationship between individual commitments and athletic performance, involve athletes in the decision making process and instil pride in the effort made. Fear and punishment, on the other hand, may neither promote self-discipline nor athletic success, since coaches cannot control all behaviours on a consistent basis. 4.3.3. Perseverance Even the most dedicated, goal-oriented and self-disciplined athletes are often exposed to a wide range of difficult and potentially adverse situations including injury, defeat and failure. All young adults must, therefore, learn how to deal with such negative experiences in a positive and constructive manner. To help them overcome personal as well as athletic difficulties coaches should encourage athletes to be persistent, provide productive feedback and discuss potential solutions. Defeat and failure are great opportunities to demonstrate mental strength, willpower and perseverance. In order to gain something positive from your disappointment, it is particularly important to approach all problems with confidence, remain focussed and display an intense desire to succeed.

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Conclusion Most youth coaches have a sincere desire to do more than to teach sport-specific skills and strategies, but they rarely have had any formal training in the development of personal abilities such as creativity, self-confidence, respect for rules and goal-orientation. In fact, they often lack an understanding of the relationship between developmental characteristics, teaching objectives and coaching behaviour. Consequently, some coaches hold inappropriate expectations such as trying to develop personal responsibility within a group of primary school children or talking to them about commitment, while others simply do not know how to instil sportsmanship, respond to misbehaviours or create a positive learning environment. It is here that national and international sport organizations can make a significant contribution towards the utilisation of sport as a vehicle for personal development by providing appropriate coaching education programmes. Although not exhaustive, this paper provides a potential curriculum for coaches of different age brackets. It illustrates the important role of the athletic coach in sport for development programmes and is intended to contribute to the development of professional standards for quality coaching and physical education.

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Bibliography Alberts, C. L. 2003. Coaching issues and dilemmas: Character building through sport participation. Reston, NASPE Publications. Deutscher Fußball Bund (DFB). 2006. Modern youth training: The complete guide to soccer for kids. Münster, Philippka-Sportverlag. Di Cola, G. (ed.) 2006. Beyond the scoreboard: Youth employment opportunities and skills development in the sport sector. Geneva, International Labour Office. Gould, D. 2005. “Goal setting for peak performance”, in Williams J. M. (ed.) Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance. Sydney, McGraw-Hill, 5th edition, Ch. 13. Kail, R. V. & Cavanaugh, J. C. (2006). “Human Development: A Life-Span View” Belmont, Wadsworth Publishing Company. National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE). 2000. Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education. Oxon Hill, AAHPERD Publications. National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE). 2000. Appropriate practices in movement practices for young children ages 3 - 5. Oxon Hill, AAHPERD Publications. National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE). 2001. Appropriate practices for middle school physical education. Oxon Hill, AAHPERD Publications. National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE). 2004. Appropriate practices for high school physical education. Oxon Hill, AAHPERD Publications. Origer, C. 2007. “Little game, big results (Part 1)”, Success in Soccer. Münster, Philippka-Sportverlag, Vol. 10, Jan, pp. 34 – 40. Origer, C. 2007. “Little game, big results (Part 2)”, Success in Soccer. Münster, Philippka-Sportverlag, Vol. 10, May, pp. 25 – 32. Smith, R. E. 2005. “Positive reinforcement, performance feedback, and performance enhancement”, in Williams J. M. (ed.) Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance. Sydney, McGraw-Hill, 5th edition, Ch. 3. United States Soccer Federation. 2006. Best Practices for Coaching Soccer in the United States. Chicago, Unites States Soccer Federation. Weineck, J. 2004. “Optimales Training”, Balingen, Spitta Verlag. Yukelson, D. P. 2005. “Communicating effectively”, in Williams J. M. (ed.) Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance. Sydney, McGraw-Hill, 5th edition, Ch. 9.