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McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

CHAPTER 9

Sport and Exercise Psychology

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Definition and Scope

“the systemic scholarly student of behavior, feelings, and thoughts of people engaged in sport, exercise, and physical activity.” (Vealey)

the psychological and mental aspects of participation in sport and exercise, seeking to understand how psychological processes influence and are influenced by participation (AAASP)

“this dynamic field can enhance the experience of men, women, and children of all ages who participate in physical activity, ranking from those who do so for personal enjoyment to those who pursue a specific activity at the elite level” (ISSP)

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Questions addressed…

What is the personality profile of an elite athlete?

How does anxiety influence performance?

What are the psychological benefits of participation in regular physical activity?

What factors influence an individual’s adherence to a rehabilitation program?

How does self-confidence influence performance?

What are effective intervention strategies to enhance performance?

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Historical Development

Late 1890s and early 1900s: Norman Triplett initiates research on what became known as the Social Facilitation Theory.

1920s – 40s: Griffith known as the “father of sport psychology”, began to develop and apply sport psychology

1940-1965: growth of research programs in motor learning and sport psychology

Johnson – emotions and competition Lawther – The Psychology of Coaching

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Historical Development

Late 1960s & 1970s: emerges as subdiscipline of PE 1979: Journal of Sport Psychology begins publication.

1980s: Researchers embrace an applied approach 1986: Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport

Psychology (AAASP) was organized. Exercise psychology evolved as a specialized area of study. Increase interest by clinically trained psychologists 1988: Journal of Sport Psychology became known as Journal of

Sport and Exercise Psychology

1990s-present Rich diversity in approaches to the field and areas of study.

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Psychological Benefits of PA

Improves health-related quality of life.

Improves one’s mood. Alleviates symptoms of

mild depression. Reduces anxiety. Aids in managing stress. Enhances self-concept,

self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-confidence.

Offers opportunities for affiliation with others.

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Psychological Benefits of PA

Offers opportunities to experience “peak” moments.

Provides recreation and a change of pace.

Invites individuals to challenge themselves and strive for mastery.

Offers creative and aesthetic experiences.

Increasing recognition of physical activity as a therapeutic modality.

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Exercise and Adherence

Nearly 50% of patients fail to comply with their medical treatment.

Adherence to supervised exercise programs ranges from 50% to 80%.

Only 30% of individuals who begin an exercise program will be exercising at the end of 3 years.

What can be done to promote continued involvement?

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Motivation

Influences initiation, maintenance, and intensity of behavior.

Internal and external factors affect motivation. Intrinsic motivation – participates to satisfy individual’s own

desires, enjoyment, needs, and aspirations External motivation – participates to gain external rewards

Intrinsic motivation helps sustain participation. Focus on creating opportunities to enhance

competence and self-efficacy.

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Motivation

Motivation is critical to achievement.

Goal-setting a critical facet of motivation Short-term goals. Long-term goals.

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Classic learning theories

Learning a new behavior is achieved by altering the many small behaviors that compose the overall behavior.

Break behavior down into smaller goals to be achieved.

Work incrementally toward goal.

Reinforcement is important; provide rewards and incentives (both immediate and long-range).

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Health Belief Model

Adoption of a health behavior depends on the person’s perception of four factors: Severity of potential

illness Susceptibility to illness Benefits of taking action Barriers to action

Self-efficacy is an important component of this model.

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Social Cognitive Theory

Behavior change is influenced by environmental factors, personal factors, and attributes of the behavior itself.

Self-efficacy is central to this model.

Individual must believe in his or her ability to perform the behavior and must perceive an incentive for changing the behavior.

Outcomes must be valued by the individual.

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Theory of Reasoned Action & Planned Behavior

Behavior influenced strongly by intention to change.

Individual’s attitude toward change is important – what outcomes achieved and values gained from changing ?

Opinions of relevant others regarding change plays a role.

Perceived control over behavior critical factor in change.

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Transtheoretical model

Stages of change Precontemplation Contemplation Preparation Action Maintenance Termination

Decisional balance - pros and cons

Self-efficacy Target intervention to

individual’s current stage.

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Ecological approach

Development of individual skills emphasized as well as creating supportive, health-promoting environment.

Environmental & societal influences and limitations on health behavior considered when planning for behavior change.

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Exercise Dropout

Low self-motivation Depression Low self-efficacy Denial of seriousness

of one’s health condition

Obesity Type A behavior

pattern Smokers Blue-collar workers

Perception that exercise has few health benefits

Inactive lifestyle Sedentary occupations Lack of social support Family problems Interference of job-

related responsibilities Inconvenience High-intensity exercise

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Exercise Adherence

Educational approaches Increase participants’

knowledge and understanding of the benefits.

Behavioral approaches Reinforcement Contracting Self-monitoring Goal-setting Enhancement of self-

efficacy

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Exercise Adherence

Program Design Increase social support

available to participants.

Offer programs at convenient times and locations.

Goal-setting and periodic assessment.

Enthusiastic leaders. Strong communication. Establishment of

rapport. Consideration of

individual needs and interests.

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Rehabilitation Adherence

Strategies to enhance adherence to a rehabilitation program are important for sports medicine programs.

Adherence can be increased by: Providing social support Goal setting Effective communication Tailoring program to individual needs Monitoring progress Collaborative approach to accomplishing goals

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Personality

Impact of athletics on personality development.

Relationship between personality and athletic performance. Do athletes differ from non-athletes? Can athletes in certain sports be distinguished from

athletes in other sports? Do individuals participate in certain sports because of

their personality characteristics? Do highly skilled athletes in a sport have different

personality characteristics than the lesser skilled athletes?

Can personality predict success in sport? Each athlete must be treated as an

individual.

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Anxiety and Arousal

Anxiety - subjective feeling of apprehension accompanied by a heightened level of physiological arousal.

Physiological arousal - autonomic response that results in the excitation of various organs of the body.

Trait and state anxiety Trait: integral part of an individual’s personality. State: emotional response to a specific situation

that results in feelings of fear, tension, or apprehension.

Find the optimal level of arousal that allows for peak performance.

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Reducing Anxiety- Athletes

Use physical activity to release stress & anxiety.

Pre-competition routines. Simulate games in practice. Tailor preparation for game to

the individual athlete. Build self-confidence and high,

realistic expectations. Promote use of positive self-

talk. Keep errors in perspective Keep athletes’ focus on

present, not past events. Incorporate relaxation training

as necessary.

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OverviewOverview MechanismMechanismSpecification of a level

of proficiencyTypes of goals

Outcome goals Interpersonal

comparison Performance goals

Personal achievement

Process goals Technique

Focuses attentionMobilizes effortFosters persistencePromotes

development of new learning strategies

Goal-setting

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SMART Goal-setting

S = specific goals versus general

M = measurable goals to monitor progress

A = action-oriented goals R = realistic but achievable

with effort T = time frame for

achievement

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Principles of Goal-setting

Write goals down Incorporate different types of goals Set short- and long-term goals Establish individual goals within the team

or group context Determine goals for practice and

competition Ensure goals are internalized Regularly evaluate progress Provide for individual differences

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ImpactImpact TypesTypes

Cognitive approach – relationship between individual’s thoughts and performance

Positive or negative influence

“Self-talk occurs whenever an individual thinks, whether making statements internally or externally.” (Williams & Leffingwell)

Task-relevant statements Remind self of

technique or strategy

Positive statements Effort, persistence,

confidence

Mood statements Modify intensity

Self-Talk

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ApplicationApplication ModificationModification

Enhancing of skill acquisition

Focusing of attention

Modifying activation

Promoting self-confidence

Thought-stoppingReplacing negative

thoughts with positive thoughts

CounteringReframing

Self-Talk

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TypesTypes Key FeaturesKey Features

External imagery Athletes see themselves

performing as if watching a videotape of their performance

Internal imagery Athletes construct the

image of the performance from the perspective of their own eyes, as if they were side their body when performing

Multiple perspectives Vividness – critical

featureMultiple sensesIncorporation of

emotionsControllability

Imagery

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Uses of Imagery

Developing sport skills Correcting errors Rehearsing performance strategies Creating an optimal mental focus for

competition Developing pre-performance routines Learning and enhancing mental skills Facilitating recovery from injuries and

return to competitionVealey & Greenleaf

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Intervention Strategies

Help athletes achieve optimal performance

Management of anxiety and arousal

Cognitive strategies Restructuring Thought stopping Self-talk Imagery

Goal setting