spoken discourse and natural grammar andrej a. kibrik ([email protected])[email protected]
TRANSCRIPT
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Mitarbeiterinnen und Mitarbeiter
VeraPodlesskay
a
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Context
Project “Night Dream Stories”Corpus of 130 Russian spoken stories Speakers: children of school age and
adolescentsDiscourse type: narrative Important: spoken Russian languageUnimportant: age of speakers and
content of stories
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Research questions
Linguists’ ideas of what language is like are largely shaped by written language
Speech is the primary form of language in phylogeny in ontogeny in quantity
A logical would-be approach: start with the primary, simpler phenomenon, and thereafter examine how it adapts to the secondary medium
A practical approach: take spoken language “as is” and see what emerges, and how it is different from or similar to the extant views of language
What the grammar of spoken Russian is like?
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Plan of talk
Discourse transcription Elementary discourse units (EDUs) Two issues in the grammar of spoken
Russian How EDUs correspond to grammatical
units Sentence?
Suggestions for less studied and unwritten languages
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Transcription of spoken discourse
Due to its transient, ephemeral nature, sound as such does not lend itself easily to scientific analysis
Discourse transcription: convert the sound into a graphic representation
Well-developed for English, Italian… We are doing it for Russian This conversion involves dozens of
decisions Transcription must be systematic and
reproducible Not just a set of conventions but a process
through which essential properties of spoken language are revealed
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Main components of our discourse transcription
Segmentation (lines) Pauses Pitch accents Tempo (of different scope)A number of other prosodic phenomena Punctuation marksand some others
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Example ....(1.5) /\Озеро ...(0.5) какое-то,
Lake some ..(0.3) (Или /\речка,
Either river или /\озеро,
or lake но по-моему \озеро,
but I guess lake потому что’ ..(0.2) как-то-оw
because somehow...(0.6) \маленькое такое,
small such \небольшое.)
minor ....(1.0) ’и-иh ...(0.7)через /него
and across it..(0.3) как-то \бревно какое-то,
somehow log some типа \моста.
like bridge
....(1.5) /\Ozero ...(0.5) kakoe-to,
..(0.3) (Ili /\rečka,
ili /\ozero,
no po-moemu \ozero,
potomu čto’ ..(0.2) kak-to-oW ...
(0.6) \malen’koe takoe,
\nebol’šoe.)
....(1.0) ’i-iH ...(0.7) čerez /nego ..
(0.3) kak-to \brevno kakoe-to,
tipa \mosta.
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Segmentation (lines) ....(1.5) /\Озеро ...(0.5) какое-то,
Lake some ..(0.3) (Или /\речка,
Either river или /\озеро,
or lake но по-моему \озеро,
but I guess lake потому что’ ..(0.2) как-то-оw
because somehow...(0.6) \маленькое такое,
small such \небольшое.)
minor ....(1.0) ’и-иh ...(0.7)через /него
and across it..(0.3) как-то \бревно какое-то,
somehow log some типа \моста.
like bridge
....(1.5) /\Ozero ...(0.5) kakoe-to,
..(0.3) (Ili /\rečka,
ili /\ozero,
no po-moemu \ozero,
potomu čto’ ..(0.2) kak-to-oW ...
(0.6) \malen’koe takoe,
\nebol’šoe.)
....(1.0) ’i-iH ...(0.7) čerez /nego ..
(0.3) kak-to \brevno kakoe-to,
tipa \mosta.
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Pauses ....(1.5) /\Озеро ...(0.5) какое-то,
Lake some ..(0.3) (Или /\речка,
Either river или /\озеро,
or lake но по-моему \озеро,
but I guess lake потому что’ ..(0.2) как-то-оw
because somehow...(0.6) \маленькое такое,
small such \небольшое.)
minor ....(1.0) ’и-иh ...(0.7)через /него
and across it..(0.3) как-то \бревно какое-то,
somehow log some типа \моста.
like bridge
....(1.5) /\Ozero ...(0.5) kakoe-to,
..(0.3) (Ili /\rečka,
ili /\ozero,
no po-moemu \ozero,
potomu čto’ ..(0.2) kak-to-oW ...
(0.6) \malen’koe takoe,
\nebol’šoe.)
....(1.0) ’i-iH ...(0.7) čerez /nego ..
(0.3) kak-to \brevno kakoe-to,
tipa \mosta.
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Pitch accents ....(1.5) /\Озеро ...(0.5) какое-то,
Lake some ..(0.3) (Или /\речка,
Either river или /\озеро,
or lake но по-моему \озеро,
but I guess lake потому что’ ..(0.2) как-то-оw
because somehow...(0.6) \маленькое такое,
small such \небольшое.)
minor ....(1.0) ’и-иh ...(0.7)через /него
and across it..(0.3) как-то \бревно какое-то,
somehow log some типа \моста.
like bridge
....(1.5) /\Ozero ...(0.5) kakoe-to,
..(0.3) (Ili /\rečka,
ili /\ozero,
no po-moemu \ozero,
potomu čto’ ..(0.2) kak-to-oW ...
(0.6) \malen’koe takoe,
\nebol’šoe.)
....(1.0) ’i-iH ...(0.7) čerez /nego ..
(0.3) kak-to \brevno kakoe-to,
tipa \mosta.
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Tempo ....(1.5) /\Озеро ...(0.5) какое-то,
Lake some ..(0.3) (Или /\речка,
Either river или /\озеро,
or lake но по-моему \озеро,
but I guess lake потому что’ ..(0.2) как-то-оw
because somehow...(0.6) \маленькое такое,
small such \небольшое.)
minor ....(1.0) ’и-иh ...(0.7)через /него
and across it..(0.3) как-то \бревно какое-то,
somehow log some типа \моста.
like bridge
....(1.5) /\Ozero ...(0.5) kakoe-to,
..(0.3) (Ili /\rečka,
ili /\ozero,
no po-moemu \ozero,
potomu čto’ ..(0.2) kak-to-oW ...
(0.6) \malen’koe takoe,
\nebol’šoe.)
....(1.0) ’i-iH ...(0.7) čerez /nego ..
(0.3) kak-to \brevno kakoe-to,
tipa \mosta.
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Other prosodic phenomena ....(1.5) /\Озеро ...(0.5) какое-то,
Lake some ..(0.3) (Или /\речка,
Either river или /\озеро,
or lake но по-моему \озеро,
but I guess lake потому что’ ..(0.2) как-то-оw
because somehow...(0.6) \маленькое такое,
small such \небольшое.)
minor ....(1.0) ’и-иh ...(0.7)через /него
and across it..(0.3) как-то \бревно какое-то,
somehow log some типа \моста.
like bridge
....(1.5) /\Ozero ...(0.5) kakoe-to,
..(0.3) (Ili /\rečka,
ili /\ozero,
no po-moemu \ozero,
potomu čto’ ..(0.2) kak-to-oW ...
(0.6) \malen’koe takoe,
\nebol’šoe.)
....(1.0) ’i-iH ...(0.7) čerez /nego ..
(0.3) kak-to \brevno kakoe-to,
tipa \mosta.
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Punctuation marks ....(1.5) /\Озеро ...(0.5) какое-то,
Lake some ..(0.3) (Или /\речка,
Either river или /\озеро,
or lake но по-моему \озеро,
but I guess lake потому что’ ..(0.2) как-то-оw
because somehow...(0.6) \маленькое такое,
small such \небольшое.)
minor ....(1.0) ’и-иh ...(0.7)через /него
and across it..(0.3) как-то \бревно какое-то,
somehow log some типа \моста.
like bridge
....(1.5) /\Ozero ...(0.5) kakoe-to,
..(0.3) (Ili /\rečka,
ili /\ozero,
no po-moemu \ozero,
potomu čto’ ..(0.2) kak-to-oW ...
(0.6) \malen’koe takoe,
\nebol’šoe.)
....(1.0) ’i-iH ...(0.7) čerez /nego ..
(0.3) kak-to \brevno kakoe-to,
tipa \mosta.
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Segmentation: elementary discourse units (EDUs)
Definition of EDUs – prosody: Pausing pattern Single accentual center Single tonal pattern (contour) Single temporal pattern (Single loudness pattern)
In terms of physiology: Coincide with an exhalation
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Example
..(0.2) /Вышла с этой \ка-ареты,..(0.2) /Vyšla s ètoj \ka-arety,
I.got.out from this coach,
..(0.2) захожу в –\ё-олку,..(0.2) zaxožu v –\ë-olku,
I.enter into fir.tree
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Prototypical pausing pattern
..(0.2) /Вышла с этой \ка-ареты,..(0.2) /Vyšla s ètoj \ka-arety,
I.got.out from this coach,
..(0.2) захожу в –\ё-олку,..(0.2) zaxožu v –\ë-olku,
I.enter into fir.tree
EDU-initial pauses
No pauses inside EDUs
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Single accentual center in each EDU
..(0.2) /Вышла с этой \ка-ареты,..(0.2) /Vyšla s ètoj \ka-arety,
I.got.out from this coach,
..(0.2) захожу в –\ё-олку,..(0.2) zaxožu v –\ë-olku,
I.enter into fir.tree
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Accentual center; prototypical tonal and temporal patterns
0.1 0.17 0.14 0.25
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Deep neurophysiological foundations of EDUs
Linear acceleration
90
180
270
360
450
80 160 240 320 400 480
start
" 1.1
-1.1
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Organization of mice movements while exploring territory
Consists of individual segments: runs, or spurts
Spurts are separated by short periods of standstill
Each spurt starts with a period of high acceleration
At the end of a spurt there is a significant deceleration
Each spurt is directed towards a goal that is attained at the end
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Content of EDUs
EDUs appear to be not only prosodic units, but display unity in terms of their content: Cognitively: represent one focus of
consciousness (W. Chafe) Semantically: represent one event/state Grammatically: coincide with a clause
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EDUs AND GRAMMATICAL CONSTITUENTS
Prosodically identified EDUs: correlation with clauses
EDU = clause 70% EDU < clause 23% EDU > clause 7%
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A sequence of clausal EDUs Потом ещё один /сон,
Then more one dream ....(1.7) за мной ..(0.1) бегала Баба-/Яга,
after me was.running Baba-Jaga
....(1.3) в общем-м я от неё /бегу, in general I from her run
...(0.8) и-и ..(0.4) ’ думаюand think
«/Куда же мне \побежать?».Where PTCL I run
....(1.1) И-и ’ ..(0.3) как раз ..(0.2) /домAnd just house
..(0.4) ’ Си-Cи \Кэпвела из Санта-\Барбары.
C.C. Capwell from Santa Barbara ..(0.4) Я /вбегаю в него,
I run into it и /там стоит \шкаф.
and there stands wardrobe
Potom ešče odin /son,
....(1.7) za mnoj ..(0.1) begala Baba-/Jaga,
....(1.3) v obščem-m ja ot neë /begu,
...(0.8) i-i ..(0.4) ’ dumaju
«/Kuda že mne \pobežat’?».
....(1.1) I-i ’ ..(0.3) как раз ..(0.2) /dom ..(0.4) ’ Si-Si \Kepvela iz Santa-\Barbary.
..(0.4) Ja /vbegaja v nego,
i /tam stoit \škaf.
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Short EDUs
Prospective 6.4% Anticipatory topic 0.7% False start 5.7%
Retrospective 9% Echo 3.9% Increment and parcellation 4.2%
Split 2.5%Regulatory EDUs 4.9% TOTAL 23%
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Anticipatory topic z34, z43
..(0.3) а /собачка,..(0.3) a /sobačka,
and doggy она быстро \бегала,
ona bystro \begala,it fast ran
а /он,...(0.6)a /on,...(0.6)and it
\половина в нём только.\polovina v nëm tol’ko.half in it only
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Echo
Retrospective elaboration to one of the clause constituents
Duplicates the morphosyntactic characteristics of the constituent in question
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Echo: a typical example
Бегала бездомная/собака,Begala bezdomnaja /sobaka,Was.running homeless dog
..(0.2) /большой такой /чёрный \дог,..(0.2) /bol’šoj takoj /čërnyj \dog,
big such blackGreat.Dane
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Echo: elaboration of an anaphoric pronoun
И я поба= || ..(0.1) /подо-ошёл к нему,I ja poba= || ..(0.1) /podo-ošёl k nemu,And I FST approached to it
..(0.3) ну к этому /дереву,..(0.3) nu k ètomu /derevu,
well to this tree у которого /сверкало чего-то,
u kotorogo /sverkalo čego-to,at which glittered something
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Echo: not just nominative
/\открываю,/\открываю,I.open
и передомной так /висят ...(0.7)семь \–трупов.и передомной так /висят ...(0.7)семь \–трупов.and in.front me so hang seven corpses
....(1.1) Семь /трупов \повешенных,....(1.1) Семь /трупов \повешенных,
seven corpses of.strung-up (GEN)..(0.3) причём\/китайцев.
..(0.3) причём\/китайцев.notably Chinese
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Increment
An extra constituent is appended to an already formed clause
This constituent fits well into the clause structure
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Increment: attribute to an actant
И /вдруг я увидела какую-то ..(0.4) \к-коробку.I /vdrug ja uvidela kakuju-to ..(0.4) \k-korobku.And suddenly I saw some box
..(0.3) С /бантиком \сверху. ..(0.3) S /bantikom \sverxu.
With ribbon on.top
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Increment: a circumstant
/Нырнула,/Nyrnula,I.dove
и \поплыла.i \poplyla.and started.swimming
...(0.7) И вот так /получилось,...(0.7) I vot tak /polučilos’,
And this way it.happened я /доплыла,
ja /doplyla, I reached.by.swimming
..(0.4) под /водой,..(0.4) pod /vodoj,
under water
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Long EDUs: some sources
Finite verbs > epistemic markers Finite verbs > quotative markersVerb serialization
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Epistemic marker N14: 45
...(0.9) Потом я ..(0.3) /п-просыпаюсь, ...(0.9) Potom ja ..(0.3) /p-prosypajus’,
Then I wake.up ...(0.8) всё-таки я с-себя ..(0.2)
...(0.8) vsë-taki ja s-sebja ..(0.2) still I myself
не \знаю как-то /разбудил что ли_ne \znaju kak-to /razbudil čto li_not know somehow awakened perhaps
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Quotative marker: verb of speech Z14
Это говорят новая /мо-ода там,Èto govorjat novaja /mo-oda tam,This they.say new fashion there
в восемнадцатом /веке новая v vosemnadcatom /veke novaja in eighteenth century newтакая –\мо-одапошла. takaja –\mo-oda pošla. such fashion appeared
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Quotative marker: verb of thinking n06
И вот ..(0.1) как-то мне было/страшно туда заходить,I vot ..(0.1) kak-to mne bylo /strašno tuda zaxodit’,And here somehow to.me was scary there enter
..(0.3) потому что думаю \упаду-у,..(0.3) potomu čto dumaju \upadu-u,
because I.think I.will.fall.down н-не \знаю что это \такое,
n-ne \znaju čto èto \takoe,not know what that such
..(0.2) \упаду дума↑ю,..(0.2) \upadu duma↑ju,
I.will.fall.down I.think
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Serialization N26: 113
...(0.6) онаговорит...(0.6) ona govorit
she says
«/Садись делай \/сама¡«/Sadis’ delaj \/sama¡
Sit do yourself
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Serialization: verb union N21
И я его при этом /стою и \протираю.I ja ego pri ètom /stoju i \protiraju.And I it with all.that stand and wipe
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Interim summary: EDUs and grammar
Topical issue in the grammar of natural spoken discourse:
How units of speech correspond to grammatical units?
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THE PROBLEM OF SENTENCE
Sentence is supposedly a fundamental unit of language
Linguists generally use this notion relying on conventions of punctuation in written language
But there are not obvious periods and question marks in speech
Is sentence real?
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The canonical situation
In narrative discourse, there is a difference between final and non-final EDUs
Canonical prosody of a final EDU (period intonation): falling tone in the primary accent
Canonical prosody of a non-final EDU (comma intonation): rising tone in the primary accent
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A canonical example z16:11-12
и когда я вот ...(0.5) возвращаюсь/домой, and kogda ja vot ...(0.5) vozvraščajus’ /domoj,
and when I well return home
на этом /сон \кончился. na ètom /son \končilsja. on that dream ended
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Non-canonical situation: Comma with a falling tone
....(1.5) /\Озеро ...(0.5) какое-то,Lake some
..(0.3) (Или /\речка,Either river
или /\озеро,or lake
но по-моему \озеро,but I guess lake
потому что’ ..(0.2) как-то-оw because somehow...(0.6) \маленькое такое,
small such \небольшое.)
minor ....(1.0) ’и-иh ...(0.7)через /него
and across it..(0.3) как-то \бревно какое-то,
somehow log some типа \моста.
like bridge
....(1.5) /\Ozero ...(0.5) kakoe-to,
..(0.3) (Ili /\rečka,
ili /\ozero,
no po-moemu \ozero,
potomu čto’ ..(0.2) kak-to-oW ...
(0.6) \malen’koe takoe,
\nebol’šoe.)
....(1.0) ’i-iH ...(0.7) čerez /nego ..
(0.3) kak-to \brevno kakoe-to,
tipa \mosta.
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Systematic difference between two kinds of fall
Final fall (period): targets at the absolute bottom of the speaker’s F0 range
Non-final fall (comma): targets at several dozen Hz (2 to 5 semitones) higher
Final fall (period): steady falling on the post-accent syllables
Non-final fall (comma): lack of falling on post-accent syllables, often rise of tone (V-bend)
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F0 graph
\ozero, \malen’koe \nebol’ \brevno kakoe \mosta.
takoe, šoe.-to,
12 10 125
8
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Clause chaining1. I had a dream,2. that I was in church,3. and I was playing there,4. some game, 5. and I have my girl friend there,6. with me, 7. in church,8. we are playing some game,9. everybody prays,10. and then there was a very beautiful icon there,11. very-very much so,12. so bright,13. so big,14. I liked it very much,15. and then from the heaven came out the Blessed Virgin,16. and Jesus Christ,17. the baby,18. and also God came out.
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Clause chaining (cont’d)
1. And—2. and they were in church,3. and everybody approached them,4. and started stroking,5. the baby on his head,6. and the baby had such a thing,7. the shining one,8. around his head,9. and everbody rejoiced,10. that the baby of Jesus Christ was born.
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Subordinate clause in a different sentence
..(0.4) а потом меня \разбудили...(0.4) a potom menja \razbudili.
and then me they.awoke. ..(0.4) \Бабушка. ..(0.4) \Babuška.
Granny. ..(0.3) Ну чтоб в \школу идти. ..(0.3) Nu čtobv \školu idti.
Well for to school go.
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Sentence?
In spoken discourse, it is possible to identify groups of EDUs that can count as sentences
Sentence boundaries are identified prosodically rather than syntactically
Sentences often contain dozens of EDUs and coincide with whole episodes or even whole stories
On the other hand, a subordinate clause often appears in a different sentence than the main clause
Speakers evidently enjoy a significant freedom in how they combine clauses into a sentence
Generally, sentence is a far less obvious, less basic, and much harder identifiable unit of language than an EDU (or clause)
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Russian as an exotic language
Numerous phenomena, usually attributed in typology to certain exotic languages, are attested in spoken Russian (and some of them with high frequency): anticipatory topic echo increment epistemic markers quotative markers serialization clause chaining…………………………
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At the same time
Many supposedly prominent elements of Russian grammar are not used: participles converbs deverbal nouns
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Some conclusions The process of transcribing spoken discourse reveals
important properties of a language’s grammar Without such excercise many grammatical phenomena
may remain unnoticed While other phenomena can be overemphasized If one looks at the most basic form of language use,
that is, spoken discourse, and uses frequency as a criterion of a phenomenon’s
significance, then one can get a realistic assessment of what is
important in a language’s grammar This is what can be called natural grammar Prosody is extremely important; the amount of
information it conveys is comparable to the lexico-grammatical information
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Implications for less studied, newly written or unwritten languages?
Linguists are often the first to create “texts” in such languages
Sound recording, then transcribing Input undergoes significant modification
many elements are not represented (prosody, pauses, hesitations, false starts…)
important elements are added (notably punctuation marks)
If this is not done systematically, the ontological status of the resulting object is far from clear
It serves, however, as the basis for further conclusions about the language’s grammar
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Suggestions
Develop explicit discourse transcription for a language under investigation
This is no less important than for “big” languages with a tradition of literacy
It is possible to rely on the conventions already developed for “big” languages
Discourse transcription is a flexible tool, and every linguist can use the degree of detail that matches his/her goals
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Experience with other languages
Pulaar, Atlantic (Andrej Kibrik) Kuwait dialect of Arabic (Vera
Cukanova) Eastern Armenian (Viktorija
Xurshudjan)
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Pulaar discourse transcription
Genre: griot’s saga Semi-improvisationAccompanied by playing a hoddu – a
string instrument
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West Africangriots
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Example
®(8.3) omo jogii sehil, ko mbiyeten sehil, neââo dingiral. ®(1.5) nde âum woodnoo=, ®(0.9) tuggude e karaas
amen fay dow, …(0.4) ndeen …(0.3)
neââo na wona neââo maa=,
…(0.3) ngonon yeewtidiièe dingiral+
haa suddee+ tawi hay huunde alaa
âon+ so wonaa tawa ko denâe
èii kaawmaa walla èii yummaa.
She had a friend, what we call a friend — a person of youth’s meetings at the
village square. This has been like that for ages, beginning from our generation and
through the youngest one, a person becomes your person, so that your are co-participants of
meetings in the village square, until one is covered by a veil (that is,
till one marries), and then there is nothing between
the two of you, unless it happens that that’s a cousin
on one’s mother side
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Segmentation
®(8.3) omo jogii sehil, ko mbiyeten sehil, neââo dingiral. ®(1.5) nde âum woodnoo=, ®(0.9) tuggude e karaas
amen fay dow, …(0.4) ndeen …(0.3)
neââo na wona neââo maa=,
…(0.3) ngonon yeewtidiièe dingiral+
haa suddee+ tawi hay huunde alaa
âon+ so wonaa tawa ko denâe
èii kaawmaa walla èii yummaa.
She had a friend, what we call a friend — a person of youth’s meetings at the
village square. This has been like that for ages, beginning from our generation and
through the youngest one, a person becomes your person, so that your are co-participants of
meetings in the village square, until one is covered by a veil (that is,
till one marries), and then there is nothing between
the two of you, unless it happens that that’s a cousin
on one’s mother side
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Pauses
®(8.3) omo jogii sehil, ko mbiyeten sehil, neââo dingiral. ®(1.5) nde âum woodnoo=, ®(0.9) tuggude e karaas
amen fay dow, …(0.4) ndeen …(0.3)
neââo na wona neââo maa=,
…(0.3) ngonon yeewtidiièe dingiral+
haa suddee+ tawi hay huunde alaa
âon+ so wonaa tawa ko denâe
èii kaawmaa walla èii yummaa.
She had a friend, what we call a friend — a person of youth’s meetings at the
village square. This has been like that for ages, beginning from our generation and
through the youngest one, a person becomes your person, so that your are co-participants of
meetings in the village square, until one is covered by a veil (that is,
till one marries), and then there is nothing between
the two of you, unless it happens that that’s a cousin
on one’s mother side
62
Various prosodic features
®(8.3) omo jogii sehil, ko mbiyeten sehil, neââo dingiral. ®(1.5) nde âum woodnoo=, ®(0.9) tuggude e karaas
amen fay dow, …(0.4) ndeen …(0.3)
neââo na wona neââo maa=,
…(0.3) ngonon yeewtidiièe dingiral+
haa suddee+ tawi hay huunde alaa
âon+ so wonaa tawa ko denâe
èii kaawmaa walla èii yummaa.
She had a friend, what we call a friend — a person of youth’s meetings at the
village square. This has been like that for ages, beginning from our generation and
through the youngest one, a person becomes your person, so that your are co-participants of
meetings in the village square, until one is covered by a veil (that is,
till one marries), and then there is nothing between
the two of you, unless it happens that that’s a cousin
on one’s mother side
63
Punctuation
®(8.3) omo jogii sehil, ko mbiyeten sehil, neââo dingiral. ®(1.5) nde âum woodnoo=, ®(0.9) tuggude e karaas
amen fay dow, …(0.4) ndeen …(0.3)
neââo na wona neââo maa=,
…(0.3) ngonon yeewtidiièe dingiral+
haa suddee+ tawi hay huunde alaa
âon+ so wonaa tawa ko denâe
èii kaawmaa walla èii yummaa.
She had a friend, what we call a friend — a person of youth’s meetings at the
village square. This has been like that for ages, beginning from our generation and
through the youngest one, a person becomes your person, so that your are co-participants of
meetings in the village square, until one is covered by a veil (that is,
till one marries), and then there is nothing between
the two of you, unless it happens that that’s a cousin
on one’s mother side
64
Canonical, short, and long EDUs
®(8.3) omo jogii sehil, ko mbiyeten sehil, neââo dingiral. ®(1.5) nde âum woodnoo=, ®(0.9) tuggude e karaas
amen fay dow, …(0.4) ndeen …(0.3)
neââo na wona neââo maa=,
…(0.3) ngonon yeewtidiièe dingiral+
haa suddee+ tawi hay huunde alaa
âon+ so wonaa tawa ko denâe
èii kaawmaa walla èii yummaa.
She had a friend, what we call a friend — a person of youth’s meetings at the
village square. This has been like that for ages, beginning from our generation and
through the youngest one, a person becomes your person, so that your are co-participants of
meetings in the village square, until one is covered by a veil (that is,
till one marries), and then there is nothing between
the two of you, unless it happens that that’s a cousin
on one’s mother side
65
Conclusion
Basic phenomena are same or comparable There are specific differences – basis for future
typological research Focusing on spoken language and prosody
really affects a linguist's understanding of what is important in grammar and what grammar is about
Languages with a tradition of literacy, and strong emphasis on their written form, appear very different if looked at in their oral form
For the languages with a lesser or no tradition of literacy, it is not less important to pay attention to a systematic representation of their sound shape, especially prosody
66
Final word
Поэтом можешь ты не быть,но гражданином быть обязан“You need not be a poet,
But a citizen – that you must be” (N. Nekrasov)
Лингвистом можешь ты не быть,но фонетистом быть обязан
“You need not be a linguist,But a phonetician – that you must be”