spm form 4

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SPM Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: Cell Structure and Cell Organisation

Neuron cell

Cell Structure and Function

Comparison between Animal Cell (AC) and Plant Cell (PC)

1. Mitochondrion (pl: Mitochondria): AC and PC

spherical / rod-shaped organelles

two membranes: Inner membrane – form cristae & Outer membrane – regular and smooth

an energy source

site of cellular aerobic respiration

produces ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

2. Nucleus (pl: Nuclei): AC and PC

contains the genetic material

regulates and controls the activities of the cell

an organelle bounded by double (2) layers of nuclear membrane with pores

and selectivelypermeable

responsible for all cellular structure, chemical functions, growth and reproduction

separates the genetic materials (chromatin) from cytoplasm

3. Nucleolus: AC and PC

spherical structure within the nucleus

consists of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) and proteins

visible when the cell is not dividing

synthesis RNA which is needed to make ribosomes

4. Nucleoplasm: AC and PC

fluid contained within the nucleus

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highly viscous solid

made up of the chromatin and the nucleolus

5. Chromosomes

thread-like structures (consists of genetic material)

appears as chromatin spread throughout the nucleus in the form of tiny granules

chromatin condenses into chromosomes (during cell division)

carry genetic information in its DNA

6. Ribosomes: Ac and PC

small dot-like organelles

protein synthesis

consist of RNA (ribonucleic acids)

smallest cellular organelles

attached on the surface of ER and occur freely in cytoplasm

7. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): AC and PC

connected to the nuclear membrane

synthesises proteins, steroids and lipids

collects, stores and distributes protein, steroids and lipids

exists as rough ER and smooth ER

Rough ER: covered with ribosomes, flat sealed sac which continued from the nuclear membrane,

transports protein, and have a large surface area for chemical reactions.

Smooth ER: does not have ribosomes, transports lipids and presents in large amounts of cells.

8. Plasma membrane: AC and PC

cell membrane

thin membrane surround the cytoplasm of a cell

selectively permeable / semi permeable

a protective and selective outer barrier

consists of phospholipids and protein molecules

To be continued.. Upcoming post involves – Golgi apparatus/body, Cytoplasm, Lysosome,

Centriole, Vacuole, Cell wall, Chloroplast.

Keys:

AC and PC = similarities

AC or PC = differences (Carbohydrates storage: AC = Glycogen / PC = Starch)

Cell Structure and Function Comparison between Animal Cell (AC) and Plant Cell (PC)

9. Golgi apparatus / Golgi body : AC and PC

bound sacs

processes, packages and transport molecules synthesised in the cell

forms lysosomes

transports and stores lipids

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synthesis of carbohydrate from hormone

changes protein into glycoprotein

excretes waste products out of the cell

10. Cytoplasm: AC and PC

aqueous solution (except nucleus)

stores water, enzymes, nutrient, salts and dissolved gases

provided support, shape and protects the cell organelles

medium for metabolic reactions

provides substances

11. Lysosome: AC

sac-like organelle with one membrane

digest proteins, lipids and carbohydrates

removes undigested materials

releases enzymes to digest external materials

12. Centriole: AC

are paired cylindrical organelles

nine tubes with three tubules each

produces spindle during cell division (mitosis and meiosis)

migrate to the opposite poles of the cell (during cell division – will be discussed in Chapter 5 Cell

Division)

13. Vacuole: AC (temporary / lower class species) and PC

small cavity in the cytoplasm

bound by a single membrane

filled with cell sap

storage of food (protein, oil and water)

some vacuoles remove metabolic waste

functions as cell expansion

Amoeba: food vacuoles (phagocytosis)

Paramecium: contractile vacuoles (expel water)

14. Cell Wall: PC

rigid and tough cellulose layer surrounding the plasma membrane (cell membrane)

protects and supports the cell

maintains the shape prevents the cell from busting (excessive intake of water)

allows substances to move freely through the cell wall

15. Chloroplast: PC

disc / lens-shaped organelle

have two membranes: inner and outer membrane

contains chlorophyll in the grana to trap sunlight energy

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carry out photosynthesis in the chlorophyll

storage of food and pigments

Keys:

AC and PC = similarities

AC or PC = differences (Carbohydrates storage: AC = Glycogen / PC = Starch

Organelles – (little organ) tiny structures inside a cell that perform specific functions for a cell.

Example: mitochondria, lysosome and chloroplast.

Mitochondria

Animal: High density at sperm cells (at middle piece to provide sufficient energy for motive

power), flight muscle cells (bird / avian), liver cells, meristematic / meristemic cells (involve with

cell division), kidney cells, heart muscle cells, brain cells.

Chloroplasts

Plant: High density at palisade mesophyll (leaf: below upper epidermis). It functions to trap

sunlight to synthesise sugar during photosynthesis.

The Uniqueness of The Cell

A cell is unique:

1. Specialisation

2. Division of labour

3. Coordination and integration

Example of specialisation of cells :

Animal – smooth muscle cell, neuron (nerve cell), white blood cell, red blood cell (erythrocyte),

cheek cell (lining epithelial cell), sperm, ovum cell (the biggest cell in human)

Plant – palisade mesophyll cell, xylem, phloem, guard cell.

SPM Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: Cell Structure and Cell Organisation (Part

IV)

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Neuron cell

Cell Organisation

Unicellular – A single cell performs all the basic life process. Example: Amoeba sp., Paramecium

sp., Chlamydomonas, Bacteria and Euglena.

Multicellular– An organism consists of more than one cell. Each group of cell specialized to carry

our life processes. Example: Homo sapien (human), animals and plants. It has five levels of

organisation

1. Cells: basic units of structure and function.

Example: Red blood cells and xylem vessel cells.

2. Tissues: made up of cells with similar in structure and function.

Example: Epithelial tissues and vascular tissues.

3. Organs: made up of tissues that perform a specific function.

Example: Heart and flower.

4. System: two of more organs that perform a specific function.

Example: Digestive system and root system.

5. Organisms: whole living thing that carry out all the basic life processes.

Example: Human and durian tree.

Cell Organisation (Unicellular) in Amoeba sp. (lives in freshwater

ponds) and Paramecium sp. (lives in soil and moist area)

1. Cell structure

Amoeba sp.: plasma membrane, food vacuole, contractile vacuole, pseudopodium, nucleus,

ectoplasma, endoplasm.

Paramecium sp.: food vacuole, posterior contractile vacuole, cytostome, gullet, oral groove, cilia,

macronucleus, micronucleus, anterior contractile vacuole.

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2. Locomotion

Amoeba sp.: Pseudopodium (false foot) helps it to move forward slowly and it is known

asamoeboid movement.

Paramecium sp.: Hair-like cilia to beat against water. It beats its cilia backwards diagonally

(swim forward) and it rotates on its axis. It beats its cilia forward (swim backwards).3. Feeding

Amoeba sp.: Omnivore. Eat bacteria, plant cells, algae and other microscopic organisms.

1. Entrapment – extend pseudopodium.

2. Engulfment – engulf tiny food (phagocytosis) with its pseudopodia.

3. Digestion – food enclosed in food vacuole

4. Absorption – enzyme digests the bacteria

5. Egesting – expel indigestible material.

Paramecium sp.: Eat bacteria, organic material and other microscopic organisms.

1. Sweeping – movement of cilia. Food moves along the oral groove into the gullet and cytostome.

2. Digestion – food vacuole circulates round the cell.

3. Elimination – undigested food is eliminated at the anal pore.

4. Reproduction

Amoeba sp.: two types of reproduction.

1. Binary Fission – nucleus divides (favourable condition) and then follows by division of

cytoplasm. Two daughter cells are formed (mitotic division).

2. Spore Formation – spores form (bad condition) and germinate into new amoeba under

favourable condition.

Paramecium sp.: two types of reproduction.

1. Binary Fission – micronucleus undergoes mitosis (favourable condition). Macronucleus begins

to elongation and form two. Cell content divide and two daughter cells are formed.

2. Conjugation (Sexual reproduction) – two same species parent paramecia exchange genetic

material of their micronuclei. Each parent divides and forms four daughter cells.

5. Osmoregulation

Amoeba sp.: water moves into the cell by osmosis and prevention of bursting, it has a contractile

vacuole.

Paramecium sp.: water moves into the cell by osmosis and prevention of bursting, it has two

contractile vacuoles.

6. Respiration Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. (both): exchange gases throughout the whole cell membrane

7. Excretion

Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. (both): waste products are ammonia and carbon dioxide by

diffusion. Solid waste in paramecium is expelled through its anal pore.

Cell Organisation (Multicellular) in Human

1. Cells: Epithelial cells, muscle cells, white blood cells, red blood cells, sperm, nerve cells.

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2. Tissues: Epithelial tissue, smooth muscle tissue, connective tissue, skeletal tissue, nerve tissue.

3. Organs: Stomach, heart, kidney, lung, liver.

4. Systems: Circulatory system, respiratory system, digestive system, excretory system, muscular

system, lymphatic system, integumentary system, skeletal system, nervous system, endocrine

system, reproductive system.5. Organisms: Human.

Cell Organisation in Plant

1. Cells: Parenchyma cells, collenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells, epidermal cells.

2. Tissues: Epidermal tissue, meristem tissue, vascular tissue.

3. Organs: Leaf organ, flower organ, stem organ, root organ.

4. Systems: Shoot system, root system.

5. Organisms: Plant.

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SPM Biology Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: Movement of Substances Across the

Plasma Membrane (Part 1)

Permeability of the fruit skin

1. Uniqueness of Plasma Membrane (also known as cell membrane):

it is a semi-permeable cell membrane

it allows water and certain substances to move in and out of the cell.

2. Importance of Plasma Membrane:

- cells obtain nutrients and gases

cells excrete metabolic wastes

cells can maintain pH for enzyme activity

cells can maintain ionic concentration of the cells for enzyme activity

control the types and the amount of substances

allow useful substance (hormones/enzymes) to secrete from cells

protect cells

a boundary between the inside and outside of cell.

3. Structure of the basic unit of plasma membrane

Phospholipid molecule:

„Head‟ – hydrophilic: a polar phosphate molecule (philic~loves water / attracted to water)

„Tail‟ – hydrophobic: two non-polar fatty acids (phobic~hates water / repelled to water)

Formation:

Hydrophilic heads pointing outwards

Hydrophobic tails pointing inwards

(Bilayer phospolipid)

Fluid Mosaic Model (Protein embedded in the bilayer)

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Carrier protein

carrier for some molecules (glucose, amino acids, proteins and nucleic acids)

controls the movement of ions and particles (Na+, Ca2+ and K +)

Glycoprotein

Glycolipid combination of lipids and polysaccharides

4. Permeability

Permeable (allow to pass through)

small non-polar molecules (vitamins A, D, E, K, fatty acids, glycerol and steroids)

Impermeable (not allow to pass through but with help of carrier protein and cellular energy, it is

allow to pass through)

large polar molecules (glucose, amino acids, mucleic acids and polysaccharides)

charged ions (H+, Na+, K +, Cl- and Ca2+)

Substances that are allowed to move in the cell:

CO2

O2

excess H2O

waste: nitrogenous

Substances that are allowed to move out of the cell:

CO2

O2

amino acids

ionic salts

glucose

Materials must be able to move through the plasma membrane in order for the cell cytoplasma to

interact with the external environment. Therefore, the movement of soluble substances can occur in

several mechanisms:

A. Process of Passive Transport

B. Process of Active Transport

A. Passive Transport

i) Simple Diffusion

not selective: lipid-soluble molecules, gases and water.

not control by cell.

movement of the molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower

concentration.

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion are temperature, size of molecules/ions, diffusion

gradient, surface area and diffusion medium.

example: diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide at the alveolus.

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ii) Osmosis:

only water molecules.

not control by cell.

movement of water from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration and

often occurs across a semipermeable membrane. strong sucrose solution = less water molecule = low water potential.

weak sucrose solution = more water molecule = high water potential.

example: absorption of water by root hairs.

iii) Facilitated Diffusion:

very specific: glucose, nucleic aicds, amino acids, protein and mineral ions.

control by cell.

transport of molecules (only certain molecules) across the outer membrane of living cell by a

process of carrier protein (hydrophilic group) / channel protein (Ions: Na+, Ca2+, K +) within the

cell membrane.

normally take place from a region with higher concentration of molecules to a region of lower

concentration.

example: absorption of digested food in the villus.

B. Process of Active Transport

very specific: minerals ions and amino acids.

control by cell.

This process needs carrier proteins and energy (due to against concentration gradient) from a

region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration).

Cell must expend energy that derived from ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

example: human nerve cells (sodium ions are constantly transport out of the cell) / ions intake

by root hairs of a plant.

SPM Form 4 – Terminology and Concepts: Movement of Substances Across the Plasma

Membrane (Part 3 – Final)

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Permeability of the fruit skin

Type of Solution

1. Hypotonic

2. Isotonic

3. Hypertonic

1) Hypotonic

Solute concentration in the external solution is lesser than solute concentration inside the cell.

Water concentration outside the cell is higher than the water concentration inside the cell.

2) Isotonic

Solute concentration in the external solution is equal to the solute concentration inside the cell.

Water concentration inside and outside of the cell is the same.

3) Hypertonic

Solute concentration in the external solution is greater than solute concentration inside the cell.

Water concentration outside the cell is lower than the water concentration inside the cell.

Types of solutions:

Type of

Solution

Hypotonic Isotonic Hypertonic

Animal

Cell

The cell inflates due to

the water molecules enterthe cell. Eventually

it bursts(thin plamamembrane). Example: red

blood cell in distilled

water.

No change in the

size of cell. Netmovement of

water iszero. Example:

red blood cell in

0.85% sucrosesolution.

The cell shrinks and

becomes soft anddehydrated due tothe water molecule leave the

cell. Example: red blood cell in 5%sodium chloride solution.

Plant Cell The cell expands and No change in the The cell

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becomes firm / turgid dueto the water molecules

enter the cell.

The rigidcellulose cellwall expands slightly and

prevents cell frombursting. Example: stripof potato in distilled

water.

size of cell. Netmovement of

water is

zero. Example:strip of potato in

5% sucrosesolution.

becomes flaccid(plasmolysis occurs),vacuole and cytoplasmashrink due to

the water molecules leave the

cell. Example: strip of potato in 30%sucrose solution.

Application

1. Food is soaked in a concentrated salt solution to prevent bacteria and fungus to survive.

2. Chemical fertiliser (dissolved ions) increases solute concentration (decrease water molecules) in

soil. Therefore, water leaves from the cell sap of the plant which result the plant wither.

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Nutrition is the all-important process which is why all Berry Readers are still alive and checking

out our website. It is a process of obtaining the “materials” (food) to sustain life and growth.

While students will most likely only think of human-edible food, the subtopics covering SPM Biology

Form 4 is more than that. So this Part 1 of the new series on Nutrition forSPM Form 4

Biology by Berry Berry Easy is focussed on the types of nutrition and some basic definitions.Here, you‟ll learn about self -sustaining autotrophs and the more reliant heterotrophs.

[Tips: Sometimes students make the mistake of not considering photoautotroph and

chemoautotroph as a subset of autotrophs. Similarly, some students also fail to acknowledge that

saprophyte, holozoic, carnivourous plants, parasites are subset of heterotrophs as they do not

contain the word 'hetero' or 'trophs'. This is wrong and it'll be useful to draw a family tree inclusive

of examples to properly categorise the categories.]

SPM Biology Form 4 Notes – Nutrition (Part I)

Photoautotrophs

Type of Nutrition

Nutrition – process by which organisms obtain energy and nutrients from food, for growth,

maintenance and repair of damaged tissues.

Nutrients – the important substances which are required for nourishment of an organisms.

Living organisms are divided into two groups (based on the nutritional habits): autotrophs and

heterotrophs.

(i) Autotroph

Autotrophs – organisms that are able to synthesise complex organic compounds from raw,

simple inorganic substances (water and air) by using light or chemical energy. These organisms

manufacture their own food by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.

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Photoautotrophs – chlorophyll containing organisms that utilise solar energy for building

organic substance.

Photoautotropic nutrition = holophytic nutrition.

Chemoautotrophs – organisms synthesise organic substances by utilising chemical energy.

Autotrophs Example Photoautotroph Trees

Chemoautotroph Bacteria

(ii) Heterotroph

Heterotrophs – organisms that are not able to synthesise their own nutrients but they obtain the

nutrients from other organisms.

Holozoic nutrition – organisms feed by ingesting solid organic matter that digested and

absorbed into the bodies.

Saprophytism – organisms feed on dead and decaying organic matter.

Parasitism – organisms obtains nutrients (absorbs readily digested food) by living on / in the

body of another living organisms (the host)

Heterotrophs Example

Saprophyte Fungi

Holozoic nutrition Carnivores

Carnivorous plants

(Holozoic nutrition)

Venus traps and pitcher plants

Parasites Lice and fleas

This ends Part 1 of the series of study notes by Berry Berry Easy on Nutrition for SPM

Biology Form 4 students. In the next part, Berry Readers will learn about balanced dietand

the seven important classes of food for SPM-level biology . So do stay tuned. A balanced diet is the most important step to maintain one‟s good health. It is the key to reach a

balance between having enough energy for daily activities and also to maintain a healthy weight.

There is also a misconception that a good diet consist of no fat, no sugar, no salt and other extreme

measures. This is wrong as a balanced diet is more important than the devoid of any important

classes of food. This post, Part II of study notes from Berry Berry Easy onNutrition for SPM

Biology Form 4 students will be focused on balanced diet and the important classes of food. So

do read on. It is a simple topic that is moderately popular in exams.

[Tips: In view of the topic, the following tips will not be study tips but nutritional tips instead.

Instead of avoiding sugar and salt completely, it is advisable to just limit the intake of simple sugar

and limit salt consumption (while ensuring that the salt is already iodised). Also, if you intend to go

vegetarian, make sure that you take in all the essential amino acids too. Avocado and pumpkin

seeds are useful to provide all the essential amino acids, which are typically only available in

animal-based diet.]

SPM Biology Form 4 Notes – Nutrition (Part II)

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Human Teeth

Balanced Diet

Diet – the food and drink that we consume.

Balanced diet – diet contains the correct proportions of all the different classes of foods for

the requirement of body.

Metabolisms – the sum of all biochemical reactions that occur in the cells of living organisms.

Metabolic rate – a measure of the energy demands of the living body over a specified period of

time. Unit – kilojoule (kJ)

Energy value / calorific value of food – the quantity of heat produced when one gram of food

is completely oxidised. Unit – Joules per gram (J g-1) or calories.

Energy value = (Mass of water x Increase in temperature x 4.2 ) / Mass of food

Energy value = (g)(˚C)(J g-1˚C-1) / (g) = J g-1

Seven Important Classes of Food

1. Carbohydrates (provide energy)

2. Proteins (Build new tissues / important in growth and repairing damaged tissues)

3. Fats (provide energy / storage of extra foods)

4. Water (act as medium for biochemical reaction / transportation of substances)

5. Vitamins (prevent diseases / efficient metabolism / important for normal growth)

6. Minerals (important for normal growth and development of teeth, bones and muscles)

7. Roughage / Dietary fiber (prevent constipation / stimulate peristalsis)

This marks the end of Part 2 of notes from Berry Berry Easy on Nutrition for SPM Biology Form 4

students. In the next part, Part III, Berry Readers will learn about the many factors affecting daily

energy requirement and the basics of food energy content.

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Daily energy requirement simply means the energy required per day for activities. Typically, it can be calculated

using your basal metabolism rate (BMR ), which is the least amount of energy required to ensure that your body

organs are functioning well and also to maintain your body temperature around 36.9 degree Celcius. The daily energy

requirement is dependent on many factors which is stated in this Part 3 of Berry Berry Easy SPM Biology Form

4 notes on Nutrition. In this post, Berry Readers will also be exposed to the concept of food energy content.[Tips: Students often make the mistake of confusing calories and joules. Most of the time it is due not converting the

units when solving calculation-based questions. Sometimes it is the use of multiplication instead of division, and

vice versa during the conversion. Just remember that a calorie is 4.2 joules, so to convert calorie to joule, you'll

multiply 4.2. To convert joule to calorie, you divide by a factor of 4.2. So make sure that you do all the necessary

conversions of calories to joules in a correct manner.]

SPM Biology Form 4 Notes – Nutrition (Part III)

Nutrition Tag

Factors Affecting Daily Energy Requirement

Balance diet is essential for healthy growth and development of the body.

1. Age – children and teenagers need more energy due to their high metabolic rate.

2. Sex – male adult needs more energy due to in males have high metabolic rate.

3. Pregnancy and lactation – pregnant women need more energy due to support the growing foetuses and produce

milk for their babies.

4. Occupation – an active person requires high energy due to the person does a lot of heavy work.

5. Size or body weight – a person smaller in size has a larger surface area per unit volume. Thus, the rate of heat

loss is high.

6. Climate – people living in cold countries need more energy to maintain body temperature.

7. Genetics – genetics disposition in certain person may decide different metabolic rate.

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8. Health – In sufficient secretion of thyroxine hormone may cause lower in metabolic rate.

9. Lifestyle – An active person requires higher energy than a passive person

Energy Content of Food

Bomb calorimeter – used to calculate the energy value of various types of food samples.

One calorie (cal) = 4.2 joules (J)

Energy value of food (kJ g-1) = (4.2 x mass of water x increase in temperature) / (mass of food sample x 1000),

specific heat capacity of water, C = 4.2 J g-1 ˚C-1; mass of water in g; temperature in ˚C and mass of food sample

in g.

This represents the end of the Part 3 of the short notes on the topic of Nutrition for SPM Form 4 Biology

students by Berry Berry Easy . In the next post in this series of summarised notes, you‟ll learn about the classes

of food nutrient. So do check back.

Classes of food nutrient is the basic classes used in the formulation of a healthy diet. The

classical six basic classes of

food includes: Carbohydrates, Protein, Fat, Vitamins,Minerals and Water. This Part 4 in

the series of summarised study notes by Berry Berry Easy on Nutrition for SPM Biology Form

4 students is focussed on the classes of food nutrients. However, this part won‟t explain in detail the

classes on food but rather be explaining on the general tests conducted in school labs to test the

content of foods. Berry Readers will be exposed to the name of tests, reagents used, observation

expected and conclusions regarding the identification of classes of food nutrient. So do read on.

[Tips: Most food contain more than one of the classes of basic nutrient. To understand this, you

may look at the contents section of your slice bread's packaging. You'll see that it contains protein,

carbohydrate, fat, vitamins, minerals and even water (although water might not be stated). So

please remember that, chicken meat isn't all protein and rice isn't all carbohydrate. Eat healthy,

stay healthy and study hard.]

SPM Biology Form 4 Notes – Nutrition (Part IV)

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Classes of Food Nutrients

Classes of Food Nutrients

Test Reagent Observation Conclusion

Benedict’s

test

Food sample +

Benedict’s solution(Place in boiling

water bath)

The solution turns

from blueto green / yellow / brick-red precipitate formed (depend on

sugar concentration).

Food sample

containsreducing

sugar

Benedict’stest

Food sample +

Benedict’s solution

+ Dilutehydrochloric acid

(Place in boiling

water bath) +

neutralise bysodium hydrogen

carbonate powder

The solution turns

from blueto green / yellow / brick-

red precipitate formed (depend onsugar concentration).

Food sample

contains non-

reducingsugar

Iodine /

Starch test

Food sample +

Iodine solution

The solution turns frombrownish-

yellow to blue-black.

Food sample

contains

starch

Emulsion

test

Food sample +

ethanol

The fat droplets formed on the

surface and the solution becomecloudy.

Food sample

contains oil(lipid)

Sudan IIItest

Food sample +Sudan III stain

A red-stained oil layer separatesout and float on the water surface

Food samplecontains oil

(lipid)

Fat test Food sample +

filter paper

A translucent mark formed Food sample

contains oil

(lipid)

Millon’s

test

Food sample +

Millon’s reagent +1% sodium nitrite

(Place in boiling

water bath)

The solution turns brick-

redprecipitate.

Food sample

containsprotein

Biuret test Food sample + 20%

sodium hydroxide

solution and 1%

copper(II) sulphatesolution

The solution turns

from blueto purple colour.

Food sample

contains

protein

This marks the end of Part 4 of the series of notes on Nutrition for Form 4

Biology studentstaking SPM in Malaysia. In the next part, Berry Readers will learn all about

vitamins. Read all about it to stay healthy.

Vitamin (organic compound) is commonly recognised as one of the food category to maintain

health. Unlike the big three of “carbohydrate, protein and fat”, vitamin is only required in small

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amount as nutrient. Vitamin is vital as it cannot be adequately produced by our body, hence it must

be ingested through our daily diet. At the moment, there are 13 vitamins considered to be crucial to

human health. They are Vitamin A, Vitamin B complex (variant in B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9 and

B12), Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and Vitamin K.

This Part 5 of SPM Form 4 Biology notes on Nutrition by Berry Berry Easy is all about vitamins, with heavy emphasis on fat-soluble vitamins. In this post, you‟ll learn the basics of the

organic compound called vitamin and the types of fat-soluble vitamins in detail. Make sure you read

it not only for your SPM examinations, but also for daily health. So it is both an SPM examination

tips and also a daily health tip.

[Tips: Only vitamin B and C are soluble in water. The rest are soluble in fat. For those who are

proficient in Malay, you can easily remember the word ADEK, which sounds like ADIK (younger

brother). Vitamin A, D, E and K are the vitamins soluble in fat.]

SPM Biology Form 4 Notes – Nutrition (Part V)

Vitamin Cod oil

Vitamins

It is a group of complex organic compounds that are needed in small quantities by living

organisms because vitamins can be reused in body metabolisms.

Vitamins do not provide energy to body metabolism and vitamins are non-protein organic

compounds.

Living organisms cannot synthesise vitamins.

Vitamins can be only obtained from diet.

It is essential to maintenance of good health, normal growth and efficient metabolism.

There are two categories in vitamins: fat-soluble vitamins and water-soluble vitamins.

Fat-soluble Vitamins

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Types of

Vitamins Sources Functions Effect of deficiency

A (retinol) Milk,

carrots,

tomatoes,

eggs, fishoil, green

vegetables,

butter

- Builds visual pigments

on retina for night vision

- Immunity

- Growth of epithelial

cells

- Antioxidant

- Build body resistance to

diseases

- Night blindness

- Xerophthalmia (cornea

becomes dry)

- Scaly skin

D (calciferol) Formed

(skin) duringthe presence

of sunlight,

fish liver oil,

egg yolk,cheese

- Enhances absorption of

calcium and phosphorus- Build strong bones and

healthy teeth

- Rickets (weak bones)

- Osteomalacia

(softening of bones)

E (tocopherol) Palm oil,cereals, nuts,

green

vegetables,

olive oil,milk-

- Preserves healthymuscular system, blood

circulatory (red blood

cells) and nervous system

- Antioxidant

- Maintain healthy

function of the

reproduction system

- Premature aging

- Low fertility

- Slow wound healing

K (phylloquinone) Green

vegetable,

totatoes

- Helps in blood clotting - Detective blood

clotting

- Anaemia

The next post, Part 6 on the short series of notes on Nutrition for SPM Biology Form 4student by Berry Berry Easy will continue on the sub-topic of vitamin with emphasis being given

on water-soluble vitamins. So do read on.

Water-soluble vitamins are vitamins that are soluble in water. While it sounds obvious but its

implication is large. Because it is water-soluble, it has to be replaced daily as the body does not store

them or absorbed in the fat globules. Since it is replaced daily, you will need to ingest them on a daily

basis. Typical source of B-complex vitamins are found in cereal, egg, fish legume, meat, milk, poultry

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and others. While Vitamin C can naturally be found in fruits (citrus based are the best as most Berry

Readers would already know from young).

So, let‟s think again, what the implication of water-soluble vitamin means? It also means that these

vitamins can potentially be washed away during the preparation of food or even during storage due

to its solubility in water. So it is very different from the fat-soluble vitamins learnt in the earlier post. As you would have guessed it, this post, Part 6 of notes on Nutrition for SPM Form 4 Biology

student from Berry Berry Easy is all about water-soluble vitamins.

[Tips: For those who wonder how fat-soluble is stored in the body. Vitamin "ADEK" as mentioned

in the previous post is fat-soluble, in which they are absorbed in chylomicrons which moves

through the lymphatic system of small intestines, followed by circulation in the blood stream and

finally stored in body tissues. (This also implies the importance of fat in our body. So do not remove

too much fat from your body until you are unhealthy.

As a health tip, make sure you don't ingest too much fat-soluble vitamins, as they can be stored in

your body. A condition called hypervitaminosis can occur if you have too much vitamin stored in

your body, and that condition is potentially harmful to your body. So remember that, moderation

is the best way to go in life.]

SPM Biology Form 4 Notes – Nutrition (Part VI)

Cod fish oil

Water-soluble Vitamins

Types of

Vitamins Sources Functions Effect of deficiency

B1 (thiamine) Milk,

legumens,wheatgerm,

yeast extract,

- Precursor of a coenzyme

- Coenzyme for carbohydrates

metabolisme

- Beri-beri (muscle

weakness, nerve disorder)

- Fatigue

http://berryberryeasy.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Fish-Oil2.jpg

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nuts, wholegrains

B2 (riboflavin) Milk,

wheatgerm,

liver, eggs

- Component of

coenzyme- Healthy nervous system

- Sore eyes

- Skin lesions at the

corner of mouth, nose and

ears

- Inflammation of tongue

and lips

B3 (niacin) Liver, rice,legumes,

fish, yeast

extract

- Component of coenzyme

- Healthy nervous system, skin and

intestines

- Pellagra (skin andgastrointestinal lesions)

B5 (pantothenic

acid)

Fish, egg

yolk, liver,meat

- Component of coenzyme for

carbohydrates, protein and fatty acids

metabolism

- Muscle cramps

- Fatigue

- Grey hair

- Low immunity

B6 (pyridoxine) Fish, liver,

milk,

potatoes

- Coenzyme in amino acid metabolism - For red blood cell formation

- Kidney stone

- Muscular twitching

- Diarrhea

B9 (folic acid) Greenvegetables

- For DNA and RNA

- For red blood cells formation - Regulating the function of iron

- Miscarriage birth

- Cleft lips

- Limb defects of babies

B12 (cobalamin) Cheese, milk,

egg, meat

- Coenzyme in nucleic acid

metabolism

- For red blood cells formation

- Pernicious anaemia

- Neurological disorders

H (biotin) Legumes,vegetables

- Coenzyme in the synthesis of fat,

glycogen and amino acid

- Nausea- Fatigue

- Muscular pains

C (ascorbic acid) Orange,

tomatoes,

- Fats and protein metabolism - Energy production

- Scurvy (bleeding gums

and bruised skin)

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broccoli,cauliflower

This is the end of Part 6 of notes for SPM Biology on Nutrition. Do read on the other berry

essential notes from Berry Berry Easy . Stay healthy too, take your vitamin but don‟t go overboard

by having an overdose of vitamins.

spm form 4

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