When sociologists do quantitative research, they generally use either surveys or precollected data. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Qualitative research uses descriptive rather than numerical data. Field studies are best used when interaction needs to be observed in a natural setting, and when in-depth analysis is needed. The case study is the most popular approach to field research.

• survey

• population

• sample

• representative sample

• questionnaire

• interview

• closed-ended questions

• open-ended questions

• secondary analysis

• field research

• case study

• participant observation

Doing Research in the Social Sciences

• Sociologists must conduct research in a real- world setting as opposed to a laboratory.

• Sociologists rely on quantitative and qualitative research.

• Quantitative research uses numerical data, while qualitative research uses narrative or descriptive data, such as surveys or precollected data.

Survey Research

• A survey is a research method in which people are asked to answer a series of questions.

• It is the most widely used method of research in sociology.

• A population consists of the people with the characteristics a researcher wants to study.

Survey Research (cont.)

• Sociologists survey a sample, or a limited number of cases drawn from a larger population.

• A representative sample has the same basic characteristics as the population and is chosen at random.

Survey Research (cont.)

• A questionnaire is a written set of questions that survey participants answer themselves.

• During an interview a trained interviewer asks questions and records the answers.

Survey Research (cont.)

• Closed-ended questions are those that a person answers by choosing from a limited, predetermined set of responses.

• Open-ended questions ask the person to answer in his or her own words.

Closed-ended and Open-ended Questions

Closed-ended Survey Research

Secondary Analysis (Precollected Data)

• Secondary analysis is the method of using precollected information, such as:

– Government reports

– Company records

– Voting lists

– Prison records

– Other reports by social scientists

Secondary Analysis

Field Research

• Field research looks closely at aspects of social life that cannot be measured quantitatively and that are best understood within a natural setting.

• A case study is a thorough investigation of a single group, incident or community.

Field Research (cont.)

• Researchers often become a member of the group being studied, either with or without the group’s knowledge (also known as participant observation).

Investigating School Violence and School Funding

Summary of Research Methods

Causation in science is the idea that one event leads to another event. Scientists assume that all events have causes, or determinants. Social events are so complex, however, that many factors may be identified as causes. Three standards must be met before causation can be proved.

• causation

• multiple causation

• variable

• quantitative variable

• qualitative variable

• independent variable

• dependent variable

• intervening variable

• correlation

• spurious correlation

The Nature of Causation

• Causation is a concept that means that events occur in predictable, nonrandom ways.

• Sociologists believe that an event occurs as a result of several factors working in combination, or multiple causation.

Variables and Correlations

• A variable is a characteristic that is subject to change.

• Quantitative variable—one that can be measured and given a numerical value.

• Qualitative variable—one that is identified by membership in a category (“either/or” or “yes/no” category).

The Wired World

Variables and Correlations (cont.)

• An independent variable causes something to occur.

• A dependent variable results from the change in the independent variable.

• An intervening variable influences the relationship between the independent and the dependent variable.

Variables and Correlations (cont.)

• A correlation is a measure of how things are related to one another.

– Positive correlation—if both the independent and dependent variable change in the same direction.

– Negative correlation—if the variables change in the opposite direction.

Positive and Negative Correlations

Standards for Showing Causation

• Standard 1: Two variables must be correlated.

• Standard 2: All other possible factors must be taken into account; the fact that two events are correlated does not mean that one causes the other.

Standards for Showing Causation (cont.)

• Spurious correlation is an apparent relationship between two variables that is actually caused by a third variable affecting both of the other variables.

• Standard 3: A change in the independent variable must occur before a change in the dependent variable can occur, or the cause must occur before the effect.

A Spurious Correlation

The research process is made up of several distinct steps. These steps represent an ideal. It is not always necessary or even possible that they be strictly followed. Researchers have an ethical obligation to protect participants’ privacy and to avoid deceiving or harming them. Preserving the rights of subjects must be weighed against the value of the knowledge to be gained.

• scientific method

• hypothesis

Steps for Doing Research

• The scientific method involves the pursuit of knowledge in a systematic way. Most sociologists follow this method, but not always mechanically.

Secondary Analysis:A Model for Research

Steps for Doing Research (cont.)

• The steps are as follows:

– Identify the Problem—the researcher chooses an object or topic to study.

– Review the Literature—she then conducts a literature search.

– Formulate Hypotheses—she forms a hypothesis, or testable statement of relationships among well-defined variables.

Steps for Doing Research (cont.)

– Develop a Research Design—the researcher then states the procedures she will follow for collecting and analyzing data.

– Collect Data—this involves either asking people questions, observing behavior, or analyzing existing materials and records.

– Analyze Data—at this point, the researcher determines if the hypothesis can be supported.

Steps for Doing Research (cont.)

– State Findings and Conclusions—finally, she shares her methods and findings with others so that they too can learn.

Steps in the Research Process

Ethics in Social Research

• The American Sociological Association has published guidelines for conducting research.

• Conducting ethical research means:

– Showing objectivity

– Using superior research standards

– Reporting findings and methods truthfully

– Protecting the rights, privacy, integrity, dignity, and freedom of research subjects

Positive and Negative Correlations

A Spurious Correlation

Steps in the Research Process