Spirituality

Not to be confused with Spiritualism.

There is no single, agreed-upon definition of spiritual-ity.[1][2][note 1] Surveys of the definition of the term, asused in scholarly research, show a broad range of defini-tions, with very limited similitude.[3]

It may denote almost any kind of meaningfulactivity[4][note 2] or blissful experience.[6] It denotesa process of transformation, but in a context separatefrom organized religious institutions, termed "spiritualbut not religious".[7] In modern times the emphasisis on subjective experience.[8] Houtman and Auperssuggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanisticpsychology, mystical and esoteric traditions and easternreligions.[9]

1 Definition

There is no single, widely-agreed definition ofspirituality.[1][2][note 1] Surveys of the definition ofthe term, as used in scholarly research, show a broadrange of definitions, with very limited similitude.[3]

According to Waaijman, the traditional meaning of spiri-tuality is a process of re-formation which “aims to recoverthe original shape of man, the image of God. To accom-plish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, whichrepresents the original shape: in Judaism the Torah, inChristianity Christ, in Buddhism Buddha, in the IslamMuhammad.”[note 3]

In modern times the emphasis is on subjectiveexperience.[8] It may denote almost any kind ofmeaningful activity[4][note 4] or blissful experience.[6] Itstill denotes a process of transformation, but in a contextseparate from organized religious institutions, termed"spiritual but not religious".[7] Houtman and Auperssuggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanisticpsychology, mystical and esoteric traditions and easternreligions.[9]

Waaijman points out that “spirituality” is only oneterm of a range of words which denote the praxis ofspirituality.[11] Some other terms are “Hasidism, contem-plation, kabbala, asceticism, mysticism, perfection, de-votion and piety”.[11]

2 Etymology

The term spirit means “animating or vital principle inman and animals”.[web 1] It is derived from the Old Frenchespirit[web 1] which comes from the Latin word spiritus(soul, courage, vigor, breath)[web 1] and is related to spi-rare (to breathe).[web 1] In the Vulgate the Latin word spir-itus is used to translate the Greek pneuma and Hebrewruah.[web 1]

The term “spiritual”, matters “concerning thespirit”,[web 2] is derived from Old French spirituel(12c.), which is derived from Latin spiritualis, whichcomes from spiritus or “spirit”.[web 2]

The term “spirituality” is derived from Middle Frenchspiritualité,[web 3] from Late Latin “spiritualitatem” (nom-inative spiritualitas),[web 3] which is also derived fromLatin spiritualis.[web 3]

3 Development of the meaning ofspirituality

3.1 Classical, medieval and early modernperiods

Words translatable as 'spirituality' first began to arise inthe 5th century and only entered common use towardthe end of the Middle Ages.[12] In a Biblical context theterm means being animated by God,[13] to be driven bythe Holy Spirit, as opposed to a life which rejects thisinfluence.[14]

In the 11th century this meaning changed. Spiritualitybegan to denote the mental aspect of life, as opposed tothe material and sensual aspects of life, “the ecclesiasticalsphere of light against the dark world of matter”.[15][note 5]

In the 13th century “spirituality” acquired a social andpsychological meaning. Socially it denoted the territoryof the clergy: “The ecclesiastical against the temporarypossessions, the ecclesiastical against the secular author-ity, the clerical class against the secular class”[16][note 6]

Psychologically, it denoted the realm of the inner life:“The purity of motives, affections, intentions, inner dis-positions, the psychology of the spiritual life, the analysisof the feelings”.[17][note 7]

In the 17th and 18th century a distinction was made be-tween higher and lower forms of spirituality: “A spiritualman is one who is Christian 'more abundantly and deeper

1

2 3 DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEANING OF SPIRITUALITY

than others’.”[17][note 8] The word was also associated withmysticism and quietism, and acquired a negative mean-ing.

3.2 Modern spirituality

3.2.1 Transcendentalism and Unitarian Universal-ism

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) was a pioneer of theidea of spirituality as a distinct field.[18] He was one ofthe major figures in Transcendentalism, an early 19th-century liberal Protestant movement, which was rootedin English and German Romanticism, the Biblical crit-icism of Herder and Schleiermacher, and the skepticismof Hume.[web 4] The Transcendentalists emphasised an in-tuitive, experiential approach of religion.[web 5] FollowingSchleiermacher,[19] an individual’s intuition of truth wastaken as the criterion for truth.[web 5] In the late 18th andearly 19th century, the first translations of Hindu texts ap-peared, which were also read by the Transcendentalists,and influenced their thinking.[web 5] They also endorseduniversalist and Unitarianist ideas, leading to UnitarianUniversalism, the idea that there must be truth in otherreligions as well, since a loving God would redeem allliving beings, not just Christians.[web 5][web 6]

3.2.2 Neo-Vedanta

Main article: Neo-Vedanta

An important influence on western spirituality was Neo-Vedanta, also called neo-Hinduism[20] and Hindu Uni-versalism,[web 7] a modern interpretation of Hinduismwhich developed in response to western colonialism andorientalism. It aims to present Hinduism as a “homoge-nized ideal of Hinduism”[21] with Advaita Vedanta as itscentral doctrine.[22] Due to the colonisation of Asia bythe western world, since the 19th century an exchange ofideas has been taking place between the western worldand Asia, which also influenced western religiosity.[23]

Unitarianism, and the idea of Universalism, was broughtto India by missionaries, and had a major influence onneo-Hinduism via Ram Mohan Roy's Brahmo Samaj andBrahmoism. Roy attempted to modernise and reformHinduism, from the idea of Universalism.[24] This uni-versalism was further popularised, and brought back tothe west as neo-Vedanta, by Swami Vivekananda.[24]

3.2.3 Theosophy, Anthroposophy, and the Peren-nial Philosophy

See also: Esotericism

Another major influence on modern spirituality was the

Theosophical Society, which searched for 'secret teach-ings’ in Asian religions.[23] It has been influential onmodernist streams in several Asian religions, notablyNeo-Vedanta, the revival of Theravada Buddhism, andBuddhist modernism, which have taken over modernwestern notions of personal experience and universalismand integrated them in their religious concepts.[23] Asecond, related influence was Anthroposophy, whosefounder, Rudolf Steiner, was particularly interested in de-veloping a genuine Western spirituality, and in the waysthat such a spirituality could transform practical institu-tions such as education, agriculture, and medicine.[25][26]

The influence of Asian traditions on western modern spir-ituality was also furthered by the Perennial Philosophy,whose main proponent Aldous Huxley was deeply influ-enced by Vivekanda’s Neo-Vedanta and Universalism,[27]

and the spread of social welfare, education and masstravel after World War Two.Important early 20th century western writers who stud-ied the phenomenon of spirituality, and their works, in-clude William James, The Varieties of Religious Experi-ence (1902), and Rudolph Otto, especially The Idea ofthe Holy (1917). James’ notions of “spiritual experience”had a further influence on the modernist streams in Asiantraditions, making them even further recognisable for awestern audience.[19]

3.2.4 “Spiritual but not religious”

Main article: Spiritual but not religious

After the Second World War spirituality and religion be-came disconnected,[17] and spirituality became more ori-ented on subjective experience, instead of “attempts toplace the self within a broader ontological context.”[28]

A new discourse developed, in which (humanistic) psy-chology, mystical and esoteric traditions and eastern re-ligions are being blended, to reach the true self by self-disclosure, free expression and meditation.[9]

The distinction between the spiritual and the religiousbecame more common in the popular mind during thelate 20th century with the rise of secularism and the ad-vent of the New Age movement. Authors such as ChrisGriscom and Shirley MacLaine explored it in numerousways in their books. Paul Heelas noted the develop-ment within New Age circles of what he called “semi-nar spirituality":[29] structured offerings complementingconsumer choice with spiritual options.Among other factors, declining membership of orga-nized religions and the growth of secularism in thewestern world have given rise to this broader view ofspirituality.[30] The term “spiritual” is now frequentlyused in contexts in which the term “religious” was for-merly employed.[31] Both theists and atheists have criti-cized this development.[32][33]

4.1 Abrahamic faiths 3

4 Traditional spirituality

4.1 Abrahamic faiths

4.1.1 Judaism

Rabbinic Judaism (or in some Christian traditions, Rab-binism) (Hebrew: “Yahadut Rabanit” - רבנית (יהדות hasbeen the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th cen-tury CE, after the codification of the Talmud. It is char-acterised by the belief that the Written Torah (“Law” or“Instruction”) cannot be correctly interpreted without ref-erence to the Oral Torah and by the voluminous literaturespecifying what behavior is sanctioned by the law (calledhalakha, “the way”).Judaism knows a variety of religious observances: eth-ical rules, prayers, religious clothing, holidays, shabbat,pilgrimages, Torah reading, dietary laws.Kabbalah (literally “receiving”), is an esoteric method,discipline and school of thought of Judaism. Its defini-tion varies according to the tradition and aims of thosefollowing it,[34] from its religious origin as an integral partof Judaism, to its later Christian, New Age, or Occultistsyncretic adaptations. Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teach-ings meant to explain the relationship between an un-changing, eternal and mysterious Ein Sof (no end) andthe mortal and finite universe (his creation). While it isheavily used by some denominations, it is not a religiousdenomination in itself. Inside Judaism, it forms thefoundations of mystical religious interpretation. OutsideJudaism, its scriptures are read outside the traditionalcanons of organised religion. Kabbalah seeks to definethe nature of the universe and the human being, the natureand purpose of existence, and various other ontologicalquestions. It also presents methods to aid understandingof these concepts and to thereby attain spiritual realisa-tion.Hasidic Judaism, meaning “piety” (or "loving kindness"),is a branch of Orthodox Judaism that promotes spiri-tuality through the popularisation and internalisation ofJewish mysticism as the fundamental aspect of the faith.It was founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by RabbiIsrael Baal Shem Tov as a reaction against overly legalisticJudaism. His example began the characteristic venerationof leadership in Hasidism as embodiments and interces-sors of Divinity for the followers. Opposite to this, Ha-sidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed ho-liness of the unlettered common folk, and their equalitywith the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the ImmanentDivine presence in everything gave new value to prayerand deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy ofstudy, and replaced historical mystical (kabbalistic) andethical (musar) asceticism and admonishment with opti-mism, encouragement, and daily fervour. This populistemotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullifica-tion to paradoxical Divine Panentheism, through intellec-

tual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought.

4.1.2 Christianity

Main articles: Catholic spirituality and Christian mysti-cismCatholic spirituality is the spiritual practice of living out

Union with Christ is the purpose of Christian mysticism.

a personal act of faith (fides qua creditur) following theacceptance of faith (fides quae creditur). Although allCatholics are expected to pray together at Mass, there aremany different forms of spirituality and private prayerwhich have developed over the centuries. Each of themajor religious orders of the Catholic Church and otherlay groupings have their own unique spirituality - its ownway of approaching God in prayer and in living out theGospel.Christian mysticism refers to the development of mysticalpractices and theory within Christianity. It has oftenbeen connected to mystical theology, especially in theCatholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions. The attributesand means by which Christian mysticism is studied andpracticed are varied and range from ecstatic visions ofthe soul’s mystical union with God to simple prayerfulcontemplation of Holy Scripture (i.e., Lectio Divina).Progressive Christianity is a contemporary movementwhich seeks to remove the supernatural claims of the faithand replace them with a post-critical understanding ofbiblical spirituality based on historical and scientific re-search. It focuses on the lived experience of spiritualityover historical dogmatic claims, and accepts that the faithis both true and a human construction, and that spiritual

4 4 TRADITIONAL SPIRITUALITY

experiences are psychologically and neurally real and use-ful.

4.1.3 Islam

Five pillars Main article: Five Pillars of Islam

The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din,“pillars of religion”) are five basic acts in Islam, con-sidered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presentsthem as a framework for worship and a sign of commit-ment to the faith. They are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2)daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fastingduring Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj)at least once in a lifetime. The Shia and Sunni sects bothagree on the essential details for the performance of theseacts.[35]

Sufism Main article: Sufism

The best known form of Islamic mystic spirituality is theSufi tradition (famous through Rumi and Hafiz) in whicha spiritual master or pir transmits spiritual discipline tostudents.[36]

Sufism or taṣawwuf (Arabic: ( تصوّف is defined byits adherents as the inner, mystical dimension ofIslam.[37][38][39] A practitioner of this tradition is gener-ally known as a ṣūfī .(ُصوِفّي) Sufis believe they are practic-ing ihsan (perfection of worship) as revealed by Gabrielto Muhammad,

Worship and serve Allah as you are seeingHim and while you see Him not yet truly Hesees you.

Sufis consider themselves as the original true proponentsof this pure original form of Islam. They are strong ad-herents to the principal of tolerance, peace and againstany form of violence. The Sufi have suffered severe per-secution by their coreligionist brothers the Wahhabi andthe Salafist. In 1843 the Senussi Sufi were forced to fleeMecca and Medina and head to the Sudan and Libya.[40]

Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as “a sciencewhose objective is the reparation of the heart and turningit away from all else but God”.[41] Alternatively, in thewords of the Darqawi Sufi teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, “ascience through which one can know how to travel into thepresence of the Divine, purify one’s inner self from filth,and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits”.[42]

Jihad Main article: Jihad

Jihad is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the wordjihād translates as a noun meaning “struggle”. There

are two commonly accepted meanings of jihad: an innerspiritual struggle and an outer physical struggle.[43] The“greater jihad” is the inner struggle by a believer to ful-fill his religious duties.[43][44] This non-violent meaning isstressed by both Muslim[45] and non-Muslim[46] authors.Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, an 11th-century Islamic scholar,referenced a statement by the companion of MuhammadJabir ibn Abd-Allah:

The Prophet [...] returned from one of hisbattles, and thereupon told us, 'You have ar-rived with an excellent arrival, you have comefrom the Lesser Jihad to the Greater Jihad—the striving of a servant (of Allah) against hisdesires (holy war).”[47][48][note 9]

4.2 Asian traditions

4.2.1 Buddhism

Main article: Buddhism

Buddhist practices are known as Bhavana, whichliterally means “development” or “cultivating”[49]

or “producing”[50][51] in the sense of “calling intoexistence.”[52] It is an important concept in Buddhistpraxis (Patipatti). The word bhavana normally appearsin conjunction with another word forming a compoundphrase such as citta-bhavana (the development orcultivation of the heart/mind) or metta-bhavana (thedevelopment/cultivation of lovingkindness). Whenused on its own bhavana signifies 'spiritual cultivation'generally.Various Buddhist Paths to liberation developed through-out the ages. Best-known is the Noble Eightfold Path, butothers include the Bodhisattva Path and Lamrim.

4.2.2 Hinduism

Jñāna marga

4.2 Asian traditions 5

Bhakti marga

Rāja margaThree of four paths of spirituality in Hinduism

Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no cen-tralized religious authorities, no governing body, noprophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can chooseto be polytheistic, pantheistic, monistic, or atheistic.[53]

Within this diffuse and open structure, spirituality inHindu philosophy is an individual experience, and re-ferred to as ksaitrajña (Sanskrit: क्षैत्रज्ञ[54]). It de-fines spiritual practice as one’s journey towards moksha,awareness of self, the discovery of higher truths, true na-ture of reality, and a consciousness that is liberated andcontent.[55][56]

Four paths Hinduism identifies four ways - mārga[57]

or yoga[58] - of spiritual practice.[59] The first way is Jñānayoga, the way of knowledge. The second way is Bhaktiyoga, the way of devotion. The third way is Karma yoga,the way of works. The fourth way is Rāja yoga, the wayof contemplation and meditation.Jñāna marga is a path often assisted by a guru (teacher)in one’s spiritual practice.[60] Bhakti marga is a path offaith and devotion to deity or deities; the spiritual prac-tice often includes chanting, singing and music - such asin kirtans - in front of idols, or images of one or more de-ity, or a devotional symbol of the holy.[61] Karma margais the path of one’s work, where diligent practical workor vartta (Sanskrit: वार्त्ता, profession) becomes in it-self a spiritual practice, and work in daily life is perfectedas a form of spiritual liberation and not for its materialrewards.[62][63] Rāja marga is the path of cultivating nec-essary virtues, self-discipline, tapas (meditation), con-templation and self-reflection sometimes with isolationand renunciation of the world, to a pinnacle state calledsamādhi.[64][65] This state of samādhi has been compared

to peak experience.[66]

There is a rigorous debate in Indian literature on relativemerits of these theoretical spiritual practices. For exam-ple, Chandogyopanishad suggests that those who engagein ritualistic offerings to gods and priests will fail in theirspiritual practice, while those who engage in tapas willsucceed; Svetasvataropanishad suggests that a successfulspiritual practice requires a longing for truth, but warnsof becoming ‘false ascetic’ who go through the mechan-ics of spiritual practice without meditating on the natureof Self and universal Truths.[67] In the practice of Hin-duism, suggest modern era scholars such as Vivekananda,the choice between the paths is up to the individual and aperson’s proclivities.[56][68] Other scholars[69] suggest thatthese Hindu spiritual practices are not mutually exclu-sive, but overlapping. These four paths of spirituality arealso known in Hinduism outside India, such as in BalineseHinduism, where it is called Catur Marga (literally: fourpaths).[70]

Schools and spirituality Different schools of Hin-duism encourage different spiritual practices. In Tantricschool for example, the spiritual practice has been re-ferred to as sādhanā. It involves initiation into theschool, undergoing rituals, and achieving moksha liber-ation by experiencing union of cosmic polarities.[71] TheHare Krishna school emphasizes bhakti yoga as spiritualpractice.[72] In Advaita Vedanta school, the spiritual prac-tice emphasizes jñāna yoga in stages: samnyasa (culti-vate virtues), sravana (hear, study), manana (reflect) anddhyana (nididhyasana, contemplate).[73]

4.2.3 Sikhism

Main article: SikhismSikhism considers spiritual life and secular life to be

An 18th Century Sikh Raja

intertwined:[74] “In the Sikh Weltanschauung...the tem-poral world is part of the Infinite Reality and partakes

6 5 CONTEMPORARY SPIRITUALITY

of its characteristics.”[75] Guru Nanak described livingan “active, creative, and practical life” of “truthfulness,fidelity, self-control and purity” as being higher than apurely contemplative life.[76]

The 6th Sikh Guru Guru Hargobind re-affirmed that thepolitical/temporal (Miri) and spiritual (Piri) realms aremutually coexistent.[77] According to the 9th Sikh Guru,Tegh Bahadhur, the ideal Sikh should have both Shakti(power that resides in the temporal), and Bhakti (spiri-tual meditative qualities). This was developed into theconcept of the Saint Soldier by the 10th Sikh Guru, Gob-ind Singh.[78]

According to Guru Nanak, the goal is to attainthe “attendant balance of separation-fusion, self-other,action-inaction, attachment-detachment, in the courseof daily life”,[79] the polar opposite to a self-centeredexistence.[79] Nanak talks further about the one God orAkal (timelessness) that permeates all life[80]).[81][82][83]

and which must be seen with 'the inward eye', or the'heart', of a human being.[84]

In Sikhism there is no dogma,[85] priests, monastics oryogis.

4.3 African spirituality

Main article: Traditional African religion

In some African contexts, spirituality is considered a be-lief system that guides the welfare of society and the peo-ple therein, and eradicates sources of unhappiness occa-sioned by evil.

5 Contemporary spirituality

The term “spiritual” is now frequently used in contextsin which the term “religious” was formerly employed.[31]

Contemporary spirituality is also called “post-traditionalspirituality” and "New Age spirituality”.[86] Hanegraafmakes a distinction between two “New Age” movements:New Age in a restricted sense, which originated primar-ily in mid-twentieth century England and had its roots inTheosophy and Anthroposophy, and “New Age in a gen-eral sense, which emerged in the later 1970s

...when increasing numbers of people [...]began to perceive a broad similarity betweena wide variety of “alternative ideas” and pur-suits, and started to think of them as part ofone “movement"".[87]

Those who speak of spirituality outside of religion oftendefine themselves as spiritual but not religious and gener-ally believe in the existence of different “spiritual paths,”

emphasizing the importance of finding one’s own indi-vidual path to spirituality. According to one 2005 poll,about 24% of the United States population identifies it-self as spiritual but not religious.[web 8]

5.1 Characteristics

Modern spirituality is centered on the “deepest values andmeanings by which people live.”[88] It embraces the ideaof an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality.[89] It en-visions an inner path enabling a person to discover theessence of his/her being.Not all modern notions of spirituality embrace tran-scendental ideas. Secular spirituality emphasizeshumanistic ideas on moral character (qualities such aslove, compassion, patience, tolerance, forgiveness, con-tentment, responsibility, harmony, and a concern forothers).[90]:22 These are aspects of life and human expe-rience which go beyond a purely materialist view of theworld without necessarily accepting belief in a supernat-ural reality or divine being. Nevertheless, many human-ists (e.g. Bertrand Russell) who clearly value the non-material, communal and virtuous aspects of life rejectthis usage of the term spirituality as being overly-broad(i.e. it effectively amounts to saying “everything and any-thing that is good and virtuous is necessarily spiritual”)[91]

Similarly, Aristotle—one of first known Western thinkersto demonstrate that morality, virtue and goodness can bederived without appealing to supernatural forces—evenargued that “men create Gods in their own image” (notthe other way around).Although personal well-being, both physical andpsychological, is an important aspect of modern spir-ituality, this does not imply spirituality is essential toachieving happiness (e.g. see). Atheists and otherswho reject notions that the numinous/non-material isimportant to living well can be just as happy as morespiritually-oriented individuals (see)[92]

Contemporary spirituality theorists assert that spiritu-ality develops inner peace and forms a foundation forhappiness. For example, Meditation and similar prac-tices are suggested to help practitioners cultivate hisor her inner life and character.[93] [94] Ellison and Fan(2008) assert that spirituality causes a wide array of pos-itive health outcomes, including “morale, happiness, andlife satisfaction.”.[95] However, Schuurmans-Stekhoven(2013) actively attempted to replicate this research andfound more “mixed” results.[96] Spirituality has played acentral role in self-help movements such as AlcoholicsAnonymous:

...if an alcoholic failed to perfect and en-large his spiritual life through work and self-sacrifice for others, he could not survive thecertain trials and low spots ahead....[97]

7

5.2 Spiritual experience

Main article: Religious experience

“Spiritual experience” plays a central role in modernspirituality.[98] This notion has been popularised by bothwestern and Asian authors.[99][100]

William James popularized the use of the term “re-ligious experience” in his The Varieties of ReligiousExperience.[99] It has also influenced the understandingof mysticism as a distinctive experience which suppliesknowledge.[web 4]

Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of “reli-gious experience” further back to the German theologianFriedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), who argued thatreligion is based on a feeling of the infinite. The notionof “religious experience” was used by Schleiermacher todefend religion against the growing scientific and secularcritique. It was adopted by many scholars of religion, ofwhich William James was the most influential.[101]

Major Asian influences were Vivekananda[102] and D.T.Suzuki.[98] Swami Vivekananda popularised a modernsyncretitistic Hinduism,[103][100] in which the authority ofthe scriptures was replaced by an emphasis on personalexperience.[100][104] D.T. Suzuki had a major influenceon the popularisation of Zen in the west and popularizedthe idea of enlightenment as insight into a timeless, tran-scendent reality.[web 9][web 10][23] Another example can beseen in Paul Brunton’s A Search in Secret India, which in-troduced Ramana Maharshi and Meher Baba to a westernaudience.Spiritual experiences can include being connected to alarger reality, yielding a more comprehensive self; join-ing with other individuals or the human community; withnature or the cosmos; or with the divine realm.[105]

5.3 Spiritual practices

Main article: Spiritual practice

Waaijman discerns four forms of spiritual practices:[106]

1. Somatic practices, especially deprivation and dimin-ishment. The deprivation purifies the body. Dimin-ishment concerns the repulsement of ego-orientedimpulses. Examples are fasting and poverty.[106]

2. Psychological practices, for examplemeditation.[107]

3. Social practices. Examples are the practice ofobedience and communal ownership reform ego-orientedness into other-orientedness.[107]

4. Spiritual. All practices aim at purifying the ego-centeredness, and direct the abilities at the divinereality.[107]

Spiritual practices may include meditation, mindfulness,prayer, the contemplation of sacred texts, ethicaldevelopment,[90] and the use of psychoactive substances(entheogens). Love and/or compassion are often de-scribed as the mainstay of spiritual development.[90]

Within spirituality is also found “a common emphasison the value of thoughtfulness, tolerance for breadth andpractices and beliefs, and appreciation for the insights ofother religious communities, as well as other sources ofauthority within the social sciences.”[108]

6 Science

6.1 Antagonism

Since the scientific revolution, the relationship of sci-ence to religion and spirituality has developed in complexways.[109][110] Historian John Hedley Brooke describeswide variations:

The natural sciences have been investedwith religious meaning, with antireligious im-plications and, in many contexts, with no reli-gious significance at all.”[110]

It has been proposed that the currently held popular no-tion of antagonisms between science and religion[111][112]

has historically originated with “thinkers with a socialor political axe to grind” rather than with the naturalphilosophers themselves.[110] Though physical and bio-logical scientists today avoid supernatural explanations todescribe reality[113][114][115][note 10], many scientists con-tinue to consider science and spirituality to be comple-mentary, not contradictory,[116][117] and are willing todebate.[118]

A few religious leaders have also shown openness tomodern science and its methods. The 14th Dalai Lamahas proposed that if a scientific analysis conclusivelyshowed certain claims in Buddhism to be false, then theclaims must be abandoned and the findings of scienceaccepted.[119]

6.2 Holism

Main article: Holism

During the twentieth century the relationship betweenscience and spirituality has been influenced both byFreudian psychology, which has accentuated the bound-aries between the two areas by accentuating individualismand secularism, and by developments in particle physics,which reopened the debate about complementarity be-tween scientific and religious discourse and rekindled formany an interest in holistic conceptions of reality.[110]:322

8 8 NOTES

These holistic conceptions were championed by NewAge spiritualists in a type of quantum mysticism thatthey claim justifies their spiritual beliefs,[120][121] thoughquantum physicists themselves on the whole reject suchattempts as being pseudoscientific.[122][123]

6.3 Scientific research

6.3.1 Health and well-being

Various studies have found a positive correlation be-tween spirituality and mental well-being in both healthypeople and those encountering a range of physical ill-nesses or psychological disorders.[124][125][126][127] Spiri-tual individuals tend to be optimistic, report greater so-cial support,[128] and experience higher intrinsic meaningin life.[129] strength, and inner peace.[130]

The issue of whether the correlation of spirituality withpositive psychological factors represents a causal linkcontinues to be debated. Both supporters and opponentsof this claim agree that past statistical findings are dif-ficult to interpret, in part because of the ongoing dis-agreement over how spirituality should be defined andmeasured.[131] There is evidence that positive emotionsand/or sociability (which both correlate with spiritual-ity) might actually be prerequisite psychological featuresneeded before spirituality can emerge (i.e. past associa-tion with psychological well-being measures might reflecta reverse causation),[91][132][133][134][135][136][137] and thatthe effects of agreeableness, conscientiousness, or virtue— personality traits common in many non-spiritual peo-ple yet known to be slightly more common among thespiritual — correlate more strongly with mental healththan spirituality itself.[138][139][140][141][142]

Intercessionary prayer Masters and Spielmans[143]

conducted a meta-analysis of all the available and rep-utable prior research examining the effects of distantintercessory prayer. They found no discernible health ef-fects from being praying for by others.

6.3.2 Spiritual experiences

Neuroscientists have examined how the brain functionsduring reported spiritual experiences[144][145] finding thatcertain neurotransmitters and specific areas of the brainare involved.[146][147][148][149] Moreover, experimentershave also successfully induced spiritual experiences in in-dividuals by administering psychoactive agents known toelicit euphoria and perceptual distortions.[150][151] Con-versely, religiosity can also be dampened by elec-tromagnetic stimulation of the brain.[152] These re-sults have led some leading theorists to speculate thatspirituality may be a benign subtype of psychosis(see).[133][153][154][155][156] Benign in the sense that thesame aberrant sensory perceptions that those suffering

clinical psychoses evaluate as distressingly in-congruentand inexplicable are instead interpreted by spiritual in-dividuals as positive—as personal and meaningful tran-scendent experiences.[154][155]

7 See also

• Anthroposophy

• Awe

• Esotericism

• Evolutionary origin of religions

• Glossary of spirituality terms

• History of religion

• New Age

• Numinous

• Outline of spirituality

• Perennial philosophy

• Reason

• Relationship between religion and science

• Religion

• Timeline of religion

• Sacred–profane dichotomy

• Secular spirituality

• Self-actualization

• Self-help

• Skepticism

• Spiritual but not religious

• Syncretism

• Superstition

• Theosophy

8 Notes[1] Koenig e.a.: “There is no widely agreed on definition of

spirituality today”.[1] Cobb e.a.: “The spiritual dimensionis deeply subjective and there is no authoritative defini-tion of spirituality”.[2] A survey of reviews by McCarrolle.a. dealing with the topic of spirituality gave twenty-seven explicit definitions “among [...] there was littleagreement”.[3]

9

[2] Snyder, a proponent of Positive psychology, defines spiri-tuality as a “search for the sacred”,[5] which can also besought through movements such as liberalism, feministtheology, and green politics. Spirituality is also now as-sociated with mental health, managing substance abuse,marital functioning, parenting, and coping. Spiritualityalso leads to finding purpose and meaning in life.[4]

[3] Waaijman[10] uses the word “omvorming”, “to change theform”. Different translations are possible: transformation,re-formation, trans-mutation.

[4] Snyder, a proponent of Positive psychology, defines spiri-tuality as a “search for the sacred”,[5] which can also besought through movements such as liberalism, feministtheology, and green politics. Spirituality is also now as-sociated with mental health, managing substance abuse,marital functioning, parenting, and coping. Spiritualityalso leads to finding purpose and meaning in life.[4]

[5] In Dutch: “de hemelse lichtsfeer tegenover de duisterewereld van de materie”. [15]

[6] In Dutch: “de kerkelijke tegenover de tijdelijke goederen,het kerkelijk tegenover het wereldlijk gezag, de geestelijkestand tegenover de lekenstand”.[16]

[7] In Dutch: “Zuiverheid van motieven, affecties, wilsin-tenties, innerlijke disposities, de psychologie van hetgeestelijk leven, de analyse van de gevoelens”.[17]

[8] In Dutch: “Een spiritueel mens is iemand die ‘overvloedi-ger en dieper dan de anderen’ christen is”.[17]

[9] This reference gave rise to the distinguishing of two formsof jihad: “greater” and “lesser”. Some Islamic scholarsdispute the authenticity of this reference and consider themeaning of jihad as a holy war to be more important.[47]

[10] See naturalism

9 References[1] Koenig 2012, p. 36.

[2] Cobb 2012, p. 213.

[3] McCarroll 2005, p. 44.

[4] Snyder 2007.

[5] Snyder 2007, p. 261-261.

[6] Sharf 2000.

[7] Wong 2008.

[8] Saucier 2006, p. 1259.

[9] Houtman 2007.

[10] Waaijman 2000, p. 460.

[11] Waaijman 2002, p. 315.

[12] Jones, L. G., “A thirst for god or consumer spiritual-ity? Cultivating disciplined practices of being engagedby god,” in L. Gregory Jones and James J. Buckley eds.,Spirituality and Social Embodiment, Oxford: Blackwell,1997, 3-28, p4, n4.

[13] Waaijman 2000, p. 359-360.

[14] Wong 2009.

[15] Waaijman 2000, p. 360.

[16] Waaijman 2000, p. 360-361.

[17] Waaijman 2000, p. 361.

[18] Schmidt, Leigh Eric. Restless Souls : TheMaking of Amer-ican Spirituality. San Francisco: Harper, 2005. ISBN 0-06-054566-6

[19] Sharf 1995.

[20] King 2002, p. 93.

[21] Yelle 2012, p. 338.

[22] King 2002, p. 135.

[23] McMahan 2008.

[24] King 2002.

[25] McDermott, Robert (2007). The Essential Steiner. Lind-isfarne. ISBN 1584200510.

[26] William James and Rudolf Steiner, Robert A. McDermott,1991, in ReVision, vol.13 no.4

[27] Roy 2003.

[28] Saucier 2007, p. 1259.

[29] Paul Heelas, The New Age Movement: The Celebrationof the Self and the Sacralization of Modernity. Oxford:Blackwell, 1996, page 60. Cited in Anthony Giddens: So-ciology. Cambridge: Polity, 2001, page 554.

[30] Michael Hogan (2010). The Culture of Our Thinking inRelation to Spirituality. Nova Science Publishers: NewYork.

[31] Gorsuch 1999.

[32] Hollywood, Amy (Winter–Spring 2010). “Spiritual butNot Religious: The Vital Interplay between Submissionand Freedom”. Harvard Divinity Bulletin (Harvard Di-vinity School) 38 (1 and 2). Retrieved 4 January 2014.

[33] David, Rabbi. “Viewpoint: The Limitations of Being‘Spiritual but Not Religious’". Ideas.time.com. Retrieved2014-01-04.

[34] Kabbalah: A very short introduction, Joseph Dan, OxfordUniversity Press, Chapter 1 “The term and its uses”

[35] Pillars of Islam, Oxford Islamic Studies Online

[36] Azeemi,K.S., “Muraqaba: The Art and Science of SufiMeditation”. Houston: Plato, 2005. (ISBN 0-9758875-4-8), Pg. xi

10 9 REFERENCES

[37] Alan Godlas, University of Georgia, Sufism’s Many Paths,2000, University of Georgia

[38] Nuh Ha Mim Keller, “How would you respond to theclaim that Sufism is Bid'a?", 1995. Fatwa accessible at:Masud.co.uk

[39] Zubair Fattani, “The meaning of Tasawwuf”, IslamicAcademy. Islamicacademy.org

[40] Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The first dynasty of Islam:The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750. Routledge. ISBN0-415-24073-5. See Google book search.

[41] Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza YusufHanson—"The Principles of Sufism”. Amal Press. 2008.

[42] An English translation of Ahmad ibn Ajiba's biographyhas been published by Fons Vitae.

[43] Morgan & 2010 87.

[44] “Jihad”. Retrieved 20 February 2012.

[45] Jihad and the Islamic Law of War

[46] Rudolph Peters, Islam and Colonialism. The doctrine ofJihad in Modern History (Mouton Publishers, 1979), p.118

[47] “Jihad”. BBC. 2009-08-03.

[48] Fayd al-Qadir vol.4 pg. 511

[49] Matthieu Ricard has said this in a talk.

[50] “Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), p. 503, entry for“Bhāvanā,” retrieved 9 December 2008 from UniversityChicago”. Dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[51] Monier-Williams (1899), p. 755, see “Bhāvana” and“Bhāvanā,” retrieved 9 December 2008 from Universityof Cologne (PDF)

[52] Nyanatiloka (1980), p. 67.

[53] See:

• Julius J. Lipner, Hindus: Their Religious Beliefsand Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7, page 8; Quote: “(...) one need notbe religious in the minimal sense described to beaccepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneselfperfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheis-tic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even anagnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considereda Hindu.”;

• Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence,Peace and Conflict, ISBN 978-0123695031, Aca-demic Press, 2008;

• MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VBKher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; Accordingto Gandhi, “a man may not believe in God and stillcall himself a Hindu.”

[54] Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, क्षैत्रज्ञJim Funderburk and Peter Scharf (2012); Quote:

• क्षैत्रज्ञ [ kṣaitrajña ] [ kṣaitrajña ] n. ( fr. [kṣetra-jñá ] g. [ yuvādi ], spirituality, nature of thesoul Lit. W.; the knowledge of the soul Lit. W.

[55] See the following two in Ewert Cousins series on WorldSpirituality:

• Bhavasar and Kiem, Spirituality and Health, inHindu Spirituality, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989),ISBN 0-8245-0755-X, Crossroads Publishing NewYork, pp 319-337;

• John Arapura, Spirit and Spiritual Knowledge in theUpanishads, in Hindu Spirituality, Editor: EwertCousins (1989), ISBN 0-8245-0755-X, CrossroadsPublishing New York, pp 64-85

[56] Gavin Flood, Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor:Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-17893-9, see Article on Wisdom and Knowledge, pp881-884

[57] See:

• John Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclo-pedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing New York,ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, see articles on bhaktimārga,jnanamārga, karmamārga;

• Bhagwad Gita (The Celestial Song], Chapters 2:56-57, 12, 13:1-28

[58] Feuerstein, Georg (2003), The deeper dimension of yoga:Theory and practice, Shambhala, ISBN 1-57062-935-8,page 3;

• Quote: “Yoga is not easy to define. In most gen-eral terms, the Sanskrit word yoga stands for spir-itual discipline in Hinduism, Jainism, and certainschools of Buddhism. (...). Yoga is the equivalentof Christian mysticism, Moslem Sufism, or the Jew-ish Kabbalah. A spiritual practitioner is known as ayogin (if male) or a yogini (if female).”

[59] D. Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Cultural Psychology,in Anthony Marsella (Series Editor), International andCultural Psychology, Springer New York, ISBN 978-1-4419-8109-7, pp 93-140

[60] Feuerstein, Georg (2003), The deeper dimension of yoga:Theory and practice, Shambhala, ISBN 1-57062-935-8,Chapter 55

[61] Jean Varenne (1976), Yoga and the Hindu Tradition, Uni-versity of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-85116-8, pp 97-130

[62] See discussion of Hinduism and karma yoga in two dif-ferent professions in these journal articles:

• Donald W. McCormick, (1994) “Spirituality andManagement”, Journal of Managerial Psychology,Vol. 9, Issue 6, pp 5-8;

• Macrae, Janet (1995), Nightingale’s spiritual phi-losophy and its significance for modern nursing,Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 27(1), pp 8-10

11

[63] Klaus Klostermaier, Spirituality and Nature, in HinduSpirituality, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), ISBN 0-8245-0755-X, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp 319-337;

• Klostermier discusses examples from BhagavataPurana, another ancient Hindu scripture, where aforest worker discovers observing mother nature isa spiritual practice, to wisdom and liberating knowl-edge. The Purana suggests that “true knowledge ofnature’’ leads to “true knowledge of Self and God.’’It illustrates 24 gurus that nature provides. For ex-ample, earth teaches steadfastness and the wisdomthat all things while pursuing their own activities, donothing but follow the divine laws that are univer-sally established; another wisdom from earth is herexample of accepting the good and bad from every-one. Another guru, the honeybee teaches that onemust make effort to gain knowledge, a willingnessand flexibility to examine, pick and collect essencefrom different scriptures and sources. And so on.Nature is a mirror image of spirit, perceptive aware-ness of nature can be spirituality.

[64] Vivekananda, S. (1980), Raja Yoga, RamakrishnaVivekanada Center, ISBN 978-0911206234

[65] Richard King (1999), Indian philosophy: An introduc-tion to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh UniversityPress, ISBN 0-7486-0954-7, pp 69-71

[66] See:

• Harung, Harald (April 2012), Illustrations ofPeak Experiences during Optimal Performance inWorld-class Performers Integrating Eastern andWestern Insights, Journal of Human Values, 18(1),pp 33-52

• Levin, Jeff (2010), Religion and mental health:Theory and research, International Journal of Ap-plied Psychoanalytic Studies, 7(2), pp 102-115;

• Meyer-Dinkgräfe, Daniel (2011). Opera and spiri-tuality. Performance and Spirituality, 2(1), pp 38-59

[67] See:

• CR Prasad, Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Edi-tor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, ISBN978-90-04-17893-9, see Article on Brahman, pp724-729

• David Carpenter, Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism,Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill,ISBN 978-90-04-17893-9, see Article on Tapas, pp865-869

[68] Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, 3rdEdition, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7081-7, pp 119-260

[69] Mikel Burley (2000), Hatha-Yoga: Its context, theory andpractice, Motilal Banarsidass Publications, ISBN 81-208-1706-0, pp 97-98; Quote: “When, for example, in theBhagavad-Gita Lord Krsna speaks of jnana-, bhakti- andkarma-yoga, he is not talking about three entirely separateways of carrying out one’s spiritual practice, but, rather,about three aspects of the ideal life”.

[70] Murdana, I. Ketut (2008), BALINESE ARTS ANDCULTURE: A flash understanding of Concept and Be-havior, Mudra - JURNAL SENI BUDAYA, Indonesia;Volume 22, page 5

[71] Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cam-bridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-43878-0

[72] Rochford, E. B. (1985), Hare Krishna in America, Rut-gers University Press; ISBN 978-0813511146, page 12

[73] See:

• Ramakrishna Puligandla (1985), Jñâna-Yoga - TheWay of Knowledge (An Analytical Interpretation),University Press of America New York, ISBN 0-8191-4531-9;

• Fort, A. O. (1998), Jīvanmukti in Transformation:Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo-Vedanta,State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-3903-8;

• Richard King (1999), Indian philosophy: An intro-duction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, EdinburghUniversity Press, ISBN 0-7486-0954-7, pp 223;

• Sawai, Y. (1987), The Nature of Faith in theŚaṅkaran Vedānta Tradition, Numen, 34(1), pp 18-44

[74] Nayar, Kamal Elizabeth and Sandhu, Jaswinder Singh(2007). The Socially Involved Renunciate - Guru NanaksDiscourse to Nath Yogi’s. United States of America: StateUniversity of New York Press. p. 106.

[75] Kaur Singh, Nikky Guninder (30 Jan 2004). Hindu spir-ituality: Postclassical and modern. English: Motilal Ba-narsidass. p. 530. ISBN 8120819373.

[76] Marwha, Sonali Bhatt (2006). Colors of Truth, ReligionSelf and Emotions. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Com-pany. p. 205. ISBN 818069268X.

[77] E. Marty, Martin and Appleby R. Scott (11 July1996). Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities,Economies, andMilitance. English: University of ChicagoPress. p. 278. ISBN 0226508846.

[78] Singh Gandhi, Surjit (1 Feb 2008). History of Sikh Gu-rus Retold: 1606 −1708. English: Atlantic Publishers &Distributors Pvt Ltd. pp. 676–677. ISBN 8126908572.

[79] Mandair, Arvind-Pal Singh (October 22, 2009). Religionand the Specter of the West - Sikhism, India, Postcolonial-ity and the Politics of Translation. United States of Amer-ica: University of Columbia. pp. 372 onwards. ISBN0231147244.

[80] Singh, Nirbhai (Dec 1990). Philosophy of Sikhism: Real-ity and Its Manifestations. New Delhi: South Asia Books.pp. 111–112.

[81] Philpott, Chris (2011). Green Spirituality: One Answer toGlobal Environmental Problems and World Poverty. Au-thorHouse. ISBN 9781467005289.

[82] Singh Kalsi, Sewa Singh (2005). Sikhism. United States:Chelsea House Publishers. p. 49. ISBN 0791080986.

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[155] Davies, M. F., Griffin, M., & Vice, S. (2001). Affectivereactions to auditory hallucinations in psychotic, evangel-ical and control groups. British Journal of Clinical Psy-chology, 40, 361–370.

[156] Thalbourne, M. A., & Delin, P. S. (1994). A commonthread underlying belief in the paranormal, creative per-sonality, mystical experience and psychopathology. Jour-nal of Parapsychology, 58, 3-38.

10 Sources

10.1 Published sources

• Cobb, Mark R.; Puchalski, Christina M.; Rum-bold, Bruce (2012), Oxford Textbook of Spiritualityin Healthcare

• Comans, Michael (2000), The Method of Early Ad-vaita Vedānta: A Study of Gauḍapāda, Śaṅkara,Sureśvara, and Padmapāda, Delhi: Motilal Banar-sidass

• Gorsuch, R.L.; Miller, W. R. (1999), Assessing spir-ituality. In W. R. Miller (Ed), Integrating spiritualityinto treatment (pp. 47-64), Washington, DC: Amer-ican Psychological Association

• Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (1996), NewAge Religion andWestern Culture. Esotericism in the mirror of SecularThought, Leiden/New York/Koln: E.J. Brill

• Hori, Victor Sogen (1999), Translating the ZenPhrase Book. In: Nanzan Bulletin 23 (1999) (PDF)

• Houtman, Dick; Aupers, Stef (2007), “The Spiri-tual Turn and the Decline of Tradition: The Spreadof Post-Christian Spirituality in 14 Western Coun-tries, 1981-2000”, Journal for the Scientific Study ofReligion (2007) 46 (3): 305-320

• Kapuscinski, Afton N.; Masters, Kevin S. (2010).“The current status of measures of spirituality: Acritical review of scale development.”. Psychologyof Religion and Spirituality 2 (4): 191–205.doi:10.1037/a0020498.

• King, Richard (2002), Orientalism and Religion:Post-Colonial Theory, India and “The Mystic East”,Routledge

• Koenig, Harold; King, Dana; Carson, Verna B.(2012), Handbook of Religion and Health, OxfordUP

• McCarroll, Pam; O'Connor, Thomas St. James;Meakes, Elizabeth (2005), Assessing plurality inSpirituality Definitions. In: Meier et al, “Spiritual-ity and Health: Multidisciplinary Explorations”, pp.44-59, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press

• McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Bud-dhist Modernism, Oxford University Press, ISBN9780195183276

• Morgan, Diane (2010), Essential Islam: a compre-hensive guide to belief and practice, ABC-CLIO,ISBN 0-313-36025-1

• Oman, Doug (2013). “Defining Religion and Spir-ituality”. In Paloutzian, Raymond F.; Park, CrystalL. (Eds.). Handbook of the psychology of religionand spirituality (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford.pp. 23–47. ISBN 146251006X.

• Otterloo, Anneke; Aupers, Stef; Houtman, Dick(2012), “Trajectories to the New Age. The spiritualturn of the first generation of Dutch New Age teach-ers”, Social Compass 59(2) p. 239–256 (SAGE)

• Rambachan, Anatanand (1994), The Limits of Scrip-ture: Vivekananda’s Reinterpretation of the Vedas,University of Hawaii Press

• Renard, Philip (2010), Non-Dualisme. De directebevrijdingsweg, Cothen: Uitgeverij Juwelenschip

• Roy, Sumita (2003), Aldous Huxley And IndianThought, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd

15

• Saucier, Gerard; Katarzyna Skrzypinska (1 Oc-tober 2006). “Spiritual But Not Religious?Evidence for Two Independent Dispositions”(PDF). Journal Of Personality 74 (5): 1257–1292.doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00409.x. JSTOR27734699. Retrieved 2013-03-05.

• Schneiders, Sandra M. (1989). “Spirituality in theAcademy”. Theological Studies 50 (4): 676–697.doi:10.1177/004056398905000403. ISSN 0040-5639, OCLC 556989066

• Schneiders, Sandra M. (1993). “Spirituality asan Academic Discipline: Reflections from Experi-ence”. Christian Spirituality Bulletin (Journal of theSociety for the Study of Christian Spirituality) 1 (2):10–15. ISSN 1082-9008, OCLC 31697474

• Sharf, Robert H. (1995-B), “Buddhist Modernismand the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience” (PDF),NUMEN, vol.42 (1995) Check date values in: |date=(help)

• Sharf, Robert H. (2000), The Rhetoric of Experienceand the Study of Religion. In: Journal of Conscious-ness Studies, 7, No. 11-12, 2000, pp. 267-87 (PDF)

• Sheldrake, Philip (1998). Spirituality and history:Questions of interpretation and method. Maryknoll,NY: Orbis Books. ISBN 1-57075-203-6. OCLC796958914.

• Sinari, Ramakant (2000), Advaita and Contem-porary Indian Philosophy. In: Chattopadhyana(gen.ed.), “History of Science, Philosophy and Cul-ture in Indian Civilization. Volume II Part 2: AdvaitaVedanta”, Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations

• Snyder, C.R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2007), Positive Psy-chology, Sage Publications, Inc., ISBN 0-7619-2633-X

• Waaijman, Kees (2000), Spiritualiteit. Vor-men, grondslagen, methoden, Kampen/Gent:Kok/Carmelitana

• Waaijman, Kees (2002), Spirituality: Forms, Foun-dations, Methods, Peeters Publishers

• Wong, Yuk-Lin Renita; Vinsky, Jana (2009),“Speaking from the Margins: A Critical Reflectionon the ‘Spiritual-but-not-Religious’ Discourse in So-cial Work”, British Journal of Social Work (2009)39, pp.1343-1359

10.2 Web-sources[1] “Online Etymology Dictionary, ''Spirit''". Etymon-

line.com. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[2] “Online Etymology Dictionary, ''Spiritual''". Etymon-line.com. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[3] “Online Etymology Dictionary, ''Spirituality''". Etymon-line.com. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[4] “Stanford Encyclopdeia of Philosophy, ''Transcendental-ism''". Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[5] Jone Johnson Lewis. “Jone John Lewis, ''What is Tran-scendentalism?". Transcendentalists.com. Retrieved2014-01-04.

[6] “Barry Andrews, ''The Roots Of Unitarian Universal-ist Spirituality In New England Transcendentalism ''".Archive.uua.org. 1999-03-12. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[7] “Frank Morales, ''Neo-Vedanta: The problem with HinduUniversalism''". Bharatabharati.wordpress.com. Re-trieved 2014-01-04.

[8] http://www.beliefnet.com/News/2005/08/Newsweekbeliefnet-Poll-Results.aspx#spiritrel

[9] “Robert H. Sharf, ''Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revis-ited''" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[10] “Hu Shih: Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism in China. Its Historyand Method”. Thezensite.com. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

11 Further reading• Downey, Michael. Understanding Christian Spiritu-

ality. New York: Paulist Press, 1997.

• Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (1996), NewAge Religion andWestern Culture. Esotericism in the mirror of SecularThought, Leiden/New York/Koln: E.J. Brill

• Charlene Spretnak, The Spiritual Dynamic in Mod-ern Art : Art History Reconsidered, 1800 to thePresent.

• Eck, Diana L. A New Religious America. San Fran-cisco: Harper, 2001.

• Schmidt, Leigh Eric. Restless Souls : The Making ofAmerican Spirituality. San Francisco: Harper, 2005.ISBN 0-06-054566-6

• Carrette, Jeremy R.; King, Richard (2005), SellingSpirituality: The Silent Takeover of Religion, Taylor& Francis Group

12 External links• Religion and Spirituality at the Open Directory

Project

• Sociology of Religion Resources

16 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text• Spirituality Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituality?oldid=666754455 Contributors: Mav, Wesley, The Anome, Stephen Gilbert,

Ortolan88, Heron, Chris Q, Stevertigo, Quintessent, Nealmcb, Liftarn, Gabbe, Cybercavalier, Dori, Charles Matthews, Greenrd, Pedant17,Maximus Rex, Martinphi, Kkawohl, Fvw, Optim, Jusjih, Lumos3, Huangdi, Robbot, Chocolateboy, Moondyne, Goethean, Mayooranathan,Postdlf, Ashley Y, Stewartadcock, Blainster, Sunray, Hadal, TPK, Alan Liefting, Ancheta Wis, Barbara Shack, Wikilibrarian, Tom harrison,Acampbell70, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, No Guru, NeoJustin, Mboverload, Bluejay Young, Dirtbiscuit, Eequor, Wmahan, Andycjp,CryptoDerk, Beland, OverlordQ, MacGyverMagic, Kevin B12, Haisch, Gscshoyru, Gary D, Mike Rosoft, Chris Howard, Jayjg, Venu62,CALR, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, H0riz0n, FT2, Freestylefrappe, Dbachmann, Aliman, Stereotek, El C, Mwanner, Jough, Leif,Femto, MPS, Jpgordon, Nigelj, Ray Dassen, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Solar, Nsaa, Orangemarlin, Hanuman Das, Alansohn, Hack-wrench, CountdownCrispy, DreamGuy, Chicopac, Wtmitchell, Velella, Versageek, SteinbDJ, Drbreznjev, Woohookitty, Maprovonsha172,Annekj, Camw, Samsoncity, Ganeshk, JeremyA, Jeff3000, Zzyzx11, M Alan Kazlev, GalaazV, Essjay, Farhansher, Graham87, Sparkit,Kbdank71, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Pariah, Vary, PinchasC, TheRingess, RexNL, Kolbasz, 2ct7, HKT, Bgwhite, Slasher600, YurikBot, 999~en-wiki, RussBot, Bhny, Pigman, Leoshad, Poetryreader, Bryan8020, Vincej, Vaergoth, Vaikunda Raja, NawlinWiki, Nirvana2013, Grafen,NickBush24, Akma, Tastemyhouse, Equilibrial, Nick, Larry laptop, Emersoni, Jimtron, Kwnd, Syrthiss, Dbfirs, Sauseek, AdelaMae,Deepak~enwiki, Alpha 4615, 2over0, Langdell~enwiki, RDF, Sean Whitton, GraemeL, JoanneB, RSpeeter, WholemealBaphomet, In-finity0, Sycthos, Sardanaphalus, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Reedy, McGeddon, Unyoyega, Jtneill, LauraSeabrook, BiT, Septegram,Portillo, Ohnoitsjamie, Betacommand, Holy Ganga, Tyciol, JMSwtlk, Fplay, Deli nk, Ezriilc, Arges, Jmax-, Aita~enwiki, Can't sleep,clown will eat me, Todd unt, Makana Chai, Metta Bubble, Jiddisch~enwiki, BullRangifer, Hgilbert, Wwwdlhow27, Trewbuk, Davidhein,Mtrack81, Honker, Pilotguy, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Kuru, Mirkokg, Mkimura1971, Žiga, Hellmonkey42, Abdullah Tahir, Ckatz, Stwalk-erster, Razum, LuYiSi, Dicklyon, Dominio~enwiki, RichardF, Levineps, BranStark, Iridescent, K, Domsta333, Jlrobertson, IronChris,Improved, Wolfdog, Slottering, CmdrObot, Binky The WonderSkull, Vincentssoul, Scribe5, WeggeBot, InspiredLight, Sdorrance, Chhajju-sandeep, Michaelas10, Gogo Dodo, Corpx, Dancter, Dr.enh, Babub, Dynaflow, Shirulashem, DumbBOT, Paddles, Kozuch, Danogo, Leon-jbrm, Nearfar, Chistofishman, SatinderMullick, Csbrewfisher, Thijs!bot, Ppaterson, N5iln, Tjpob, JustAGal, MattTweedell, Terraflora,Mentifisto, Rlitwin, Mgerb, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Reiddp, MsDivagin, Drakonicon, Geogeogeo, Gkoehler70, Spencer,Salgueiro~enwiki, Puppypupdog, Melonjuice, JAnDbot, Narssarssuaq, Aurumsolis, Barek, Hut 8.5, Najwa maryam, .anacondabot, Siob-hanHansa, NightSky~enwiki, Magioladitis, Amybiddle, Mbarbier, Maheshkumaryadav, Mbc362, Valentinus~enwiki, Feeeshboy, Trishm,PelleSmith, Alcuinz, Presearch, Gabriel Kielland, Calgary, Slackbuie, Docjp, Spellmaster, Hoverfish, JaGa, Edward321, Michaelbedar,Ajwwong, B9 hummingbird hovering, FisherQueen, Vigyani, Naohiro19, CommonsDelinker, Sikh-history, Bharatsiyer, J.delanoy, Ran-derson 3535, Memberx0, Kanojia, All Is One, Ian.thomson, Nationsu, Valasel, Dushyant Sompoora, Wandering Ghost, Dave4237, Anti-SpamBot, NewEnglandYankee, Rosenknospe, Grant swm, A. Ben-Shema, Hicham13, Omc, CardinalDan, RJASE1, VFHwebdev, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, A Ramachandran, AlnoktaBOT, Chango369w, Henrysteinberger, Lear’s Fool, Tulsiseva, MarekTT, Damianosk, Dchme-lik, TXiKiBoT, Zidonuke, Marskuzz, Cosmic Latte, Spiritualindia, Soma77, Drdln, Gaina 1, Cremepuff222, Rockman52, Tmperchlik,Blurpeace, Yiml12, Lova Falk, Joel Justiss, Enviroboy, Cnilep, Lusitanian, Mortivik, Sardaka, Finnrind, Arnavc07, Alexdeangelis86,SieBot, StAnselm, Shadowmarketer, Caltas, 2vishnu, RyanParis, Onegodus, Mrdmidbar, RichardKingCEng, EPadmirateur, Johnhuk,Martarius, De728631, ClueBot, Mpcd, Binksternet, The Thing That Should Not Be, Dannyguillory, Sworst, LloydT, Excirial, Cohesion-Bot, Alexbot, Thaweno':ken, AWCBoris, Erik1234~enwiki, ParisianBlade, Gisbutwada, Shivaji Mitra, Atauldilse, Gundersen53, Takabeg,Jumpilo, Greet005, Versus22, Editor2020, Lucyintheskywithdada, VirginiaLou, Wilkan, XLinkBot, Mistichd, Cshubho, EastTN, Purna-jitphukon, Little Mountain 5, Avoided, Richard-of-Earth, SpiritualTeacher, Aunt Entropy, MystBot, Greekorthaus, Tayste, Addbot, Somejerk on the Internet, Maheshkgaur, Innerself, Metagignosko, Zahd, Reidlophile, Ronhjones, Letter Ezh, Fluffernutter, MrOllie, Download,Glane23, Maitreyasatsang, Dakota28, MisterB777, TimothyCR, Numbo3-bot, Madagascar periwinkle, Wikihelp1a, Tide rolls, Lightbot,Ezdidit, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Legobot II, Csalmon, Raphael26, Cold ground, Necronaut, AnakngAraw, Empire-heart, Bruce.smith9, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Valueyou, Noq, We used to sit, ThaddeusB, Jim1138, Stinky1010101, Jngfdsjknsfdkn,Sz-iwbot, Mann jess, Materialscientist, RobertEves92, Citation bot, Kngwa83, ArthurBot, LovesMacs, Excelsior1774, MauritsBot, Xqbot,Ulysses elias, Izi moha, Capricorn42, Shashamula, TechBot, Williamatltmol, Jmundo, LezJ, Margaret52, J04n, Frankie0607, SassoBot,Mvaldemar, Thechiefgood, Wiki emma johnson, Musketeer41, Sewblon, Ametzler, Josemanimala, Jasdeepharibhajan, SchoenfeldSJ,FrescoBot, Canhaspancake, JMS Old Al, Tgou, Citation bot 1, Mosemamenti, Tjpbowman, Flint McRae, Biker Biker, SpacemanSpiff,Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Aizquier, Calmer Waters, Dazedbythebell, Skyerise, A. Consumer, Sarasman, Trelawnie, Numinous2002,Jandalhandler, B'Elanna Byrd, Tea with toast, Obscurasky, Karnawalski, Inoutandaround, Orenburg1, Douglasbell, Kered77, HelenOnline,Lotje, Kennedyer, Begoon, Dagny1977, Ely1, Kitfoxxe, Coolchaz01, Tbhotch, BrightBlackHeaven, Alun Williamson, SGuerreiro1311,RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Goodyes~enwiki, Chicagosailer, Raven Mew, Shuaybi, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Hamilton777, Themas-tertree, An Anonymous Visitor, Rézangyal, Jujhar.pannu, Nategreen, Tommy2010, Molliec, Udaysagar1, Acategory, Shanafeltc, Hill-free, MoonMaiden38, EWikist, BeNothing, Donner60, Klashnfolk, Pradeep Sharma 786, Vimal kapur, Michaelhogan73, Goldenwinds,Rabicma, ClueBot NG, Tocil, Philmanx, Colbyfisher, Nobody60, Morgankevinj huggle, Anilshetty87, Gilderien, KWcrew1983, ChesterMarkel, NestleNW911, 1shields1, Rkgupta61, Vaalix, Ambkj123, Aaronwayneodonahue, Dream of Nyx, Widr, Abhilashraom, HelpfulPixie Bot, Yogiadept, Strike Eagle, Nashhinton, Nik.thinks, Jeraphine Gryphon, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Abhinay.leo, Mediation4u,Smcg8374, Rohanidoc, Chinmoy biswas60, Bodhitree29, Joshua Jonathan, Dormantfreedom, Roperii107, JEMead, RudolfRed, Melody-chick, BattyBot, Chris19Lloyd, Jsdiego, KhabarNegar, R. H. Andrews, ChrisGualtieri, Jt065, Khazar2, Qexigator, LakeCalm, Mogism,331dot, Sponsel, Waywind, Andrewcort, Wisewolf1972, Lugia2453, Sehaulk, Jasssonpet, Faizan, Sonĝanto, Tentinator, Jlatigo, Knight ofInfinity, Matipop, Backendgaming, Kunal.brt, Stuartlikedapuss, Bakhtiar Ghalib, JimRenge, Dean Liddell, Jianhui67, Wijsneus99, Firefly-SixtySeven, Rasnaby1984, JDiala, GreyWinterOwl, Sfchanteur, G DHONDARE, Parama8335, Mark.muesse, Monkbot, Madisonwhite12,Dragotillan, Ebisabeti, DeludedFan, Social Theory, 19Jmisseri, Sharan kumar reddy, Robotnawaz, Lear419, Jim2016, March232013, Sdi-world, Moonriver54 and Anonymous: 625

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