SPEECH ACT THEORYSPEECH ACT THEORYJ. Austin & J.SearleJ. Austin & J.Searle

Language as actionLanguage as actionDeclarations & performativesDeclarations & performatives

Felicity conditionsFelicity conditionsThe force of utterancesThe force of utterancesTaxonomy f speech actsTaxonomy f speech acts

TasksTasks

LANGUAGE AS ACTIONLANGUAGE AS ACTION

• Speech Act Theory was developed from the basic Speech Act Theory was developed from the basic belief that language is used belief that language is used to perform actions. to perform actions. (meaning and action are related to language)(meaning and action are related to language)

• Speech acts = Speech acts = actions performed via utterances actions performed via utterances (apology, complaint, compliment, etc.) (apology, complaint, compliment, etc.)

• They apply to the speaker’s communicative They apply to the speaker’s communicative intention in producing an utterance. The speaker intention in producing an utterance. The speaker - expects that his/her communicative intention - expects that his/her communicative intention will be recognized by the hearer. will be recognized by the hearer.

• Both speaker and hearer are usually helped in Both speaker and hearer are usually helped in this process by the context = this process by the context = speech events.speech events.

DECLARATIONS AND DECLARATIONS AND PERFORMATIVESPERFORMATIVES

• a class of highly ritualistic utterances a class of highly ritualistic utterances which carry no information about the which carry no information about the world outside language at all because they world outside language at all because they refer to themselves. (SAYING=DOING)refer to themselves. (SAYING=DOING)

E.g.:E.g.:• a. I a. I swearswear to… . to… .• b. I b. I sentencesentence you to death. you to death.• c. I hereby c. I hereby open open the Theater House.the Theater House.• d. I hereby d. I hereby name name this ship ‘Aurora’.this ship ‘Aurora’.

1. explicit performative:1. explicit performative:• I order you to clean your bootsI order you to clean your boots. . 2. 2. implicit performative:implicit performative: Clean your boots!Clean your boots!• The assumption is that underlying every utterance The assumption is that underlying every utterance

(U) there is a clause containing a performative (U) there is a clause containing a performative verb (Vp) which makes the function explicit. verb (Vp) which makes the function explicit. I (hereby) Vp you (that)I (hereby) Vp you (that)

• the subject must be first person sg., + the adverb the subject must be first person sg., + the adverb ‘hereby’, indicating that the utterance ‘hereby’, indicating that the utterance countscounts as as an action by being uttered + a performative verb an action by being uttered + a performative verb in the present tense + indirect object in the present tense + indirect object

FELICITY CONDITIONSFELICITY CONDITIONS

• for an utterance to perform a certain for an utterance to perform a certain act, some appropriate conditions act, some appropriate conditions have to be fulfilled. Technically, they have to be fulfilled. Technically, they are called ‘felicity conditions’.are called ‘felicity conditions’.

FELICITY COND. FOR THE ACT FELICITY COND. FOR THE ACT OF ORDERINGOF ORDERING

• 1. the sender believes the action should be done1. the sender believes the action should be done• 2. the receiver has the ability to do the action2. the receiver has the ability to do the action• 3. the receiver has the obligation to do the action3. the receiver has the obligation to do the action• 4. the sender has the right to tell the receiver to do the 4. the sender has the right to tell the receiver to do the

actionactionEGEG• I think your boots need cleaning, JonesI think your boots need cleaning, Jones (Condition 1) (Condition 1)• I’m bloody sure you can get your boots cleaner than that, I’m bloody sure you can get your boots cleaner than that,

Jones! Jones! (Condition 2)(Condition 2)• You’re supposed to come on to parade with clean boots, You’re supposed to come on to parade with clean boots,

Jones! Jones! (Condition 3)(Condition 3)• It’s my job to see you’ve got cleaner boots than this! It’s my job to see you’ve got cleaner boots than this!

(Condition 4)(Condition 4)

UNDERLYING FORCEUNDERLYING FORCE

• 1. 1. locutionary actlocutionary act: the basic act of utterance, : the basic act of utterance, producing a meaningful linguistic expression. producing a meaningful linguistic expression.

• 2. 2. illocutionary act/force: illocutionary act/force: performed via the performed via the communicative force of an utterance, the communicative force of an utterance, the function that we have in mind when we function that we have in mind when we produce an utterance. We might utter produce an utterance. We might utter I’ve just I’ve just made some coffeemade some coffee to make a statement, an to make a statement, an offer, an explanation, etc. offer, an explanation, etc.

• 3. 3. perlocutionary act/effect: perlocutionary act/effect: the effect you the effect you intend your utterance to have on the hearer, intend your utterance to have on the hearer, for example, to get the hearer drink the for example, to get the hearer drink the coffee. coffee.

TAXONOMY OF SPEECH TAXONOMY OF SPEECH ACTSACTS

1.1.Declarations:Declarations: speech acts that change the speech acts that change the world via their utterance. world via their utterance.

2. 2. RepresentativesRepresentatives• For example,For example,• statements of fact (statements of fact (The earth is roundThe earth is round))• assertions (assertions (Chomsky didn’t write about Chomsky didn’t write about

peanutspeanuts))• descriptions (descriptions (It was a sunny dayIt was a sunny day))In using a representative, the speaker makes In using a representative, the speaker makes

words fit the world (of belief).words fit the world (of belief).

3. Expressives:3. Expressives: speech acts that state what the speech acts that state what the speaker feels (psychological states). For example, speaker feels (psychological states). For example, expressing pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, expressing pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, sorrow, etc. They can be caused by something the sorrow, etc. They can be caused by something the speaker does or the hearer does, but they are speaker does or the hearer does, but they are about the speaker’s experience:about the speaker’s experience:

• E.g.E.g.• a. I’m really sorry.a. I’m really sorry.• b. Congratulations!b. Congratulations!• c. Oh, yes, mummy, great, mmmm!c. Oh, yes, mummy, great, mmmm!• In using expressives the speaker makes the words In using expressives the speaker makes the words

fit the world (of feeling).fit the world (of feeling).

4. Directives: 4. Directives: speech acts that speakers use to get speech acts that speakers use to get someone else do something. They express what someone else do something. They express what the speaker wants. For example, commands, the speaker wants. For example, commands, orders, requests, suggestions, etc. and can be orders, requests, suggestions, etc. and can be positive or negative:positive or negative:

• E.g.E.g.• a. Gimme a cup of coffee. Make it black.a. Gimme a cup of coffee. Make it black.• b. Could you lend me a pen please.b. Could you lend me a pen please.• c. Don’t touch that.c. Don’t touch that.In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make

thetheworld fit the words (via the hearer).world fit the words (via the hearer).

5. Commissives: 5. Commissives: speech acts that the speakers use speech acts that the speakers use to commit themselves to some future action.).They to commit themselves to some future action.).They express what the speaker intends. For example, express what the speaker intends. For example, promises, threats, refusals, pledges and can be promises, threats, refusals, pledges and can be performed by the speaker alone or as a member of performed by the speaker alone or as a member of a group:a group:

• E.g.E.g.• a. I’ll be back.a. I’ll be back.• b. I’m going to get it right next time.b. I’m going to get it right next time.• c. We will not do that.c. We will not do that.• In using a commissive, the speaker undetakes to In using a commissive, the speaker undetakes to

make the world fit the words (via the speaker).make the world fit the words (via the speaker).

DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH ACTSACTS

- on the basis of structure, provided by the three on the basis of structure, provided by the three basic sentence types in English which relate to the basic sentence types in English which relate to the three general communicative functions (Yule, three general communicative functions (Yule, 1996:54):1996:54):

- Direct/indirect relationship between sentence type Direct/indirect relationship between sentence type & function& function

________________________________________________________________________________________________UtteranceUtterance Sentence typeSentence type Comm. functionComm. function________________________________________________________________________________________________You wear a seat belt.You wear a seat belt. DeclarativeDeclarative StatementStatementDo you wear a seat belt?Do you wear a seat belt? InterrogativeInterrogative QuestionQuestionWear a seat belt!Wear a seat belt! ImperativeImperative

Command/RequestCommand/Request

TASKSTASKS

1. Look at the following utterances and 1. Look at the following utterances and try to determine what might have been try to determine what might have been their illocutionary force their illocutionary force (Source: Cook, (Source: Cook, 1989)1989)::

• 1. Please, open the window.1. Please, open the window.

• 2. It’s very stuff in here, isn’t it?2. It’s very stuff in here, isn’t it?

• 3. I’m sorry for what I’ve done.3. I’m sorry for what I’ve done.

• 4. I promise to repay you tomorrow.4. I promise to repay you tomorrow.

• 5. Somebody’s messed up my computer.5. Somebody’s messed up my computer.

TASKSTASKS

2. Look at the following transcripts of exchanges between a 2. Look at the following transcripts of exchanges between a husband and a wife. How does A exploit ambiguity in the husband and a wife. How does A exploit ambiguity in the illocutionary force of what is said? illocutionary force of what is said? (Source: Cook, 1989)(Source: Cook, 1989)

Exchange 1.Exchange 1.• A: Are you planning to do it this afternoon?A: Are you planning to do it this afternoon?• B: (angrily) Well WHEN this afternoon?B: (angrily) Well WHEN this afternoon?• A: (with injured innocence) I’m just asking whether you’ll be able A: (with injured innocence) I’m just asking whether you’ll be able

to do it this afternoon.to do it this afternoon.Exchange 2.Exchange 2.• B: Oh no, we haven’t got the TV programme.B: Oh no, we haven’t got the TV programme.• A: Go and get one then.A: Go and get one then.• B: Go and get one! I’ve just come in.B: Go and get one! I’ve just come in.• A: Well if you don’t go I’ll go.A: Well if you don’t go I’ll go.• B: That’s blackmail.B: That’s blackmail.• A: It’s not blackmail, it’s just a FACT.A: It’s not blackmail, it’s just a FACT.

TASKSTASKS

3. What is the problem with the 3. What is the problem with the following speech acts. following speech acts. (Source: Mey, (Source: Mey, 1993:127)1993:127)

• I promise (hereby) to set fire to your I promise (hereby) to set fire to your house.house.

• I hereby warn you that you will be I hereby warn you that you will be awarded the Nobel prize in literature.awarded the Nobel prize in literature.

• WRNING: Your lawn will turn brown in WRNING: Your lawn will turn brown in NovemberNovember

TASKSTASKS

44. Consider the following text, found on a package of . Consider the following text, found on a package of American brewers’ yeast in the 1920s: American brewers’ yeast in the 1920s: (Source: Mey, (Source: Mey, 1993:127)1993:127)

• Do not mix the contents of this package with 2 qts of Do not mix the contents of this package with 2 qts of lukewarm waterlukewarm water

• Do not add 1 lb of sprouted barleyDo not add 1 lb of sprouted barley• Do not put in a warm spot (74 degrees) for 7-10 daysDo not put in a warm spot (74 degrees) for 7-10 days• Do not skimDo not skim• Do not put mixture in copper pot and heatDo not put mixture in copper pot and heat• Do not condense vaporsDo not condense vapors• Do not consume end productDo not consume end product• Do not get caughtDo not get caught