Macropragmatics Speech act theory

Austin and Searle

• Austin, J. L. How to Do Things with Words. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1962.

6.3.1 Speech act theory

• Speech act theory was proposed by John. L. Austin and has been developed by J. R. Searle.

• They believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things that might be ‘true or false’, but rather it is often used to “do things”, to perform acts.

• Ex. (1) You’re fired. • (2) “There is a policeman on the corner”

• “There is a policeman at the corner.”

• This could be a warning, an assurance, a dare, a hint, or a reminder to go and take your car out of the handicapped space you are parked in.

• “I promise I’ll be there tomorrow.”

• “I promise I’ll be there tomorrow.”

• This could be a threat or a promise, depending on whether his presence tomorrow is a disadvantage or an advantage to the listener. Contrast the sentence above with:

• “If you don’t behave, I promise you there’s going to be trouble.” This sentence says it’s a “promise,” but it’s a “threat.”

(Searle Speech Acts 58)

• Actions performed via utterances are generally called speech acts, the uttering of the relevant words is the action itself; without the utterance the action is not done. These are called performative sentences and the verbs used are called performative verbs (Vp):

Illocutionary acts

• Austin suggests three kinds of acts

a. locutionary act

b. illocutionary act

c. perlocutinary act

The speech act theory

a. Locutionary act: the act of saying, the literal meaning of the utterance

b. illocutionary act: the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning

c. perlocutionary act: the effect of the utterance on the hearer, depending on specific circumstances.

(1) It’s stuffy in here.

• The locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning “There isn’t enough fresh air in here”.

• The illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to open the window.

• The perlocutinary act can be the hearer’s opening the window or his refusal to do so.

In fact, we might utter (1) to make a statement, a request, an explanation, or for some other communicative purposes. This is also generally known as the illocutionary force of the utterance.

Husband: That’s the phone.

Wife: I’m in the bathroom

Husband: Okay.

• Its illocutionary acts are:

• (i) a refusal to comply with the request

• (ii) a request to her husband to answer the phone instead.

• Performatives cannot be true or false, but they can ‘go wrong’ or ‘infelicitous’. Saying I name this ship Queen Elizabeth will not name the ship if the speaker has no authority to do so.

• Searle suggests that speech acts can be characterized in terms of ‘felicity conditions’ and that there are three kinds of condition that a speech act must meet (See Palmer p.165):

1. Preparatory conditions.

2. Sincerity conditions.

3. Essential conditions.

• Not every utterance includes a performative verb like promise. Yet we normally manage to infer what the speaker intends. Searle proposed that speech acts could be grouped into general categories based not on performative verbs but on the relationship between ‘the words’ and ‘the world’ and who is responsible for making that relationship work. Within each category there can be a variety of different illocutions, but the members of each group share a similar relationship of ‘fit’ between the words and the world.

• John R. Searle’s classification :

• Directives

• Commissives

• Representatives

• Declaratives

• Expressives

• Rogatives

Searle’s classification

Directives

• Directive is a speech act that is to cause the hearer to take a particular action

1) I need/ want that car.

2) Give me your pen.

3) Could you give me your pen, please?

4) May I have some soda? Is there any milk left?

5) This has to be done over. What about the renovation?

Commissives

• Commissive is a speech act that commits a speaker to some future action (promises, refuses) e.g.

• Maybe I can do that tomorrow.

• Don’t worry, I’ll be there.

Representatives

• Representative is a speech act that commits a speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition

e.g. I went to the Affandi painting exhibition. There are about twenty paintings on display. Some are very classic and extraordinarily awesome.

Declaratives

• Declarative is a speech act that changes the reality in accord with the proposition of the declaration.

• e.g. Class dismissed (students get up and leave) .

• I now pronounce you husband and wife.

Expressives

• Expressive is a speech act that expresses on the speaker's attitudes and emotions towards the proposition.

• e.g. I am very disappointed.

• What a great day!!!

• Oh my, that’s terrible.

• Speech act functions

1) Exchange factual information

• The plain departs at 7:10.

2) Exchange intellectual information

• These arguments are correct.

3) Exchange emotional attitudes

• I’m worried about my term papers.

4) Exchange moral attitudes

• I appreciate your help.

5) Persuasion

• Hand in your assignments.

6) Socializing

• Hi, Larry, how are you?

Indirect speech acts

• “Could you move over a bit?”

• “Yes” (without moving is inappropriate)

• Moving (without “Yes” is appropriate)

• Do you know what time it is?

• Do you have the correct time?

• Can you tell me how to get to the men’s room?

• Do you see the salt anywhere?

• It’s cold in here.

• Isn’t this soup rather bland?

• Why can’t you shut up?

(2) a. It’s cold outside. b. I hereby tell you about the weather.

c. I hereby request of you that you close the door.

• Whenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function, we have a direct speech act. For example, a declarative used to make a statement is a direct speech act, but a declarative used to make a request is an indirect speech act. As illustrated in (2), the utterance in (2a) is a declarative. When it is used to make a statement, as paraphrased in (2b), it is functioning as a direct speech act. When it is used to make a command/request, as paraphrased in (2c), it is functioning as an indirect speech act.

• I strongly suggest you shut your mouth.

• Sometimes it’s a good idea to shut up.

• I wonder if you really should do all that talking.

• I wouldn’t say more, if I were you.

• Remember the proverb, “Speech is silver….?”

• How about if you just shut up? (Mey 136)

• DURING A JOB INTERVIEW:

• “Would you like to tell us, Mr. Khan, why you’ve applied to Middleton College?

• This is known as “fishing for compliments.”

(Mey 213)

Silence as a speech acts

• In Mexico in the old days, the Federals would pull a person over and ask to see their driver’s license.

• Before handing over the driver’s license the driver would attach a $20 bill onto the back of the license.

• Nothing was said by either party. Was this, therefore, a bribe, or not?

(Mey 211)

silence serves as the means whereby illocutionary (or speech) acts are performed. It can serve as a direct or an indirect speech act.

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• PROFESSOR: Miriam, I hope you brought the book.

• MIRIAM: SILENCE

• PROFESSOR: Okay, but please remember it next time.

(Blum-Kulka 176)

Exercise: Someone stands between you and the TV set you were watching, so you decide to say one of the following. Identify which would be direct and which would be indirect speech acts. (1) Move! (2) You’re in the way. (3) Could you sit down? (4) I can’t see anything. (5) Please get out of the way.