HUMAN SPACE EXPLORATION

Prepared by,

Rashida Talat.Rashidatalat@gmail.com

CONTENTS

PROJECT MERCURY.PROJECT JEMINI.MISSION APOLLO.SKY LAB.APOLLO-SOYUZ.SPACE SHUTTLEEXTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY.SPACE-SUIT DESIGN.

PROJECT GEMINI

INTRODUCTION

Project Gemini was 2 human space flight program of NASA.

It was conducted with 10 manned flights occurring in 1965 and 1966.

They were launched from Cape Canaveral ,Florida using the Titan11 GLV launch vehicle .

It first flew on march 23,1965.

GEMINI 12 SPACE CRAFT

GOALS AND OBJECTIVE

To develop space craft techniques like

Perfecting extra-vehicular activity.• Perfecting orbital maneuvers necessary to achieve

rendezvous and docking.• To demonstrate endurance of humans and

equipments to space flights for extended periods.• To perfect techniques of atmospheric re-entry and

landing at pre selected locations.

DESCRIPTION It was 19 feet long and 10

feet wide with launch weight of 8,490 pounds.

It include an onboard computer.

Parachutes were used to make sea landing.

The capsule was suspended at an angle close to horizontal,so that side of heat shield contact the water first.

MORE ABOUT GEMINI

•There were 12 Gemini flights, including 2 unmanned flights.•The first space walk or extra-vehicular activity was made by an American Edward White in June 1965.•The first space rendezvous was accomplished with Gemini 6 & 7.•In first half of 1966 first docking between Gemini 8 and an unmanned vehicle was accomplished too.

CONCLUSION

• The goals were met and project was considered a success by achieving many historical records.

• It was successful in enhancing flight and ground proficiency.

PROJECT MERCURY

INTRODUCTION

Project Mercury was America’s first human space flight programme.

It was also the first major undertaking of NASA.

MERCURY-ATLAS 7(Began in 1957)

PRINCIPLE AND OBJECTIVE

PRINCIPLE

• Its principle was using a missile to launch a blunt shape space craft which would dissipate heat and allow safe re-entry into the atmosphere.

objective• To place astronauts in space, test

their reactions and return them safely to earth.

• NASA formally created project mercury on dec 17.

• KEITH GLENNAN first administrator of NASA announced this project to public.

• FIRST piloted mercury flight lifted off on may 5 1961.

ESTABLISHMENT

DESCRIPTION

• Space craft that was designed was cone shaped with cylinder on top.

• It was 6.8 feet long,6.2 feet in diameter, and had a 16.2 feet escape tower.

• It weighed about 7900 kg.• It also had solid rocket

motor fastened to cylinder.

• Blunt end of the capsule which would enter the atmosphere was covered with shield that could burn off and dissipate heat during re-entry.

• This shield also detached from the capsule and release a balloon to cushion landing.

• 18 small rockets operated manually controlled d attitude of space craft.

DETAILS OF MERCURY

WORKING RULE

SOME IMPORTANT ASPECTS

Seven sub-orbital and four orbital test flights preceded the piloted flights.

In one sub-orbital flight chimpanzee named Ham was a surrogate passenger.

Shepard became the first American in space. he was behind the controls of freedom7.

John Glen Jr. was first American to make an orbital flight. Travelling around earth 3 times in friendship7.

Schirra became first orbiting T.V star as he beamed a telecast back to earth from is sigma7 space craft.

Gordon Cooper in his faith7 lasted a record of circling earth 22 times and released first satellite.

SPACE SHUTTLE (April 12, 1981)

INTRODUCTION

• It is a significant part of human space exploration. It has accomplished many tasks that have enhanced the quality of life on earth.

• It is worlds first re-usable space –craft.• It is U.S first vehicle having standard sea level

atmospheric pressure and composition.

MISSION SUMMERY.

• The Space Shuttle program began with the launch of STS-1 on April 12, 1981. Space Shuttle Columbia spent only two days in space as it tested everything out and returned safely to Earth. This began the first reusable spacecraft program. No other flying machine (airplane, helicopter, or rocket ) is able to serve as a home for pilots, carry cargo, fly in space or in our atmosphere, maneuver around in orbit, land on a runway, and be ready to do it all over again in just a few weeks.

• Between march 1998 and may 1998,NASA astronauts flew onboard the Russian space station Mir in a collaborative effort.

• Almost 11 space shuttle flights were carried out.• Mir is a test site for three main areas of experience

and investigations:

1.designing,building and staffing the international space station.2.Investigation about space station hardware, materials and construction materials.3.operation,no previous needed so many independent operations.

PROJECT APOLLO(Apollo 7, October 11, 1968)

INTRODUCTION

•The Apollo program was the space flight effort that landed the first humans on Earth's Moon.•Conceived during the Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower and carried out by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States (NASA).• Apollo began in earnest after President John F. Kennedy proposed the national goal of "landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth" by the end of the 1960s

GOAL

• The goal of Apollo was singular and straight forward-to land man on moon and bring him back to earth safely.

MISSION MODES

Lunar Surface Rendezvous.

Earth Orbit Rendezvous.

Direct Ascent. Lunar Orbit Rendezvous.

MORE ABOUT THE PROGRAME

• One of the greatest moments in human history came on July 20, 1969, when Neil Alden Armstrong became the first human to walk on the moon.

• The program included a large number of uncrewed test missions and 11 manned missions.

• Lunar surface experiments included soil mechanics, meteoroids, solar wind experiments etc.

• Apollo 17, launched December 7, 1972, was the last Apollo mission to the Moon. Mission commander Eugene Cernan was the last person to leave the Moon's surface. The crew returned safely to Earth on December 19, 1972.

MAJOR EXPERIMENTS OF SHUTTLE-MIR.

• Successful culturing of cartilage cells was carried out.

• Researchers found out that the rate of bone loss on the Mir, a chronic problem does not lessen over time as previously thought.

• For the first time in history, a complete natural cycle of plants growth has been accomplished in space.

• Many protein crystals were grown in space. The crystals form the basis for basis for improved drug design for a wide variety of illness.

SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

• The Apollo program, specifically the lunar landings, has been called the greatest technological achievement in human history.

• The program stimulated many areas of technology. • The flight computer design used in both the lunar and command

modules was, along with the Minuteman Missile System. the driving force behind early research into integrated circuits

• The fuel cell developed for this program was the first practical fuel cell.

• . Computer-controlled machining (CNC) was pioneered in fabricating Apollo structural components.

PHOTOS

Hasselblad camera used in the Apollo Program.Lunar Roving Vehicle used on Apollos 15–17

The most famous of the Moon rocks recovered, the Genesis Rock, returned from Apollo 15.

Ferroan Anorthosite Moon rock, returned from Apollo 16.

Photographs of earth as taken from the Apollo space-crafts.

CONCLUSION

• It is regarded as one of the most successful mission carried out giving history some of the remarkable events of mankind.

• The famous words spoken by Neil Amstrong on landing on moon… “One small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.”

SKY LABINTRODUCTION

Sky lab provided U.S first experimental space station.Sky lab space station was launched on May 14, 1973.from the NASA Kennedy space center by a huge launch vehicle.On May 25, 1973 crew of sky lab 2 finally began there 28 days aboard sky lab.

OBJECTIVES

To prove that humans could live and work in space for extended

periods.

To expand our knowledge of solar astronomy well beyond earth

based observation.

Parking place for space crafts in sky lab.

DESCRIPTION• This 100-ton (91-metric ton) structure was 118 feet (36 meters)

high, 22 feet (6.7 meters) in diameter, and flew at an altitude of 270 miles (435 kilometers).

Scientific equipments used:• The Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM), used to study the Sun in

different wavelengths with no atmospheric interference.• Two X-ray telescopes; an X-ray and extreme ultraviolet camera;

an ultraviolet spectroheliometer; an extreme ultraviolet spectroheliograph and an ultraviolet spectroheliograph; a white light coronagraph; and two hydrogen-alpha telescopes.

• The unit had its own electricity-generating solar panels.

WORK CARRIED OUT

• In period upto june 22, they circled earth 404 times , completed 392 experiment hours and carried out 3 EVAs.

• It was a site of nearly 300 scientific and technical experiments.• Medical experiments on human adaptibility to microgravity ,solar

observations were carried out.• It also detailed earth resources experiments.

SOME PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN

A special instrument called the spectroheliometer scanned the Sun and recorded its ultraviolet radiation..

Comet Kohoutek was photographed by Skylab's far-ultraviolet camera. Its hydrogen halo had a diameter of some 1,600,000 miles.

• In Skylab, both the hours spent in orbit and those spent performing EVA exceeded the combined totals of all of the world's previous space flights.

• Good health and physical condition of the astronauts after returning from their extended stay in the weightlessness of space conclusively demonstrated the feasibility of longer human spaceflight missions.

RESULT

• It was obviously a successful project as it had taken the critical first step to demonstrate that humans could survive in space.

CONCLUSION

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATIONThe International Space Station on 30 May 2011 as seen from the departing

Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-134…..

The International Space Station (ISS) is a habitable, artificial satellite in low Earth orbit.

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATIONThe ISS follows the Salyut, Almaz, Cosmos, Skylab, and Mir space stations, as the 11th space station launched, not including the Genesis I and II prototypes

The station has a unique environment for the testing of the spacecraft systems that will be required for missions to the Moon and Mars

Primary purposes for the iss to serve ASAN ADVANCED TEST

BED FOR TECHNOLOGY AND HUMAN EXPLORATION

A WORLD CLASS RESEARCH FACILITY

A COMMERCIAL PLATFORM FOR BOTH SPACE RESEARCH AND

DEVELOPMENT

– The ISS combines the Japanese Kibō laboratory with three space station projects, the Soviet/Russian Mir-2, the American Freedom, and the European Columbus.

– Russia's next planned space station OPSEK, is to be separated prior to the ISS's deorbit to form a new, separate space station, intended to support deep space exploration.Like many artificial satellites, the ISS can be seeseen from Earth with the naked eye..

– The station is maintained in orbit between 278 km (173 mi) and 460 km (286 mi) altitude, and travels at an average ground speed of 27,724 km (17,227 mi) per hour, completing 15.7 orbits per day.

–The station consists of.– pressurised modules– external trusses – solar arrays – and other components ,– which have been launched by Russian Proton rockets,

Americanspace shuttles, and Russian Soyuz rockets.

– The ISS serves as a research laboratory that has a microgravity environment in which crews conduct experiments in many fields including biology, human biology, physics,astronomy and meteorology.

– The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements which divide the station into two areas and allow the Russian Federation to retain full ownership of Russian Orbital Segment(ROS)/(RS), with the US Orbital Segment (USOS) allocated between the other international partners..

EXTRA VEHICULAR ACTIVITES

WHAT ACTUALLY EXTRA VEHICULAR ACTIVITES MEANS….????

DEFINITION

– The term most commonly applies to an EVA made outside a craft orbiting Earth (a spacewalk), but also applies to an EVA made on the surface of the Moon (amoonwalk)..

Exra-vehicular activity (EVA) is work done by an astronaut away from the Earth, and outside of a spacecraft.

– Untethered spacewalks were only performed on three missions in 1984 using the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU), and on a flight test in 1994 of the Simplified Aid for EVA Rescue (SAFER)

A SAFER is a safety device worn on tethered U.S. EVAs, since the capability of returning to the spacecraft is essential.

EVAs may be and electricaeither tethered (the astronaut is connected to the spacecraft; oxygen l power can be supplied through an umbilical cable; no propulsion is needed to return to the spacecraft), or untethered…

– A "Stand-up" EVA (SEVA) is where the astronaut does not fully exit a spacecraft, but is completely reliant on the spacesuit for environmental support..

Its name derives from the astronaut "standing up" in the open hatch, usually to film or assist a spacewalking astronaut.

Indian Missiles: Threat and Capability

The Report

(January-February 1995)

– As Indian scientists watched their new space rocket ascend over the Indian Ocean, they were jubilant.

THE ROCKET'S FOUR GIANT STAGES

LIFTED A THREE-QUARTER TON

SATELLITE INTO A NEAR POLAR

ORBIT, A TREMENDOUS

ACHIEVEMENT FOR INDIAN

ROCKETRY.

• . India tested its first nuclear device in 1974. Since then, according to the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), its researchers have progressed to working on more powerful thermonuclear bombs and the missiles to deliver them.

IF INDIA CONVERTS ITS NEW SPACE ROCKET TO A

MISSILE, IT COULD REACH CITIES AS FAR AWAY AS

LONDON, TOKYO AND NEW YORK.India built the medium-range Agni missile by taking a first-stage rocket from a small space launcher and combining it with guidance technology developed by the German space agency

– One of India's ablest students was A. P. J. Kalam returned home to build India's first space rocket, the Satellite Launch Vehicle - SLV-3, a carbon copy of the Scout.

NASA made Kalam's task easier by supplying unclassified technical reports on the Scout's design

India's quest for imports provoked a row with the United States in 1992. The Russian space agency tried to sell India advanced cryogenic engines for India's most ambitious space rocket, the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).

Space suit..

– A space suit is a garment worn to keep an  astronaut

alive in the harsh environment ( vac cum and temperature extremes) of  outer space.

– Space suits are often worn inside spacecraft as a safety precaution in case of loss of cabin pressure, and are necessary for extra-vehicula activity (EVA), work done outside spacecraft.

– Space suits have been worn for such work in Earth orbit, on the surface of the Moon, and en route back to Earth from the Moon.

– The first space suit worn by a human in space was the Soviet Union SK-1 suit worn by Yuri Gargarin in 1961.

HOW SPACE SUIT WORKS?

– Outer Space is an extremely hostile place. If you were to step outside a spacecraft and you weren't wearing a space suit, the following things could happen:

– YOU COULD BECOME UNCONSCIOUS WITHIN 15 SECONDS BECAUSE THERE'S NO OXYGEN.

– YOUR BLOOD AND BODY FLUIDS COULD "BOIL" AND THEN FREEZE BECAUSE THERE IS LITTLE OR NO

AIR PRESSURE.

– YOUR TISSUES (SKIN, HEART, OTHER INTERNAL ORGANS) COULD EXPAND BECAUSE OF THE

BOILING FLUIDS.

– YOU COULD FACE EXTREME CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE. FOR EXAMPLE, IN THE SUNLIGHT

TEMPERATURES MIGHT REACH 248 DEGREES F (120 DEGREES C) AND PLUMMET TO -148 F ( -100 C)

IN THE SHADE.

– YOU WOULD BE EXPOSED TO VARIOUS TYPES OF RADIATION, SUCH AS COSMIC RAYS, AND

CHARGED PARTICLES EMITTED FROM THE SUN (SOLAR WIND).

– YOU COULD BE HIT BY SMALL PARTICLES OF DUST OR ROCK THAT MOVE AT HIGH SPEEDS

(MICROMETEOROIDS) OR ORBITING DEBRIS FROM SATELLITES OR SPACECRAFT.

– SO, TO PROTECT YOU FROM THESE

DANGERS, A SPACE SUIT MUST:

– HAVE A PRESSURIZED ATMOSPHERE.

– GIVE YOU OXYGEN AND REMOVE

CARBON DIOXIDE

– MAINTAIN A COMFORTABLE

TEMPERATURE DESPITE STRENUOUS

WORK AND MOVEMENT INTO AND

OUT OF SUNLIT AREAS

– PROTECT YOU FROM

MICROMETEOROIDS AND FROM

RADIATION TO SOME DEGREE

Spacesuit requirements– A SPACE SUIT MUST PERFORM SEVERAL FUNCTIONS TO ALLOW ITS OCCUPANT TO WORK SAFELY

AND COMFORTABLY, INSIDE OR OUTSIDE OF A SPACECRAFT. IT MUST PROVIDE:

– A STABLE INTERNAL PRESSURE. THIS CAN BE LESS THAN EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE, AS THERE IS

USUALLY NO NEED FOR THE SPACESUIT TO CARRY NITROGEN (WHICH COMPRISES ABOUT 78%

OF EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE AND IS NOT USED BY THE BODY). LOWER PRESSURE ALLOWS FOR

GREATER MOBILITY, BUT REQUIRES THE SUIT OCCUPANT TO BREATHE PURE OXYGEN FOR A TIME

BEFORE GOING INTO THIS LOWER PRESSURE, TO AVOID DECOMPRESSION SICKNES.– MOBILITY. MOVEMENT IS TYPICALLY OPPOSED BY THE PRESSURE OF THE SUIT;

MOBILITY IS ACHIEVED BY CAREFUL JOINT DESIGN.

– SUPPLY OF BREATHABLE OXYGEN AND ELIMINATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE; THESE GASES ARE

EXCHANGED WITH THE SPACECRAFT OR A PORTABLE LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEM (PLSS).

TEMPERATURE REGULATION. UNLIKE

ON EARTH, WHERE HEAT CAN BE

TRANSFERRED BY CONVECTION TO THE

ATMOSPHERE, IN SPACE, HEAT CAN BE

LOST ONLY BY THERMAL RADIATION OR

BY CONDUCTION TO OBJECTS IN

PHYSICAL CONTACT WITH THE EXTERIOR

OF THE SUIT. SINCE THE TEMPERATURE

ON THE OUTSIDE OF THE SUIT VARIES

GREATLY BETWEEN SUNLIGHT AND

SHADOW, THE SUIT IS HEAVILY

INSULATED, AND AIR TEMPERATURE IS

MAINTAINED AT A COMFORTABLE

LEVEL.

– A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM, WITH EXTERNAL ELECTRICAL CONNECTION TO

THE SPACECRAFT OR PLSS

– MEANS OF COLLECTING AND CONTAINING SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE (SUCH AS

A MAXIMUM ABSORBENCY GARMENT)

THANK YOU…