souvenir marketing in tourism retailing a …
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SOUVENIR MARKETING IN TOURISM RETAILING
SHOPPER AND RETAILER PERCEPTIONS
by
KRISTEN K. SWANSON, B.S., M.S.
A DISSERTATION
IN
CLOTHING, TEXTILES, AND MERCHANDISING
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Approved
Accepted
August, 1994
1 o
C'J •b
t.i.H" ^ b ^ /
® 1994 Kristen Kathleen Swanson
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researcher would like to thank Dr. Patricia Horridge, advisor and friend,
for her guidance and support at Texas Tech University. Dr. Horridge continually
gives of herself to encourage and inspire her students. Additionally, this researcher
would like to thank Dr. Claud Davidson, Dr. linger Eberspacher, Dr. Lynn Huffman,
and Dr. JoAnn Shroyer for allowing this exploratory research to take place, and keep
the study grounded. Each committee member took time to listen, evaluate and
strengthen this study. Thank you to Tom Combrink, Arizona Hospitality Research
and Resource Center, Northern Arizona University, for assisting with the statistical
analysis. Further, this researcher would like to thank all of the graduate students who
came before her, for it is by their accomplishments and mistakes that the present
study was enhanced.
The researcher would like to thank her husband James Power, her parents
Richard and Bonnie Swanson, and Bill and Ruby Power, and special friends Chris and
Judy Everett for their constant support in accomplishing this study and the degree
which comes with the work.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii
ABSTRACT vii
LIST OF TABLES ix
CHAPTER
L INTRODUCTION 1
Theoretical Framework 2
Statement of Problem 3
Purposes of the Study 6
Research Objectives and Questions 7
Research Objectives 7
Research Questions 8
Limitations 9
Definition of Terms 9
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 13
Theoretical Development 13
Souvenir Phenomena 18
Craft Consumer Typology 23
Consumer Profile 26
Activities and Motivations 27
Demographic Characteristics 31
Retailer Profile 33
iii
Retail Strategies 37
Summary 41
III. METHOD 44
Sample 44
Selection of Sample 45
Sample Size 46
Description of the Instrument 47
Souvenir Tourist Questionnaire 48
Souvenir Retailer Questionnaire 50
Procedure 51
Pilot Study 52
Statistical Analysis of Data 53
IV. RESULTS 56
Distribution and Completion of Questionnaires 56
Souvenir Tourist Sample 57
Souvenir Retailer Sample 57
Reliability of Scales 57
Description of Sample 58
Souvenir Tourist Sample 58
Souvenir Retailer Sample 58
Instrument Scales 63
Tourist Scales 63
iv
Souvenir Merchandise Scale 63
Tourist Merchandise
Selection Factors Scale 65
Information Sources Scale 65
Souvenir Shopping Locations 68
Tourist Patronage Motives 68
Tourist Reasons for Travel Scale 68 Tourist Travel Activities
Scale 73
Retail Scales 78
Merchandise Assortment Scale 78
Merchandise Selection
Factors Scale 78
Retail Patronage Motives 78
Identification of Tourist Groups and Retailer Groups 83
Tourist Groups 83
Retailer Groups 84
Analysis of Research Questions 84
Research Question 1 87
Research Question 2 87 Research Question 3 87 Research Question 4 90
Research Question 5 93
Research Question 6 93
Research Question 7 96
Summary of Findings for Research Questions 100
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 102
Summary of the Study 102
Findings 104
Interpretation of the Results 109
Tourist Sample and Retailer Sample
Differences 109
Souvenir Consumer Groups 112
Souvenir Retailer Groups 116
Conclusions and Implications 117
Recommendations for Further Study 119
Souvenir Phenomena 121
BIBLIOGRAPHY 123 APPENDICES
A. TOURIST COVER LETTER AND SURVEY INSTRUMENT 128
B. RETAILER COVER LETTER AND SURVEY INSTRUMENT 141
C. USE OF CLUSTER ANALYSIS AND FACTOR ANALYSIS 150
VI
ABSTRACT
The purposes of this study were to determine shopping orientations of tourists
in the Southwest using souvenir purchase behavior as a base measurement and to
assess Southwestern retailers' knowledge of tourists visiting the Southwest. Tourist
shopping segments were identified using souvenir merchandise purchases, souvenir
merchandise selection factors, souvenir information sources, souvenir shopping
locations, retail patronage motives, reasons for travel, travel activities, and
demographic characteristics. In order to determine retailers' awareness of tourists'
buying behavior, differences in souvenir merchandise offered emd purchased, souvenir
merchandise selection factors, and retail patronage motives were compared. Tourists
who visited Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, between July 1, 1992 and
June 30, 1993, were sampled. Additionally, retailers in operation in Arizona,
Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, between the same dates were sampled. Two
survey instruments, one directed at tourists and one directed at retailers, were
distributed. A pilot study of each instrument was conducted prior to the distribution
of the questionnaires. The questionnaires were distributed to potential survey
participants using the Dillman (1978) method for mail surveys. After three mailings,
398 usable tourist questionnaires and 307 usable retailer questionnaires were received.
A variety of statistical procedures were employed to analyze the data.
Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficients were calculated for scale consistency and
internal reliability. Statistical methods included t-test and analysis of variance.
Vll
Findings indicated measurable differences in the merchandise purchased by
souvenir consumers when compared with merchandise sold by retailers. The majority
of merchandise categories were more important to tourists than to retailers.
Differences were apparent in the importance of souvenir merchandise selection factors
when comparing souvenir consumers and souvenir retailers. Fewer differences were
evident between tourists and retailers with regard to merchandise selection factors
than with merchandise assortment or retail patronage motives. Differences were
evident in the importance of retail patronage motives when comparing souvenir
consumers and retailers. The majority of patronage motives were more important to
retailers than to tourists. Factor analysis of the tourist sample resulted in three tourist
groupings: home-oriented, destination-oriented, and aesthetic-oriented. The profile
characteristics of the three groupings of the tourist sample did not differ significantly.
Factor analysis of the retailer sample resulted in four retailer groupings: tourist-
directed, artistic/cultural-directed, adornment-directed, and collection-directed. The
profile characteristics of the four groupings of the retail sample did not differ
significantly.
Vlll
LIST OF TABLES
3.1 Description of Research Questions, Instrument, and Statistical Analysis 55
4.1 Tourist Demographic Characteristics 59
4.2 Retailer Demographic Characteristics 61
4.3 Summary Table for Tourist Souvenir Merchandise Categories 64
4.4 Summary Table for Tourist Merchandise Selection Factors 66
4.5 Summary Table for Tourist Information Sources 67
4.6 Summary Table for Tourist Souvenir Shopping Locations 69
4.7 Summary Table for Tourist Patronage Motives 71
4.8 Summary Table for Tourist Reasons for Travel 74
4.9 Summary Table for Tourist Travel Activities 76
4.10 Summary Table for Retailer Merchandise Assortment 79
4.11 Summary Table for Retailer Merchandise Selection Factors 80
4.12 Summary Table for Retailer Patronage Motives 81
4.13 Factor Loading: Souvenir Merchandise Scale Varimax Rotated Solutions 85
4.14 Factor Loading: Merchandise Assortment Scale Varimax Rotated Solutions 86
4.15 Summary Table for Retailer and Tourist Merchandise Category t-tests 88
4.16 Summary Table for Retailer and Tourist Merchandise Selection Factors t-tests 89
4.17 Summary Table for Retailer and Tourist Patronage Motives t-tests 91
IX
4.18 Summary ANOVA Table for Souvenir Tourist Groups Unequal Sample Sizes 92
4.19 Summary Table for Souvenir Tourist Groups Demographic Characteristics 94
4.20 Summary ANOVA Table for Souvenir Retailer Groups Unequal Sample Sizes 97
4.21 Summary Table for Souvenir Retailer Groups Demographic Characteristics 98
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Studies of consumer shopping orientations seek to identify a limited set of
distinct shopper types, labeled typologies, to which retail management may direct
marketing efforts (Westbrook & Black, 1985). The appeal of such typologies is the
potential to improve retail decision-making by enabling retailers to "differentiate and
target their offerings, locations, and promotional efforts" according to patronage
responses of basic shopper types (Westbrook & Black, 1985, p. 78). Shopper
typology studies are varied. Determination of groups has ranged from buying
behavior of specific products or groups of products, to retail marketplace patronage
characteristics (Westbrook & Black, 1985). An investigation of tourist shopping
orientations for souvenir products and the preferred retail environments holds
potential for retailers to better direct marketing efforts to a nonlocal clientele.
Souvenirs are economically important for many retail businesses located near
or at tourist destinations. Each year, gift shops sell $23 billion worth of souvenirs
(Gordon, 1986). A portion of the income from souvenir sales is generated from gift,
antique, food, apparel, accessory, and general merchandise retail businesses, and art
galleries. The souvenir may be of various forms such as postcards, T-shirts, objects
of nature, local crafts, fine art, wearable art, accessories, jewelry, toys, and other
items. Souvenirs may be mass produced goods or expensive handmade items
(Blundell, 1993).
Theoretical Framework
The nature of humans is to return from traveling with a souvenir or memento
of the experience. "The desire to visit and collect a souvenir from a strange or
unfamiliar place has always been an unquashable yearning in the human soul"
(Petersen, 1985, p. 50). Souvenirs are a universal reminder of special moments or
events. The purchase of a souvenir by a tourist serves as a tangible way of capturing
or suspending an otherwise intangible experience. MacCannell (1976) stated
returning home with souvenirs validated and prolonged the travel experience.
Grabum (1977) confirmed physical evidence of travels is often shared with family and
friends but are truly brought back as memories of the experience. The sacredness
theory, according to tourism anthropologists, predicts that individuals will behave
differently during nonordinary leisure time periods than during normal work time
periods and will use souvenirs to remember the leisure state.
Tourism anthropologists such as MacCannell (1976) and Grabum (1977) have
investigated the meanings attached to the act of traveling; the souvenirs or mementos
one brings home, although consistently mentioned, have been less thoroughly
examined. An empirical study of the phenomena of souvenirs has not been previously
conducted (Gordon, 1993). Additionally, consumer behavior concerning souvenir
purchases has not been developed to the theory level (Kean, 1993; Littrell, 1993).
Past shopping orientation research, with the exception of Bellenger and Korgaonkar
(1980), has identified typologies based on shopping characteristics of individuals in a
normal state. This study attempted to identify shopping orientations of individuals in
a nonordinary leisure state. A conceptual understanding of shopping orientations of
tourists in a leisure state may allow retailers to target souvenir merchandise and
efficiently use resources.
Statement of the Problem
In many parts of the country, public officials and business executives
concerned with economic development have initiated policies that encourage travel.
They have taken advantage of the nation's transportation and hospitality infrastructure
and developed local resources that can attract travelers and encourage them to stay at
tourist destinations. However, the retailing community as a sector of tourism has not
kept pace with other tourism sectors in assessing the importance of the tourist to their
markets.
Shopping is often listed as an activity in which tourists engage, but little
research has been conducted to determine the impact tourist shopping has on retail
businesses. Jansen-Verbeke (1991) noted the importance of shopping tourism is
widely recognized despite the fact that little is known about the actual behavior and
expectations of tourists. Kent, Shock, and Snow (1983) made the argument that when
tourists were asked what was important in causing them to travel, shopping was not
among the list of answers. However, when tourists were asked the activities they had
participated in while traveling, shopping was almost always included. They suggested
that travel marketers investigate the appeal of shopping to travelers. In their words,
"shopping's powerful tourist appeal can and should be benevolently exploited" (p. 3).
Witter (1985) reported shopping, although not the most important activity for visiting
an area, became important once the visitor arrived at his or her destination.
"Whether a traveler is on a business or pleasure trip, shopping is the first and last
thing done upon arriving and departing a tourist location" (Pysarchik, 1989, p. 553).
Jansen-Verbeke (1991) confirmed earlier research findings stating, "the importance of
shopping tourism is widely recognized; [shopping tourism] has become a magic
concept for the tourism industry despite the fact that little is known about the actual
behavior and expectations of tourists" (p. 10).
The future attraction of shopping tourism to the tourism market will largely
depend on the capacity to develop leisure facilities which maintain an image of unique
shopping combined with a leisure experience (Jansen-Verbeke, 1991). Kent et al.
(1983) contend that shopping has "modestly and quietly become one of the major
support components of the tourism industry" (p. 4). Further, Witter (1985) suggested
that effective marketing necessitates an increased understanding of tourist customers.
This project investigated tourist consumers and retailers. By better
understanding the relationship between tourists and their retail needs, many businesses
in tourist communities may increase their revenues and thus increase economic
activity as a host community. Further, by identifying the retail needs of tourists,
retailers may diversify their product offerings and gain a competitive advantage over
those businesses that do not know the needs of tourists or choose to ignore the desires
of the tourist customer.
A study of souvenirs in the Southwestern United States seemed appropriate
based on the mythology associated with Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah,
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Deitch (1977) suggested the Southwest has long held a degree of fascination for
Americans because of the majestic canyons with vast and colorful vistas and the
desert flora which appealed to the "frontier spirit of the American personality"
(p. 175). The Southwest is a blend of Indian and Hispanic inhabitants based on
centuries of acculturation. The blend of cultures is displayed in architecture, jewelry,
weaving, pottery, and ceremonial rituals. Products indigenous to the Southwest
including Indian rugs, pottery, jewelry, baskets, kachinas, paintings, and other art
forms have evolved as symbols of the area. In research on the impact of tourism on
the arts and crafts of Southwestern Indians, Deitch (1977) expressed, "throughout the
nation, people are aware of the native arts of the Southwest, and many are eager to
possess something Indian" (p. 173).
The image of the Southwest as a product for tourism was pioneered by the
Fred Harvey Company and the Santa Fe Railroad (Deitch, 1977). The Fred Harvey
Company curio business began in 1899, with shops along the Santa Fe Railroad
stocked with Mexican and Indian arts and crafts. The Santa Fe Railroad made travel
possible for eastern Anglo-Americans and introduced customs and products of the
Southwest culture. The Indian and Hispanic cultures were not "civilized" (Poling-
Kempes, 1991, p. xiv). Fred Harvey, by providing impeccable service on the train
and at depots, brought Anglo-American culture west, "civilizing the territories" of
New Mexico, Arizona, and Colorado among others with language, food, values, and
money (Poling-Kempes, 1991, p. xiv). Harvey and other early entrepreneurs
recognized the marketability of Navajo rugs, jewelry, pottery, basketry, beads, and
kachinas as tourist souvenirs. "To the visitor, this was the epitome of the Southwest,
and nearly everyone bought something to take home" (Deitch, 1977, p. 176).
The problem addressed by this research was to explore the Southwestern
United States' souvenir market to determine the extent to which current retailers were
meeting the needs of souvenir consumers. Two populations within souvenir
marketing were investigated: (1) the tourist consumer of souvenirs and (2) the
retailer of souvenir goods. A study investigating souvenir retailing in Arizona,
Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah had merit for three reasons: (1) the numerous
tourist attractions that attract people to the area, (2) the diversity of souvenir product
offerings available from Native American crafts to fine art, and (3) the image that the
Southwest has in the minds of many travelers who want to take a bit of that image
home. The specialized needs of retailers were addressed to assist in the improvement
of the entrepreneurial opportunities retailers have initiated in the Southwest.
Purposes of the Study
The primary purpose of this study was to determine shopping orientations of
tourists in the Southwest using souvenir purchase behavior as a base measurement.
Tourist shopping segments were identified using souvenir merchandise purchases,
souvenir merchandise selection factors, souvenir information sources, souvenir
shopping locations, and retail patronage motives. Tourists were further differentiated
using reasons for travel, travel activities, and demographic characteristics. A
secondary purpose of the study was to assess Southwestern retailers' knowledge of
tourists visiting the Southwest. In order to determine retailers' awareness of tourists'
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buying behavior, differences in souvenir merchandise offered and purchased; souvenir
merchandise selection factors; and retail patronage motives were compared.
Demographic information was obtained from retailers to be used as a base
measurement in further economic development research concerning Southwest
retailers.
Research Objectives and Ouestions
Research Objectives
Based on the purposes of the study, the following research objectives were
established:
1. To investigate the differences in souvenir merchandise purchased by
souvenir consumers and sold by retailers in the Southwest.
2. To investigate the importance of souvenir merchandise selection factors to
souvenir consumers and retailers in the Southwest.
3. To investigate the importance of retail patronage motives to souvenir
consumers and retailers in the Southwest.
4. To develop souvenir consumer profiles based on souvenir merchandise
purchased, souvenir merchandise selection factors, souvenir information sources,
souvenir shopping locations, retail patronage motives, reasons for travel, travel
activities, and demographic characteristics.
5. To examine the differences in souvenir merchandise assortment, souvenir
merchandise selection factors, retail patronage motives, and demographic
characteristics of retailers in the Southwest.
8
Research Questions
Based on the purposes and objectives of the study, the following research
questions were identified.
1. Is there a difference between merchandise purchased by souvenir consumers
and merchandise sold by souvenir retailers?
2. Is there a difference between souvenir consumers and souvenir retailers with
respect to souvenir merchandise selection factors?
3. Is there a difference between souvenir consumers and souvenir retailers with
respect to retail patronage motives?
4. Are there differences among souvenir consumer groups with regard to the
following: (a) merchandise selection factors, (b) information sources, (c) souvenir
shopping locations, (d) patronage motives, (e) reasons for travel, and (f) travel
activities?
5. Do the following demographic characteristics differ among souvenir
consumer groups: (a) state(s) visited, (b) purpose of trip, (c) gender, (d) age, (e)
income, (f) education, and (g) home state?
6. Are there differences among souvenir retailer groups with regard to the
following: (a) merchandise selection factors and (b) retail patronage motives?
7. Do the following demographic characteristics differ among souvenir retailer
groups: (a) state(s) in which located, (b) merchandise price range, (c) 1992 sales
volume, (d) type of ownership, (e) cultural heritage, (f) gender, (g) percentage of
customers who are tourists, and (h) percentage of sales generated from tourists?
Limitations
The following limitations were identified regarding the study. Only tourists
who had access to shopping while on vacation in the Southwestern states between July
1, 1992, and June 30, 1993, participated in the study. For example, a tourist
backpacker who had no access to retail services was not part of the study. Using a
national database listing, tourists with a home state address in Arizona, Colorado,
New Mexico, and Utah were selected for sampling. The identity of the entire
population of tourists or the entire population of retailers in the designated area of
study at the designated time was an impossibility. Using national database listings,
90,000 tourists were available from which to sample, and 4155 retailers were
available from which to sample. The study was limited to the tourist subjects
identified by the database listing and those who chose to return the questionnaires.
Retailer subjects were limited to those identified by the database listing and those who
chose to return the questionnaires. The results of the study were specific to the states
of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, and to retailers who consider
themselves souvenir merchants.
Definition of Terms
The following terms were defined for the purpose of the study:
Consumer — an individual who acquires, uses, and disposes of goods and
services.
10
Convenience or economic shopper - shoppers who dislike shopping or are
neutral toward shopping and therefore approach shopping from a time- or money-
saving point of view (Bellenger & Korgaonkar, 1980).
Curio ~ a small, usually decorative object treasured for novel or curiosity
value. All curios are considered souvenirs; all souvenirs are not considered curios.
Kitsch ~ something that appeals to popular or low-brow taste and is often of
poor quality (Webster's, 1985).
Leisure shopping ~ shopping as a leisure-time activity as opposed to required
shopping for convenience or economic reasons.
Market segmentation - a marketing technique used to divide a heterogeneous
market into homogeneous sub-groups or market segments (Davis & Stemquist, 1987).
Merchandise assortment - the optimal level of variety, selection, and depth of
merchandise offered from a retailer to a consumer. Also referred to as merchandise
mix.
Merchandise selection factors - characteristics or components of an item of
merchandise that influence a customer's decision to purchase or not to purchase the
item (Troxell & Stone, 1981).
Patronage motives ~ the combination of functional and psychological features
of a store used by consumers to determine at which store to shop.
Recreational shopper - a shopper who enjoys shopping as a leisure activity as
opposed to convenience or economic shoppers.
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Sacredness ~ the temporary shift between normal-profane existence and
abnormal-sacred existence. The normal existence is considered the ordinary state; the
orientation toward profane/work/stay at home life. The profane existence is
considered the nonordinary state; the orientation toward sacred/leisure/tourist life.
Shopping tourism ~ leisure shopping conducted by a tourist.
Shopper typology ~ a classification of shopper orientations based on patronage
responses (Westbrook & Black, 1985).
Souvenir Consumer Groups ~ groups defined by factor analysis of souvenir
merchandise scale.
Souvenir Retailer Groups ~ groups defined by factor analysis of merchandise
assortment scale.
Souvenirs ~ (1) universal reminders of special moments or events, (2) a
tangible object saved or kept as a reminder of a particular event or journey (Gordon,
1984), and (3) postcards, T-shirts, objects found in nature, local crafts, art,
accessories, jewelry, toys and other items.
Tourism - the industry of travel, hotels, transportation, and all other
components including promotion, that serves the needs and wants of travelers.
Tourism retailing - the business activity of selling goods or services which
exist in all retail environments with additional challenges unique to the market
conditions of tourist destinations (Pysarchik, 1989).
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Tourist - a temporarily leisured person who voluntarily visits a different
geographical location to experience a change. The term tourist and visitor are used
synonymously.
Typology ~ a classification of sample groups based on attitudes,
characteristics, or behaviors.
CHAPTER n
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The purpose of this study was to explore (1) the shopping orientations of
souvenir consumers who bring home from journeys, souvenirs from the travel
experience, and (2) retailer's understanding of souvenir consumer's needs. Souvenir
merchandise assortment, souvenir merchandise selection factors, souvenir information
sources, souvenir shopping locations, and retailer patronage motives were investigated
to determine souvenir consumer market segments. Souvenir merchandise assortment,
souvenir merchandise selection factors, and retailer patronage motives were compared
between retailers and consumers to determine the extent to which retailers understood
consumer needs. The purpose was accomplished by two means: (1) examining
tourists who purchased souvenir goods and (2) retailers who sold souvenir goods.
Based on the purpose of the research study, the Review of Literature examined the
components titled "Theoretical Development," "Consumer Profile," and "Retailer
Profile."
Theoretical Development
Marcel Mauss, in 1898, proposed the theory of sacredness, the temporary shift
which exists between a normal-profane existence and an abnormal-sacred existence
(cited in Gordon, 1986; Grabum, 1977). The ordinary state in which an individual
exists is considered the profane state; the nonordinary or extraordinary state is
considered the sacred state. Sacredness is the process of leaving the ordinary state
13
14
and entering the nonordinary state. The ritual of sacrifice is one of the earliest
evidences of the importance of the transition between the profane and sacred. During
the ritual of sacrifice, participants leave the ordinary state by relinquishing
possessions, family, or body parts to be elevated to the nonordinary state.
Sacredness was first applied to tourism by MacCannell (1976) in the work.
Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class. MacCannell implied work to be a
profane state while leisure was a sacred state. He suggested that tourism, an activity
of the middle class, was a direct result of the increasing shifts between work and
play. Tourism was a modem ritual, removed from the world of work and everyday
life, and concentrated in "vacations, amusements, games, play, and religious
observances" (MacCannell, 1976, p. 34).
MacCannell established that tourism was not work but play. This
characteristic of tourism was further discussed by Nelson Grabum (1977) in a major
founding work Tourism: The Sacred Journey. Grabum proposed a model of the
symbolic link between staying:working and traveling:playing developed from peasant
European traditions (1977). The model proposed that an individual is either in a
voluntary state or a compulsory/serious state. During the voluntary state one can
stay, "doing nothing" at home (p. 18) or travel for play and/or recreation. During the
compulsory/serious state one must stay to work (including school work and
housework) or travel if one's occupation requires travel. The model was developed to
explain that appropriate travel was voluntary, did not involve routine work, and
therefore was, "'good for you'" (Grabum, 1977, p. 18). The model indicated that
15
voluntarily staying at home or work involving travel were problematic and improper
for "normal people" (Grabum, 1977, p. 18).
Grabum (1977) applied the concept of sacredness to tourism claiming an
individual will change from the home mode to the tourist mode and move from the
ordinary or mundane state to the extraordinary or sacred state. He labeled tourism as
a sacred journey, "a re-creation, which is supposed to renew us for the workaday
world" (Grabum, 1977, p. 18). He stated that individuals have two lives, the
profane/workaday/stay-at-home life and the sacred/nonordinary/touristic life which
customarily altemate and are marked by ritual. Individuals celebrate the end of the
ordinary by, "thank goodness it is Friday" (TGIF) and going away parties (Grabum,
1977, p.22). With less enthusiasm, they celebrate the retuming to the ordinary by
welcome home or welcome back to work greetings or formalities (Grabum, 1977).
Grabum (1977) illustrated that although tourism is emphasized as extremes ~
long distance tours visiting enchanting environments, exotic peoples, or well-known
places ~ there are also minimal kinds of tourism such as picnics. The food and drink
of a picnic may be the same as that which is consumed indoors but the "magic"
comes from the movement into the nonordinary setting (Grabum, 1977, p. 18). In
concluding remarks, Grabum (1977) stated, "the holiday is nonordinary, and one
should eat, drink, and spend beyond the rules of the ordinary" (p. 31).
The work of Grabum (1977) was published as part of a pioneer collection of
articles. Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism edited by Valene Smith
(1977). The collection was published to introduce researchers to the nature of
16
tourism and the effects on the people involved, those who live in tourist areas as hosts
and tourists who temporarily visit areas as guests. Based on theory presented by
Grabum (1977) that tourism is a form of leisure activity. Smith (1977) proposed a
typology of tourism based on kinds of leisure behavior exhibited by tourists. Five
classifications of tourism were identified including: ethnic tourism, cultural tourism,
historical tourism, environmental tourism, and recreational tourism.
Ethnic tourism involves investigation of the customs and ways of indigenous
peoples. Encouraged activities include "visits to native homes and villages,
observations of dances and ceremonies, and shopping for primitive wares and curios"
(Smith, 1977, p. 2). Areas frequented by ethnic tourists are often far removed from
"'the beaten path'" (Smith, 1977, p. 2) and therefore only visited by a small flow of
visitors. The investigation of vanishing lifestyles and "local color" (Smith, 1977,
p. 2) is considered cultural tourism. Meals at rustic inns, folklore or costumed
festivals, and rodeos involving large numbers of people are activities of cultural
tourism.
Tourism placing emphasis on "glories of the past" (Smith, 1977, p. 3), such as
museums or cathedrals, is considered historical tourism. Historical tourism attracts
many education-oriented visitors who participate in guided tours or performances that
depict the drama of the destination. Environmental tourism is often considered
secondary to ethnic tourism attracting visitors willing to travel to remote areas to
observe geographic highlights. Destination activities include visiting local industries.
The fifth type of tourism designated by leisure is recreational tourism promoted as
17
"sand, sea, and sex" (Smith, 1977, p. 3). Recreational tourism is marketed to attract
tourists who want to "relax or commune with nature" (Smith, 1977, p. 3).
Participants enjoy sports, spas, sunbathing, good food and entertainment. Knowledge
of the type of leisure tourism sought by tourists to a host community may help
tourism retailers determine the merchandise likely to fulfill the needs of those tourists
visiting a selected area.
Sacredness as significant to the study of tourism was described by Cohen
(1979) in his examination of an individual's "perceived 'centre'" (p. 179). Cohen
proposed two definitions of centre which describe sacredness. One definition
described centre as giving "direction and structure to the pilgrimage of a sacred
joumey" (Cohen, 1979, p. 180). An individual will use tourism as a joumey to move
toward a perceived centre, moving from the ordinary to the nonordinary. A second
definition stated the centre of an individual will be located within the "confines of his
society...and generate tensions and dissatisfactions" (Cohen, 1979, p. 181). Tensions
and dissatisfactions may be relieved by various forms of leisure and recreational
activities which take place in "segregated places" not part of "'real life'" (Cohen,
1979, p. 181). By this definition, tourism is "a temporary reversal of everyday
activities; a no-work, no-care, no-thrift situation" (Cohen, 1979, p. 181). An
individual will use tourism to move away from a perceived centre, moving from the
ordinary to the nonordinary.
18
Souvenir Phenomena
The concept of sacredness was offered as an explanation for souvenir
phenomena by Gordon (1986). The contrast between profane/ordinary/work and
sacred/nonordin2U7/leisure was described as reasons for possessing souvenirs.
Gordon (1986) suggested the physical presence of a souvenir helps the tourist to
"locate, define, and freeze in time a fleeting, transitory experience, and bring back to
an ordinary experience something of the quality of an extraordinary experience"
(p. 135). In earlier research, Gordon (1984) defined a souvenir as "a tangible object
saved or kept as a reminder of a particular event or joumey" (p. 11). She further
explained "visitors purchased [souvenirs] to serve as reminders of their visit" (p. 11).
People want to bring home with them to ordinary states, items from the sacred,
extraordinary period. They cannot stay in the extraordinary state indefinitely; they
can, however, hold onto a tangible piece of the extraordinary time to remind them of
the experience. In a study of whimsies, a traditional souvenir sold at Niagara Falls,
Gordon (1984) suggested, "souvenirs werc.thmst upon Niagara Falls visitors
wherever they went, and...may have contributed to the visitor's sense that it was
somehow necessary to bring one home" (p. 361). When an individual sees or touches
the souvenir, they are not only remembering that they were there but proving [they
were there] (Gordon, 1986).
Historically, evidence from the ventured-to place has always been offered as
proof of travel. Marco Polo, the thirteenth century Venetian traveler, retumed from
the orient with silk and spices. In the fifteenth century, Christopher Columbus
19
journeyed to America. Upon retuming to Spain, he presented the Queen with gold as
proof he had been to the newly discovered continent. In earlier research, Grabum
(1977) stated, "few tourists come home from a vacation without something to show
for [their travels]...as proof that we really did [make a joumey]...and reflect what we
consider 'sacred'" (p. 28). As an example, he used the medieval legend of the Holy
Grail. Since the death of Jesus Christ knightly quests have sought to find the
implements Christ used at the Last Supper. The holy grail is a myth travelers seek
when setting forth on a joumey. The success of the joumey is proportionate to the
degree the "myth is realized" (Grabum, 1977, p. 28). As proof of the degree to
which the myth was realized, knights offered souvenirs and mementos as evidence of
their travels.
The presentation of gifts during or at the conclusion of a joumey allows the
trip to be "morally justified" by the home community (Grabum, 1977, p. 24).
Tangible evidences of travel are brought home to be cherished by the possessor and
shared with family and friends. MacCannell (1976) stated tourists retuming home
with souvenirs spread their experience vicariously to others. By showing others
souvenirs or mementos of travel, one symbolically shows they have been to the
"sacred and morally higher plane" in contrast to the ordinary workaday world
(Grabum, 1977, p. 24). Postcards are ritualistically sent to those left at home hoping
the "sacred charisma" will rub off onto the receiver (Grabum, 1977, p. 29).
Recipients of souvenir gifts receive a piece of heightened reality (Gordon, 1986).
The souvenir is an "entry or re-entry fee required by the culture" (Gordon, 1986,
20
p. 138). Gordon (1986) concluded that even the words "souvenir of..." inscribed on
an otherwise arbitrary object, transfer or "sacralize" the object giving the object
power not otherwise possessed (p. 139).
Gordon (1986) used the contrast between profane-work and sacred-leisure to
explain souvenirs. She noted the tourist who wears a Mickey Mouse T-shirt is
pretending to be other than a "serious, working adult" on vacation "stressing the
playful" (Gordon, 1986, p. 138). Gordon continued that vacationers are likely to buy
"junk" (1986, p. 139) as a direct result of being on vacation, "[vacation] is a time
when they are not working, not serious, not responsible, and not thrifty" (p. 139).
Tourists spend money because the time period is not an ordinary time rather an
extraordinary time in which they can throw away or waste what they would otherwise
be much more careful about.
Souvenirs are universally associated with tourism as a commercially produced
and purchased object to remind the purchaser of an experience. Wallendorf and
Amould (1988) found in a study of consumer behavior that when subjects were asked
what was their favorite object, they most often cited objects purchased during a
vacation. When the subjects were further asked if the object of discussion was a
favorite because of the aesthetic appeal, the subjects responded, no, indicating that the
object reminded them of an experience. Souvenirs brought back from vacation were
symbols of the sacred joumey. The objects allowed the possessor to reflect on a
nonordinary experience symbolizing the reversal of everyday life. Additionally, the
21
souvenirs were used as proof of the experience to others who were not allowed to
leave everyday life.
Grabum (1984), in a discussion of sacred and profane transitions, suggested
two regularly occurring ordinary-nonordinary interchanges (1) annual trips or
vacations, weekends, Christmas, Easter, or summer vacations; and (2) trips marking
the passage of personal life such as a trip upon graduation, military service, or a
vacation to celebrate retirement. Particular objects were used to commemorate the
ordinary-nonordinary interchanges. Belk (1990) suggested that each individual
marked or commemorated life histories with objects, "photographs, souvenirs,
trophies, and more humble everyday objects act, in part, as repositories for memories
and meaning in our lives" (Belk, 1990, p. 669). In earlier research, Belk (1988),
proposed that, "knowingly or unknowingly, intentionally or unintentionally" (p. 139)
individuals regard their possessions as part of themselves and researchers cannot
expect to understand consumer behavior without first understanding the meanings
consumers attach to possessions.
Universally, individuals keep outgrown or outdated apparel items, parts from
broken objects, and tokens or memorabilia with no monetary value. Belk (1988,
1990) reasoned that such objects are kept for sentimental value to preserve memories
of the past. Belk indicated that individuals evoke the sense of past particularly when
current identities are challenged such as during a divorce, midlife crisis, feelings of
inferiority, states of excessive change or mobility, or lack of confidence in the future
(1990). The role of possessions in such situations act to keep the individual stable
22
and provide security when the future is uncertain. Objects are "intentionally acquired
and retained" (Belk, 1990, p. 670) in order to remember pleasant or pivotal
nonordinary times in the past. Souvenirs are intentionally selected to act as markers
for "retrospective memories in the future" (p. 670). Souvenir shopping suggestions
are commonly placed in tourism promotional materials to "tangibilize the tourist
experience" (Belk, 1990, p. 670). Souvenirs allow the individual to confirm the
nonordinary experience to themselves and rationalize the nonordinary experience to
others.
Gordon (1986) constmcted a preliminary typology of souvenirs based on the
meaning the souvenir has for the possessor. Five classifications were identified:
pictorial image souvenirs, piece-of-the-rock souvenirs, symbolic shorthand souvenirs,
markers, and local product souvenirs. Pictorial images are souvenirs that allow the
pictorial subject to move through space and communicate a "fantasy reality to an
otherwise humdrum existence" (p. 140). The pictorial image may be sent to someone
other than the tourist by a picture postcard or kept by the tourist as a snapshot.
Piece-of-the-rock souvenirs are considered items gathered from nature to represent the
nonurban environment. These are often represented as pine cones, sea shells, or
rocks. Symbolic shorthand souvenirs are manufactured objects which evoke a
shorthand code or message about the place it came from, such as a miniature Eiffel
Tower. These items are often functional to allow the symbol of an extraordinary
experience to be used during ordinary life. Markers are inscribed with words which
locate them to a certain place or time such as a T-shirt. Local product souvenirs are
23
products made by materials indigenous to a specific area including food and clothing.
A subcategory of local product souvenirs, as explained by Gordon (1986), are crafts,
"produced by indigenous supposedly 'simpler' people and are purchased by
'advanced' people" (p. 143). An understanding of souvenir merchandise offered by
retailers and purchased by souvenir consumers may determine the significance of each
of the proposed classifications by Gordon (1986).
In her study of whimsies, one conclusion made by Gordon (1984) was that
whimsies were maligned, devalued and referred to as kitsch. Gordon reasoned the
whimsies were devalued "because they were souvenirs" (1984, p. 366). Whimsies,
when made as objects for "tourists at Niagara Falls" (Gordon, 1984, p.367) were
immediately trivialized by the public. Similarly, Grabum (1978) in a consumer study
of handcrafted objects found subjects to immediately lower their opinion of the items
when they leamed they were made purposely to be sold. Consumer and retailer
devaluation of souvenir merchandise may influence results of souvenir consumption
and marketing.
Craft Consumer Typology
Crafts made in tourist areas are often associated as an item to take home and
enjoy as part of the tourist experience. Crafts are defined as products produced by
hand with attention to materials, design and workmanship, and are useful and or
decorative (Littrell, Reilly, & Stout, 1992). Examples include weavings, quilts,
baskets, pottery, wood carvings, blown and stained glass, leather items and jewelry.
Historically, crafts were produced to fulfill functional or ceremonial needs within the
24
craftspersons' community (Popelka & Littrell, 1991). The evolution of craft items
has developed as outsiders have gained entrance to indigenous cultures.
Crafts have been explored by Littrell et al. (1989) in a study of craft
producers, retailers, and consumers in Iowa, Nebraska, and Minnesota. Preliminary
results by Littrell et al. (1990) have isolated four tourism styles: ethnic, arts, and
people style; history and parks style; urban entertainment style; and active outdoor
style. The typology was based on an evaluation which included craft merchandise
purchases, craft merchandise selection factors, craft information sources, craft
shopping locations, consumer patronage motives, travel activities and reasons for
travel, among other descriptors.
Ethnic, arts, and people-oriented tourists wanted to experience the authenticity
of the community they were visiting. The nonordinary experience they sought
required emergence into the community through conversation with local residents,
participation in community festivals, and visitation of art galleries, museums, and
theaters. Ethnic, arts, and people-oriented tourists purchased crafts to be used in the
home, jewelry, local foods, antiques, and books as remembrance of the experience.
Selection factors important to this group included design, color, and workmanship of
the item; items which were unique or represent new ideas; and items which were
made by well-known producers who signed their work.
History and parks-oriented tourists centered activities around history or nature,
visited historic sites, gardens, and state and national parks. Their sacred joumey was
realized by spending time enjoying scenery and documenting the joumey through
25
photography. Purchases included crafts, postcards, books about the area, local foods,
and items chosen as part of a collection. Selection factors for purchase of an item by
history and parks oriented-tourists included aesthetic and functional qualities of the
item, or the item's relation to travel. History and parks tourists relied almost
exclusively on travel packets available from state travel bureaus or materials available
at tourist sites as information sources about crafts.
The most active group, urban entertainment-oriented tourists shopped, attended
sporting events and nightclubs, and purchased souvenirs, such as T-shirts, bumper
stickers, or other mementos, that symbolized the destination they were visiting. The
crafts and souvenirs purchased by urban entertainment-oriented tourists were selected
to show others that they had departed from the ordinary into the nonordinary. The
selection factors of cleaning and care, and symbolism of the place, directed purchases
of urban entertainment style tourists. Urban entertainment tourists relied on hotel
staff and printed materials distributed at hotel desks or hotel rooms to leam about
crafts available in the area.
Active outdoor-oriented tourists were vigorous outdoor enthusiasts and
generally purchased T-shirts, sweatshirts, and craft items that originated in nature.
The purchase of a souvenir was not of major importance to this group. Active
outdoor style tourists did not identify any outstanding selection factors directing craft
purchases. The research proposal of Littrell et al. (1989) and research findings
(1990) established a framework from which to study souvenir consumers and souvenir
retailers.
26
Consumer Profile
Retailers face many merchandising problems because they have insufficient
information to understand consumers. In order to remedy this situation, efforts have
been made to identify shopping orientations and patronage behaviors of consumers.
Westbrook and Black (1985) refer to these efforts as the "pursuit of shopper
typologies" (p. 78). The identification of shopper typologies may allow retailers to
differentiate and target their offerings and locations according to patronage responses.
Additionally, shopper typologies contribute interpretation "into the determinants of
consumer shopping behavior and the development of theories thereof (Westbrook &
Black, 1986, p. 78).
Shopper typologies assist marketers in segmenting markets. Market
segmentation is a technique used to divide a heterogeneous market into homogeneous
sub-groups or market segments (Davis & Stemquist, 1987). Examples previously
discussed include leisure tourism styles (Smith, 1977), souvenirs (Gordon, 1986), and
craft consumers (Littrell et al., 1990). Recreational shoppers (Bellenger &
Korgaonkar, 1980) are discussed in this section while Michigan resort area tourists
and retailers (Witter, 1985) are discussed in the Retailer Profile section. Market
segmentation based on consumer attitudes, characteristics and behavior is a tool for
retailers to improve their understanding of tourist consumers. Segmentation can assist
retailers in the identification of specific markets they wish to serve. Most
segmentation strategies attempt to identify no more than five or six groups (Davis &
Stemquist, 1987). By segmenting markets, differences between potential groups and
27
the relative size of each group can be determined. Identifying potential groups by
characteristics and size will allow retailers to develop merchandise assortments that
most efficiently attract potential customers.
Activities and Motivations
The distinguishing characteristic of a tourist is the nonordinary mind set of the
individual as they travel away from home. A tourist is a "temporarily leisured person
who voluntarily visits a place away from home to experience a change" (Smith, 1977,
p. 2). A tourist considers travel voluntary, a chance to get away from routine work
(Grabum, 1977). Travelers may combine business, pleasure, personal affairs and
tourist activities in the same trip dependent on the profane/workaday/stay-at-home or
sacred/nonordinary/tourist life they choose at the moment. Distance traveled,
expenditures, or use of commercial lodging or transportation are not necessary
parameters to describe a tourist. The tourist, according to Mcintosh and Goeldner
(1990), "seeks various psychic and physical experiences and satisfactions" (p. 4), the
nature of which will largely be determined by motivations for travel and activities
enjoyed at the selected destination.
The degree to which a tourist wants to experience the nonordinary may
determine the motivations for travel and the activities they participate in while
traveling. Research in travel motivation has established that a person usually travels
for more than one reason (Mcintosh & Goeldner, 1990). Mcintosh and Goeldner
(1990) divided basic travel motivators into four categories: physical motivators,
cultural motivators, interpersonal motivators, and status and prestige motivators.
28
Physical motivators are those related to physical rest, sports participation,
beach recreation, relaxing entertainment, and health improvement. The desire to
know about other areas, foods, music, art, folklore, dances, paintings, or religion are
identified as cultural motivators. The desire to meet new people, establish new
friendships, visit friends or relatives, or escape from daily routine are considered
interpersonal motivators. Status and prestige motivators are related to personal
development or ego needs, and include traveling for business or conventions,
educational participation, or the pursuit of hobbies.
Activities tourists participate in while traveling are numerous and depend on
the level of excitement the tourist seeks. Data on activity preferences can be used to
indicate what travelers think is important at a selected destination. Activity lists
become distinct for specific destinations (such as skiing in mountain areas or water
sports in beach areas) and travel styles (a touring trip by car or an outdoors trip of
hiking and rafting). Some activities are uniform across destinations and travel styles,
while other activities are different for each type.
Original research on tourist-attracting attributes of specific destinations was
conducted by Goodrich (1977). Goodrich developed a list of ten tourist-attracting
activities through discussions with tourists, tourism and travel organizations, and a
review of tourism and travel literature. The standardized listing included availability
of facilities for water sports, availability of facilities for golfing and tennis, historical
and cultural interests, scenic beauty, pleasant attitudes of people, opportunity for rest
and relaxation, shopping facilities, cuisine, availability of entertainment, and
29
availability of suitable accommodations. Goodrich sampled intemational travelers
living in New York to determine the importance of each attribute. Scenic beauty was
considered the most important attribute followed by pleasant attitudes of the people.
The availability of suitable accommodations and an opportunity for rest and relaxation
were also viewed important for New York residents traveling to intemational
destinations. The selection of beauty and comfort attributes may imply tourists
vacationed to renew themselves for the workaday world. Goodrich (1977) concluded
that understanding of the importance of attributes to specific locations can provide
guidelines for advertising themes to emphasize strengths and weaknesses of the 2irea.
In determining differences between tourists and retailers of a resort area. Witter
(1985) used the tourist-attracting attributes established by Goodrich. Results from the
Witter (1985) study indicated attributes for specific areas should be promoted to
highlight to the tourist, the nonordinary experience to be gained from a visit to the
area. Further, retailers were not a good source to determine what attributes were
important to tourists during a nonordinary experience.
In an exploratory discussion on the merits of shopping areas as tourism
resources, Jansen-Verbeke (1990) proposed the concept of leisure shopping as an
increasingly important element in the tourism attraction of places. Leisure shopping
was first introduced by Bellenger and Korgaonkar (1980) in their profile of
recreational shoppers. Recreational shoppers enjoy shopping as a leisure-time activity
as opposed to convenience or economic shoppers. Bellenger and Korgaonkar (1980)
determined 69% of their sample to be recreational shoppers stating, "recreational
30
shoppers are a significant force in the retail market" (p. 83). Further analysis
determined recreational shoppers to be active women who were looking for a pleasant
atmosphere and a large variety of high quality merchandise. The recreational shopper
was more prone to buy something she liked regardless of urgency or need and spent
less time deliberating before making a purchase. As compared to the economic
shopper, recreational shoppers engaged in more information seeking and considered
quality of merchandise, variety of merchandise, and decor to be important in choosing
a store.
In terms of shopping and information gathering, recreational shoppers as
compared to economic shoppers spent more time shopping per trip and were less
likely to have an idea of what they were going to purchase when they went shopping.
They were more likely to continue shopping after making a purchase and "attached
more importance to store decor in choosing a place to shop" and "less importance to
distance to be traveled" (Bellenger & Korgaonkar, 1980, p. 91). Bellenger and
Korgaonkar (1980) suggested the recreational experience for shoppers "goes beyond
the purchase of goods" (p. 92), and retailers should use "artistry, showmanship, and
creative merchandising" (p. 92) to attract this consumer group who made many
impulse purchases.
Jansen-Verbeke (1990) applied the recreational shopper profile to tourism
designating leisure shopping directed by a tourist as shopping tourism. Shopping
tourism was determined by tourist behaviors and motives and was dependent upon the
"state of mind of the visitor" (Jansen-Verbeke, 1990, p. 129). Five behavior patterns
31
related to shopping tourism were identified including trip length, length of stay, time
of stay, kinds of activities, and expenditure goods (Jansen-Verbeke, 1990, 1991).
The length of a leisure trip was considered short but increased as the leisure nature of
the trip increased. A leisure visit prompted a visitor to stay longer than a regular
shopping visit. The length of stay for a leisure trip was relatively unplanned but
scheduled between other activities. Witter (1985) previously reported tourists at a
Michigan resort area arranged shopping between beach activities. The time of day for
leisure shopping was influenced by other activities (Jansen-Verbeke, 1991). A leisure
shopping trip could be a full day, but more frequently was "a few hours during the
day" (Jansen-Verbeke, 1991, p. 9) or an evening. Shopping tourism activities
included window shopping, intentional or impulse buying, drinking, eating, leisure
activities, cultural activities, and sightseeing. Expenditures were made on souvenirs,
gifts, meals, and entrance fees to leisure facilities.
Demographic Characteristics
The process of market segmentation includes (1) identifying segmentation
bases, (2) developing segment descriptors, and (3) forecasting segment potential
(Mason & Mayer, 1984). Common retail segmentation bases for consumer markets
include demographic variables which are easy to measure, readily available, and can
infer "crude measures of behavior" (Mason & Mayer, 1984, p. 400). Demographic
analysis of markets may include gender, age, income, and education among other
characteristics (Mason & Mayer, 1984). As men are taking on shopping roles once
reserved for women, the gender of an individual is becoming an increasingly
32
important variable to retailers (Mason & Mayer, 1984). Age is becoming an
important descriptor to determine buying segments of the population as population
segments of older individuals increase (Mason & Mayer, 1984). In a study of tourists
at a popular resort in Michigan, Davis (1986) reported 48.2% of the respondents were
between the ages of 35-64. The sample between 25-34 years of age comprised
24.9%.
Income was the most significant determinant of an individual's probability of
traveling and upon the level of travel expenditures (Hagemann, 1981). Davis (1986)
reported the mode income level of respondents of her study to be $25,000-49,999
followed by $50,000 and over. The distribution of income among consumers may
affect the type and amount of merchandise purchased (Mason & Mayer, 1984). The
highest and lowest income segments are increasing, while the middle-class income
segment is diminishing. An understanding of tourist consumers may allow retailers to
market an assortment of goods appropriate to the income level of the potential
consumer.
Income alone cannot explain purchasing behavior among various types of
merchandise (Mason & Mayer, 1984). Education combined with income becomes a
better descriptor to differentiate types of merchandise. A higher education increases
one's awareness of the world and appears to be a powerful predictor of an
individual's propensity to travel (Hagemann, 1981). Davis (1986) reported 35% of
the respondents sampled had some college education; 28.2% indicated they had
graduated from college. Individuals with a higher level of education are better
33
markets for travel-related services, books and magazines; less-educated individuals are
the largest market for fishing and camping equipment (Mason and Mayer, 1984).
A common methodology in tourism research is to determine which features
attract tourists to a specific area of study and segment the market based on those
features (Davis & Stemquist, 1987; Goodrich, 1977; Witter, 1985). Additionally,
consumer activities and motivations may be used to differentiate market segments
(Littrell et al., 1989). Many segmentation studies have focused on attributes of an
area to attract tourists. However, specific characteristics of retail merchants within
the tourist area have been less thoroughly investigated to determine market segments.
By investigating classifications of souvenir consumers based on souvenir merchandise
and selection factors, souvenir shopping locations, souvenir information sources, and
consumer patronage motives, market segmentation groups may be determined which
may help retailers define their market.
Retailer Profile
The industry of tourism is primarily composed of service-based activities
composed of widely diverse firms and organizations serving a variety of incomes,
tastes, and objectives (Eadington & Redman, 1991). Tourism is served by an
abundance of businesses at the retail level, the majority of which are small businesses
with 20 or fewer employees (Pysarchik, 1986, 1989). Most small businesses are
privately owned or closely held public firms ranging from tiny cottage industries to
mom and pop shops to small corporations (Solomon, 1986). Solomon (1986)
continued, "although a small business might dominate its specific small market, it
34
cannot dictate such critical terms as price" (p. 2). A profile of tourism-dependent and
non-tourism dependent retailers in Michigan determined 52.1% of the tourism-
dependent businesses sampled to be corporations, 39.4% sole proprietors, and 8.5%
partnerships (Davis, Pysarchik, Stemquist, & Chappelle, 1987). Non-tourism
dependent retailers sampled resulted in 57.9% sole proprietor, 26.3% corporations,
and 15.8% partnerships. Additionally, 83% of the tourism-dependent businesses were
independent, 11.6% were franchises, and 6.4% were chain stores. Of the non-
tourism-dependent retailers, 94.7% were independent, 5.3% were franchised, and no
chain stores were identified. Solomon (1986) reported 19.6% of small retail
businesses to be minority-owned.
Many small businesses reflect the owners' personal intentions and professional
goals with little tendency to grow into larger businesses (Solomon, 1986). Small
businesses have few or no layers of management in many cases the owner is the
manager with only one employee. Increasing sales personnel productivity, motivating
sales people, predicting changes in customer needs and wants, forecasting future
sales, and identifying new market opportunities were found to be the highest ranked
problems facing small business retailers (Lincoln & McCain, 1985).
In addition to small business related problems, tourism dependent retailers are
faced with problems localized to tourism organizations. Potential traffic to a tourist
area is influenced by factors, such as cost and availability of transportation and
desirability of the area, outside the control of an individual firm (Witter & Davis,
1985). Tourism businesses function in seasonal markets within limited geographic
35
locations with specialized products aimed at small market niches (Hart & Pysarchik,
1989).
Tourist areas are usually characterized by a high degree of retail concentration
and saturation which is located in close proximity to the tourist attracting feature(s)
(Pysarchik, 1989). The clustering of stores into one location promotes a "highly
competitive market area" (Pysarchik, 1989, p. 554) and promotes "comparative
shopping" (Pysarchik, 1986, p. 2). Tourist businesses are often regarded as
detrimental to a community by the local residents. Of most significance is the mutual
lack of knowledge that exists between retailers and tourists as a result of the nonlocal
nature of tourists. In general, tourists are unaware of the retail offerings of a tourist
area, and retailers have a limited understanding of the tourist market segment
(Pysarchik, 1989).
The lack of understanding between retailer and consumer is not limited to the
tourism industry. Jolson and Spath (1973) designed a study to investigate the
relationship between retailer's understanding of patronage factors and fulfillment of
consumer needs. Shoppers and retailers of a shopping center were asked to rank
order fourteen store patronage factors in order of importance. Conclusions
determined (1) retailers were moderately aware of the factors that motivated consumer
buying, and (2) there was "little correlation" between the retailer's understanding of
store patronage factors and the fulfillment of consumer needs based on patronage
factors (Jolson & Spath, 1973, p. 49). The researchers concluded many retailers
36
were unwilling and/or unable to convert their knowledge and understanding of the
consumer into a consumer-oriented plan of action.
Even in communities with well-developed, centralized, tourist images, retailers
and tourists have a different perspective of the provided goods of the area (Witter,
1985). Witter (1985) investigated the differences in what tourists wanted from a
tourist area and what retailers thought tourists wanted from the area. Sample tourists
and retailers were administered identical questionnaires to determine the importance
of tourist-attracting attributes of a Michigan resort area. Market segment groupings
were established according to statistical analysis. Tourist data analysis determined
two tourist segments; retailer data analysis determined three tourist segments which
did not correspond to the tourist data segments. Implications determined (1)
promotional efforts of the area should be focused to highlight attributes important to
tourists not retailers, and (2) retailers provided an "intemal benchmark" for the
identification of problem areas within the area (Witter, 1985, p. 18). Results from
the Witter (1985) study indicated retailers were not a good source to determine what
was important to tourists.
In an appraisal of tourism retailing, Pysarchik (1989) reported the
misunderstandings between tourist and retailer presents financial problems for the
tourism retailer. These misunderstandings were the determination of appropriate
merchandise assortments, promotion of the store to tourists and evaluation,
development and sustainment of store image, and encouragement of store patronage
and loyalty.
37
Retail Strategies
The goal of merchandising is to select the right mix of products to sell at a
store (Ghosh, 1990). To develop the merchandise selection the retailer must
determine the optimal level of variety, assortment and depth of merchandise. The
right merchandise mix must satisfy the tastes and preferences of the target market.
The right merchandise mix offered by retailers must be tangible articles which satisfy
the intangible images of the sacred experiences remembered by tourists.
The mix of souvenir merchandise available to tourists from retail
establishments is not universal. Commodities targeted to the souvenir, handicraft and
gift shop trade, include but are not limited to: mass-produced items and figurines;
handmade arts and crafts; gem stones; jewelry; leather goods; housewares; specialty
clothing; objects that depict wildlife and nature; various products depicting by word,
picture, or symbol the place represented by the souvenir such as plates, mugs, tea
towels, and T-shirts (Blundell, 1993). Merchandise may include inexpensive curios
(Blundell, 1993) or authentic, high quality art and handicraft works (Blundell, 1993;
Mcintosh & Goeldner, 1990).
Tourism retailers have conducted "little, if any" market segmentation research
to determine the wants and needs of their target market (Pysarchik, 1989, p. 554).
The lack of target market research has made the development of appropriate
merchandise assortments difficult. Tourist locations have many retailers with similar
assortments of merchandise which may or may not be profitable. Pysarchik (1989)
suggested that developing "unique, differentiated and targeted product
38
assortments...that reflect the culture, mores or traditions of the destination" is needed
in tourist locations (p. 554). The merchandise mix of a tourist retailer should offer a
varied selection of unusual gifts and personal items authentic to the area made by
local artists, craftspersons, and producers.
Selection factors refer to the various characteristics or components of an item
of merchandise that influence a customer's decision to purchase or not purchase the
item (Troxell & Stone, 1981). Customers make purchase decisions based on the
composite value they attach to various characteristics of individual items.
Standardized lists of selection factors are based on market research of individuals in
an ordinary environment.
Few tourism researchers have developed concrete merchandise selection
factors. Grabum (1976) determined intemational travelers wanted purchases that
were easily portable, relatively inexpensive, understandable, cleanable, and usable
upon retum home, while, Pysarchik (1989) suggested air travelers considered size
restrictions, fragility, and manageability as important merchandise selection factors.
Littrell et al. (1989) determined the most concise listing of selection factors using
naturalistic research techniques. The typology by Littrell et al. (1990), discussed
previously, identified four tourist group styles and the selection factors important to
the four groups.
The rationale used by consumers to determine at which store to shop are
considered patronage motives (Troxell and Stone, 1981). Berry (1969) pioneered
research to define measurable patronage motives he called components of store image.
39
He hypothesized twelve components which motivated consumers to frequent specific
places of business. The twelve components were price of merchandise, quality of
merchandise, assortment of merchandise, fashion of merchandise, sales personnel,
location convenience, other convenience factors, services, sales promotions,
advertising, store atmosphere, and reputation on adjustments. He suggested the image
of a store is based on the composite value of the twelve components. Retailers
wanting to attract consumers should be aware of and improve on patronage motives to
create a positive shopping environment for the consumer. Consumers will base
patronage selection on how well competing retailers fulfill differing aspects of
patronage motives.
In a tourist area, location is the most important retail characteristic because of
the considerable amount of time a first time visitor spends orienting themselves to a
tourist area (Pysarchik, 1989). Because of the lack of automobile transportation by
many tourists, convenience is also a major attribute in patronizing a store. Pysarchik
further listed uniform store hours, easy accessibility, available and free parking and
proximity to lodging facilities as positive attributes for store patronage. Mcintosh and
Goeldner (1990) suggested tourists were more willing to spend money on souvenirs or
special gifts if displays were of high quality, imaginative, and attractive. They
further suggested that salespeople should be courteous and not pressure a tourist into a
sale. Salespeople should take time to explain the value of an item, relate its history,
and be accurate and truthful (Mcintosh & Goeldner, 1990).
40
Consumers have many different sources available from which to find
information about products. Souvenir shopping suggestions are commonly placed in
tourism promotional materials (Belk, 1990). Rao, Thomas and Javalgi (1992)
suggested that while travel marketers cannot change the location of a destination, the
climate, or available activities, marketers may be able through advertising and/or
promotion to impact the way these elements are perceived by potential customers.
Results of the traveler study, based on destination locations and activities, indicated
that respondents of all groupings preferred advertisements and feature articles in
newspapers and travel magazines as a way of reaching potential customers. Informal
information by family or friends was also considered very important to travelers.
Travel agents were the second most important formal source of information and
broadcast media was considered unimportant.
Moschis (1976) proposed that shoppers possessing different orientations will
exhibit differences in types of information used to leam about new products. He
developed a shopper typology based on routine cosmetic purchases and investigated
the sources of information cosmetic shoppers used to leam about new products.
Results indicated shoppers possessing different shopping orientations used different
sources to find out about new products. Moschis (1976) concluded that once shopper
profiles and market segments have been developed, the information sources each
segment used may be utilized for effective promotion. The findings of Moschis
(1976) are supported by the typology of tourists suggested by Littrell et al. (1990).
Different shopper orientations used different sources of information. Kean et al.
41
(1991) noted that tourists were more likely than retailers to depend on brochures and
other printed media conceming the availability of crafts. The study by Moschis
(1976) was based on ordinary shopping experiences. A typology of nonordinary
shoppers and the information they use may be of benefit to retailers aiming
information sources at a consumer in a nonordinary experiences.
Shopping locations visited by souvenir consumers may help souvenir retailers
determine markets most likely to attract consumers and reduce the duplication of retail
offerings suggested as a problem in retailer areas (Pysarchik, 1989). Blundell (1993)
listed private and consumer shops, souvenir shops in public institutions, duty free
shops in airports, and shops in national and provincial parks as shopping locations for
Canadian souvenirs. Souvenirs may be located at gift and souvenir shops, art and
craft shops, indigenous markets, roadside markets and traditional shopping malls
(Mcintosh & Goeldner, 1990). Mcintosh and Goeldner (1990) further suggested that
where feasible shops should strive to incorporate actual working places for artists so
that shoppers can observe the creative process. Littrell et al. (1989) included
shopping location as a market segmentation descriptor but findings have not been
reported.
Summary
Beverly Gordon in an introductory article discussing souvenirs stated, "the
souvenir as an important phenomenon in contemporary life has never been looked at"
(1986, p. 144). The purposes of this study were to explore shopping orientations of
tourists who purchased souvenirs and how well retailers understood this behavior.
42
The present study was undertaken to examine souvenirs as commodities sold by
retailers to remind tourist consumers of their experiences away from home.
Consumers use souvenirs as symbols by which to remember a recharging period once
they have retumed to normal life. The retailer should attempt to provide the souvenir
to the tourist at the peak of the recharging experience.
The responsibility of retailers is to provide souvenir products to tourists,
realizing tourists are purchasing items as a response to nonordinary/sacred
experiences and want a remembrance of the experience upon retuming to the
ordinary/profane. Cohen (1979) suggested entrepreneurs of tourism should produce
an environment of make-believe for the tourist. Tourist producers should create in
the tourist a "semi-conscious illusion" (Cohen, 1979, p. 194), to engage the tourist's
imagination until they have become a willing partner in the game of "tourist make-
believe" (p. 194). The tourist and the touristic entrepreneur agree that the
arrangement is artificial but the artificiality often guarantees the enjoyment. Retailers
should provide items to the tourist that embellish the make-believe period and
emphasize spending of a nonordinary nature.
Segmentation of tourists based on souvenir purchase behavior was possible.
Souvenir merchandise purchases, souvenir merchandise selection factors, souvenir
information sources, shopping locations, consumer patronage motives, travel activities
and motivations were useful descriptors to initiate the segmentation process with
demographic information offered as cluster groups became identified. A
determination of segmented tourist groups indicated what was important to nonlocal
43
customers in nonordinary environments. Knowing the significance of segmented
tourist groups may help souvenir retailers better determine merchandise offerings and
better aim marketing strategies to the desired target market. The characteristics of
souvenir merchandise sold and purchased, souvenir merchandise selection factors, and
consumer patronage motives may allow for determination of retailer's understanding
of souvenir consumer's needs.
CHAPTER III
METHOD
The purpose of the study was to investigate souvenir shopper orientations and
retailer's understanding of souvenir consumers. Tourists who purchase souvenir
goods and retailers who sell souvenir goods as a part of their business were evaluated.
The methodology followed in the study is discussed in the following sections (a)
sample, (b) selection of the sample, (c) sample size, (d) description of the instmment,
(e) procedure, and (f) statistical analysis of data.
Sample
The tourist population was tourists who had visited one or more of the four
Southwestem states between July 1, 1992, and June 30, 1993. The tourist sample
was obtained from a national database population of travelers in the United States
(The Lifestyle Selector, National Demographics and Lifestyles, Inc., Denver,
Colorado, 80202-1211). The retailer population was retailers selling souvenirs in one
or more of the four Southwestem states between July 1, 1992, and June 30, 1993,
and currently active. The retailer sample was obtained from a national database
population of retailers (Database America, Montvale, New Jersey, 07645-0416).
The Lifestyle Selector listing is a national database currently containing
approximately 29 million names and addresses of consumers who had mailed in
questionnaires inserted into packages of a variety of major consumer retail products.
The questions answered by the consumers addressed a variety of demographic and
44
45
lifestyle oriented questions about interests and hobbies. The consumers retumed the
questionnaires with the understanding that their names would be used for direct mail.
The category selected for this study was Travel in the U.S.A. which had
approximately 90,000 names for the states of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and
Utah as of June, 1993.
The Database America listing is a multi-sourced database compiled from
yellow page directories, telephone company new connects, manufacturing directories,
interactive customer files, govemment sources, school files, trade directories, and city
directories. It is telephonically confirmed on an ongoing basis. As of June, 1993,
28,198 retailers which met specified parameters were listed in the database.
Selection of Sample
Prior to delivery, 1100 tourist sample subjects were randomly selected by The
Lifestyle Selector. Additionally, 1500 retailer sample subjects were randomly
selected by Database America prior to delivery to the researcher. One hundred
tourist sample subjects and 1(X) retailer sample subjects were used for a pilot study.
The souvenir tourist sample selected from The Lifestyle Selector database
listing were identified by their home zip code. The database listing was narrowed to
include only travelers with home zip codes in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and
Utah, Reasons for selecting the states were determined by discussion with personnel
from Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah tourism boards who indicated the
highest number of travelers to the four southwestem states originated from the four
southwestem states.
46
The souvenir retailer sample was selected from the Database America database
listing using several selectors. Selectors used to identify retailers for the study
included employee size 1-9, sales volume of under $1 million, five-digit 1972
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Code, state, and owner as executive title.
Database America screened out national store chains such as Wal-Mart and K-Mart.
Standard Industrial Classification Codes were obtained from Division G, Retail Trade,
which includes "establishments engaged in selling merchandise for personal or
household consumption and rendering services incidental to the sale of the goods"
(Executive Office, 1987, p. 313). Within Division G, specific industry group
numbers were identified for use. These included 533 Variety Stores; 539
Miscellaneous General Merchandise Stores; 564 Miscellaneous Apparel and Accessory
Stores; 591 Drug Stores and Proprietary Stores; and 5947 Gift, Novelty and Souvenir
Shops. Using only 5947 Gift, Novelty and Souvenir Shops would eliminate retailers
who sell souvenirs as only part of their merchandise mix.
Sample Size
Gay (1992) suggested that descriptive research should use 10% of the
population as a sample size. In the present study there was no way of determining
the entire population of tourists or retailers at the designated area at any given time.
The number of tourists identified by The Lifestyle Selector from Arizona, Colorado,
New Mexico and Utah was approximately 90,000. The number of retailers identified
by Database America in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah was
approximately 4,155. The researcher mailed 997 tourist questionnaires to potential
47
survey participants during the summer of 1993. The researcher mailed 1394 retailer
questionnaires to potential survey participants during the summer of 1993 coinciding
with the tourist sample. Using The Total Design Method, an estimated 60% response
rate could be expected (Dillman, 1978).
It was the expectation of the researcher that some questionnaires would be
retumed that were unusable due to the participants response to question #1. For
example tourists would answer No, to indicate they had not traveled to Arizona,
Colorado, New Mexico, or Utah as a tourist during the time of study and purchased a
souvenir. The exact question is shown in Appendix A. Additionally, retail
participants would respond No to question #1 indicating they had not been in retail
operation in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, or Utah during the time of study. The
exact question is shown in Appendix B. Retailer participants which circled
Unimportant or Very Unimportant for all products listed on the merchandise
assortment scale were considered unusable because they were not a merchant of any
souvenir products.
Description of the Instmment
Data were collected from the souvenir tourist sample using a mailed self-report
survey instrument. A mailed self-report survey instrument was also used to collect
data from the souvenir retailer sample. Each questionnaire was printed in booklet
form, approximately 8 and 1/4 inch by 12 inch photographically reproduced. A
creatively designed front cover was placed on the questionnaire to present a positive
48
first impression to the reader. Additionally, the last page was designed to invite
comments from readers and included a thank-you.
The following scales were repeated on both instruments: souvenir
merchandise/merchandise assortment, merchandise selection factors, and patronage
motives. Participants were asked to (1) respond to the scales using a five-point Likert
response ranging from Very Important to Very Unimportant and (2) answer questions
circling listed responses or fill-in blanks. The scales used for the souvenir tourist
sample and the souvenir retailer sample were developed by Littrell et al. (1989) with
modifications by the researcher.
Souvenir Tourist Questionnaire
The tourist questionnaire consisted of eight sections: (a) Travel in the
Southwest, (b) Souvenir Merchandise, (c) Merchandise Selection Factors, (d)
Information Sources, (e) Souvenir Shopping Locations, (f) Patronage Motives, (g)
Reasons for Travel and Travel Activities, and (h) Background Questions. A copy of
the instrument appears in Appendix A.
A section on Travel in the Southwest was included in the questionnaire to
determine if the respondents met the criteria for the sample. The respondents were
asked if they had traveled to one or more of the following states, Arizona, Colorado,
New Mexico, or Utah between July 1, 1992, and June 30, 1993, and if so, to which
state(s) they had traveled. The respondents were asked the major purpose of their trip
and to respond to each question by circling a response.
49
A section on Souvenir Merchandise was included in the questionnaire. Survey
participants were asked to respond to each of 13 souvenir merchandise items by
circling a response on a five-point, Likert-type scale ranging from Very Important to
Very Unimportant products.
In the Merchandise Selection Factors section, participants were asked to
respond to 18 merchandise selection factors of a souvenir. Items on this scale were
extracted from the Littrell et al. (1989) study. Survey participants were asked to
respond to each item by circling a response on a five-point, Likert-type scale ranging
from Very Important to Very Unimportant selection factors.
What Information Sources tourists used when traveling was included as a
section in the questionnaire. Participants were asked to respond to a 14-item scale,
obtained from Littrell et al. (1989). Survey participants were asked to respond to each
item by circling a response on a five-point, Likert-type scale ranging from Very
Important to Very Unimportant information sources.
Participants were asked to indicate Souvenir Shopping Locations by responding
to a 19-item scale identified from Littrell et al. (1989). Survey participants were
asked to respond to each item by circling a response on a five-point, Likert-type scale
ranging from Very Important to Very Unimportant shopping locations.
Items for the section on Patronage Motives were extracted from Littrell et al.
(1989) for use on the questionnaire. Survey participants responded to each item on
the patronage motives scale by circling a response on a five-point, Likert-type scale
ranging from Very Important to Very Unimportant.
50
The questionnaire included a section on Reasons for Travel. Twenty-five
items were obtained from Littrell et al. (1989). Survey participants were asked to
respond to each item by circling a response on a five-point, Likert-type scale ranging
from Very Important to Very Unimportant reasons for travel.
Travel Activities was the final section included in the questionnaire. Twenty-
six items were derived from Littrell et al. (1989) to be included. Survey participants
were asked to respond to each item by circling a response on a five-point, Likert-type
scale ranging from Very Important to Very Unimportant travel activities. A
demographic section was included in the questionnaire to obtain information relating
to such characteristics as states visited, purpose of trip, gender, age, family income,
education, and current state residence.
Souvenir Retailer Questionnaire
The souvenir retailer questionnaire consisted of four sections: (a) Business
Information, (b) Merchandise Assortment, (c) Merchandise Selection Factors, and (d)
Patronage Motives. A copy of the instmment appears in Appendix B.
The first section included in the questionnaire was on Business Information to
determine if the respondents met the criteria for the sample. The retailers were asked
if they conducted business in one or more of the following states, Arizona, Colorado,
New Mexico, or Utah between July 1, 1992, and June 30, 1993, and if so, in which
states. Participants were asked the price range of their merchandise, 1992 sales
volume, business ownership, cultural heritage, gender, percentage of customers who
51
were tourists, and percentage of annual gross sales attributed to tourists. Participants
responded to each question by circling an answer.
A section on Merchandise Assortment was included in the questionnaire. This
section included a scale on the importance of 13 souvenir merchandise items. Survey
participants were asked to respond to each item by circling a response on a five-point,
Likert-type scale ranging from Very Important to Very Unimportant.
Merchandise Selection Factors, a section included in the questionnaire,
included an 18-item scale. Items on the scale were obtained from Littrell et al.
(1989). Survey participants were asked to respond to each item by circling a response
on a five-point, Likert-type scale ranging from Very Important to Very Unimportant
merchandise selection factors.
Additionally a scale on patronage motives was included in the questionnaire.
Survey participants were asked to respond to each of 18 items by circling a response
on a five-point, Likert-type scale ranging from Very Important to Very Unimportant.
Items on the scale were extracted from the study by Littrell et al. (1989).
Procedure
The questionnaires were developed and administered following procedures set
forth in Mail and Telephone Surveys: The Total Design Method (TDM), written by
Don Dillman (1978). The Dillman Method requires the initial mailing of the
questionnaires accompanied by a cover letter followed by two additional mailings.
The two follow-up mailings consisted of (1) a letter and replacement questionnaire
sent to nonrespondents three weeks after the initial mailing, and (2) a letter and
52
replacement questionnaire sent to nonrespondents seven weeks after the initial
mailing.
Pilot Study
A pilot study was conducted to gain information about the data collection
process as well as to identify any constmction defects in regard to the souvenir tourist
and souvenir retailer questionnaires. The researcher randomly selected 100 sample
tourists from the purchased database listing, and 100 sample retailers from the
purchased database listing to receive the pilot questionnaires. Visual analysis of the
questionnaires was conducted prior to the initial mailing.
For the pilot study, tourist questionnaires and retailer questionnaires were
mailed during the summer of 1993. The pilot study produced 28 tourist
questionnaires which fit the criteria of the sample and 13 questionnaires which did not
fit the criteria of the sample formulating a total of 41 tourist questionnaires. The pilot
study produced 17 retailer questionnaires which fit the criteria of the sample and 3
questionnaires which did not fit the criteria of the sample formulating a total of 20
retailer questionnaires. To compensate for the lower response rate of retailers
exhibited in the pilot study, the number of retailer questionnaires mailed in the final
study was greater than the number of tourist questionnaires mailed.
The retumed pilot questionnaires were examined using content analysis and
statistical analysis to insure questions and procedures worked properly for the study.
After review of the retumed pilot surveys one change was made to the tourist survey
instrument. To aid in the coding of question T-15 for use in the Statistical Package
53
for the Social Sciences (SPSS) computer software responses were changed from
alphanumeric to numeric.
Statistical Analvsis of Data
Data collected from the two sets of questionnaires were coded into a computer
system utilizing the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Data were
statistically analyzed for application to the specific research questions of the study.
Identification of the souvenir consumer and souvenir retailer groups were
identified using factor analysis of merchandise selection factors, information sources,
souvenir shopping locations, patronage motives, reasons for travel, and travel
activities, developed by Littrell et al. (1989). Littrell et al. (1989) determined groups
using cluster analysis. Refer to Appendix C for further explanation of cluster analysis
and factor analysis in establishing groups.
After development of consumer and retailer groups, consumer responses were
compared to one another to identify differences, and retailer responses were compared
to one another to identify differences. Additionally, the consumer profile groups
were compared to the developed retailer profile groups to identify differences between
souvenir consumers and retailers in the Southwest. The data were used to assess the
viability of the souvenir market. A probability level of 0.05 or less was considered
statistically significant. Independent variables were the scale items. Dependent
variables were the groupings.
Once groups were determined for each sample, demographic information was
analyzed to gain a greater understanding of the types of people in each group. Table
54
3.1 describes the statistical analysis procedures employed to analyze the seven
research questions.
55
Table 3.1
Description of Research Questions, Instmments, and Statistical Analysis
(RQ = Retailer Questionnaire, TQ = Tourist Questionnaire, IND = Independent Variables, DEP = Dependent Variables)
Research Question RQ TQ Variables Statistical Test
1: Is there a difference between merchandise #8 purchased by souvenir consumers and merchandise sold by souvenir retailers?
2: Is there a difference between souvenir consumers and souvenir retailers with respect to souvenir merchandise selection factors?
3: Is there a difference between souvenir consumers and souvenir retailers with respect to retail patronage motives?
4: Are there differences among souvenir consumer groups with regard to the following: merchandise selection factors, (b) information sources, (c) souvenir shopping locations, (d) patronage motives, (e) reasons for travel, and (g) travel activities?
5: Do the following demographic characteristics souvenir consumer groups: (a) state(s) visited, (b) purpose of trip, (c) gender, (d) age, (e) income, (f) education, and (g) home state?
6: Are there differences among souvenir retailer groups with regard to the following: (a) merchandise selection factors and (b) patronage motives.
7: Do the following demographic characteristics differ among souvenir retailers groups: (a) state(s) in which located, (b) merchandise price range, (c) 1992 sales volume, (d) type of ownership, (e) cultural heritage, (f) gender, (g) percentage of tourist customers, and (h) percentage of sales generated from tourists?
ii9
#10
#4 13 souvenir category items
#5 18 merchandise selection factors
#8 18 retail patronage motives
#4, 5 IND - scale 6, 7, 8, items 9, 10 DEP - factor
groups
t-test between populations
t-test between populations
t-test between populations
ANOVA
#8,9 , 10
#2, 3 4 , 5 , 6 7 , 8 , 9
#2, 11, 13. 15
3, 12, 14,
item statements from each scale
IND - scale items DEP - factor groups
item statements from each scale
descriptive
ANOVA
descriptive
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
The primary purpose of the study was to investigate shopping orientations of
tourists in the Southwest using souvenir purchase behavior as a measurement base. A
secondary purpose of the study was to assess Southwestem retailers' knowledge of
tourists visiting the Southwest. The results of the study are reported in the following
sections: (a) distribution and completion of questionnaire, (b) reliability of scales, (c)
description of sample, (d) instmment scales, (e) identification of tourist groups and
retailer groups, (f) analysis of research questions, and (g) summary of findings for
research questions.
Distribution and Completion of Ouestionnaires
Two pilot studies, tourists to the Southwest and retailers in the Southwest,
were conducted prior to the mailing of the questionnaires to the identified tourist
population provided by The Lifestyle Selector database and the identified retailer
population provided by the Database America database. The tourist questionnaire
obtained data from survey respondents conceming demographic information, souvenir
merchandise, merchandise selection factors, information sources, souvenir shopping
locations, patronage motives, reasons for travel, and travel activities. The retailer
questionnaire obtained data from survey respondents conceming business information,
merchandise assortment, merchandise selection factors, and patronage motives. The
Dillman Method (Dillman, 1978) was used for collecting data.
56
57
Souvenir Tourist Sample
After three mailings, 398 questionnaires which fit the criteria of the sample
and 220 questionnaires which did not fit the criteria of the sample were retumed
formulating a total of 618 retumed questionnaires. To calculate the response rate of
retum for the tourist sample, undeliverable surveys (n = 22) were subtracted from
the total sample of 997. The total sample (n = 975) was divided into the total
retumed questionnaires (n = 618) yielding a response rate of 63.4%.
Souvenir Retailer Sample
After three mailings, 307 questionnaires which fit the criteria of the sample
and 318 questionnaires which did not fit the criteria of the sample were retumed
formulating a total of 625 questionnaires. To calculate the response rate of retum for
the retailer sample, undeliverable surveys (n = 127) were subtracted from the total
sample of 1394. The total sample (n = 1267) was divided into the total retumed
questionnaires (n = 625) yielding a response rate of 49.3%.
Reliability of Scales
Reliability of the scales on each questionnaire was determined using
Cronbach's alpha. Cronbach's alpha is used when measures have multiple-scored
items. Cronbach's alphas above .70 are acceptable in early research; alphas above
.80 indicate the measure is reduced by very little error (Robinson, Stimpson, Huefner,
& Hunt, 1991). Alphas for the individual tourist scales were as follows: souvenir
merchandise categories .79, merchandise selection factors .87, information sources
58
.86, souvenir shopping locations .85, patronage motives .87, reasons for travel .86,
and travel activities .85. Alphas for the individual retailer scales were as follows:
merchandise assortment .75, merchandise selection factors .85, and patronage motives
.85.
Description of Sample
Souvenir Tourist Sample
Table 4.1 provides an overview of the demographic characteristics of the
tourist sample. The sample consisted of both female (63.1%) and male (36.2%)
participants. Survey participants ranged in age from 18 to over 65 years, the highest
percentage (42.2%) between the ages of 45-64. Almost a quarter of the sample had a
gross family income of $60,000 or more (23.1%), and 51.8% of the sample had an
income of $40,000 and above. Almost half of the sample (49.4%) had completed a
college or university degree. Respondents were evenly distributed among the four
states; 22.1% resided in Arizona, 22.9% in Colorado, 27.6% in New Mexico, and
21.6% in Utah, Three quarters of the respondents stated traveling for a vacation as
the purpose of the trip (74.1%), followed by visiting family and/or friends (46.5%).
States visited by tourists were equally divided among Arizona (62.6%), Colorado
(57.8%), and New Mexico (59.5%). Utah was visited by 39.7% of the respondents.
Souvenir Retailer Sample
Table 4.2 provides an overview of the demographic characteristics of the
retailer sample. The sample consisted of business owners both female (53.1%) and
59
Table 4.1
Tourist Demographic Characteristics
DEMOGRAPHIC TRAIT n %
Gender Female Male No response
Age 18-29 30-44 45-64 65 and above No response
Gross Family Income Less than $9,999 $10,000 to $19,999 $20,000 to $29,999 $30,000 to $39,999 $40,000 to $49,999 $50,000 to $59,999 $60,000 and above No response
Highest Level of Education Less than 12 years Completed High School 1-3 Years Technical, Vocational, or College Completed College or University Some Graduate Work A Graduate Degree No response
State Currently Residing In Arizona Colorado New Mexico Utah Other No response
States Visited by Tounsts Arizona Colorado New Mexico Utah
251 144 3
31 117 168 4 2
11 25 52 70 72 42 92 34
2 56 139 75 47 75 4
88 91 110 86 17 6
249 230 237 158
63.1 36.2 .8
7.8 29.4
42.2 20.1
.5
2.8 6.3 13.1
17.6
18.1
10.6
23.1 8.5
.5 14.1 34.9
18.8
11.8
18.8
1.0
22.1
22.9
27.6
21.6
4.3 1.5
62.6
57.8
59.5
39.7
60
Table 4.1 Continued
DEMOGRAPHIC TRAIT n
Purpose of Trip Vacation Visiting Family and/or Friends Business Attending a Convention Accompanying a Person on Business Traveling to or from Winter Home Other Purposes No Response
n = 398
295 185 68 25 20 19 49 4
74.1
46.5
17.1
6.3 5.0 4.8 12.3
1.0
Table 4.2
61
Retailer Demographic Characteristics
DEMOGRAPHIC TRAIT %
Gender Female Male No Response
Cultural Heritage Black/African American Hispanic/Mexican American Native American Oriental/Asian American White Other No Response
Ownership Sole Ownership Partnership Franchise Corporation Other No Response
Price Range of Merchandise Low End Moderate High End No Response
1992 Sales Volume Less than $15,000 $15,000 to $24,999 $25,000 to $49,999 $50,000 to $74,999 $75,000 to $100,000 More than $100,000 No Response
% of People WTio Make Purchases are Tourists 0-25% 26-50% 51-75% 76-100% No Response
163 136 8
2 14 11 3
263 6 8
151 38 3
107 6 2
42 231 27 7
13 10 25 24 32 191 12
147 67 44 48 1
53.1 44.3 2.6
.7 4.6 3.6 1.0
85.7
2.0 2.6
49.2 12.4
1.0 34.9
2.0 .7
13.7
75.2 8.8 2.3
4.2 3.3 8.1 7.8 10.4
62.2
3.9
47.9
21.8
14.3
15.6
.3
Table 4.2 Continued
% of Annual Gross Sales Made from Tourists 0-25% 26-50% 51-75% 76-100% No Response
n = 307
58 53 49 46
1
51.5 17.3 16.0 15.0
.3
62
DEMOGRAPHIC TRAIT n
63
male (44.3%). The largest portion of survey participants were white (85.7%) with
respect to cultural heritage. Nearly half (49.2%) of the retail participants were the
sole owner of their business, followed by corporation ownership (34.9%). The price
range of merchandise was mostly moderate (75.2%). The 1992 sales volume of over
half of the respondents (62.2%) was more than $100,000.
With regard to the question "what percentage of people who purchased items
from your store are tourists?," 47.9% of the retailer respondents reported 0-25% were
tourists. Figures representing the percentage of annual gross sales made by tourists
corresponded to the percentage of tourists who made purchases. Over half, 51.5%,
of retailers reported 0-25% annual gross sales attributed to tourists.
Instrument Scales
Tourist Scales
Souvenir Merchandise Scale
On the Souvenir Merchandise Scale most tourist respondents chose responses
indicating either a product was neither important or unimportant (M = 2.51 to 3.50).
(See Table 4.3 for a complete summary.) Merchandise categories selected as having
importance (M = 3.51 to 4.50) by the largest proportion of respondents included:
"postcards or booklets," and "books about the area, state, history, or attractions."
Merchandise categories selected as having little importance (M = 1.51 to 2.50) by the
largest portion of respondents included: "other mementos of the location or
attraction" and "toys." The scale mean was 2.96, indicating the tourist sample felt
neutral toward souvenir merchandise categories.
64
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NO - -ON US r —
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00 r-
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NO NO —
00 NO ^ ^^ 00 00
NO 00 ITi f^ u^ •^'
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r ) 00 o 00 NO NO fn fn fn
ON n -^ r^ — c>j
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u u
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d
142
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160
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00 CM
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n
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111
m o\
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m "^
149
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m >o
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372
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384
CM
370
00
370
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376
o
389
^
383
CM
383
r-
307
NO
CM — 0 0 VO rf q — CM p n p n pn
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65
Tourist Merchandise Selection Factors Scale
Reference to the Merchandise Selection Factors Scale, the majority of items
were selected as important by the respondents. (See Table 4.4 for a complete
summary.) Merchandise selection factors chosen as having importance (M = 3.51 to
4.50) included: "workmanship is of high quality," "appealing design," "appealing
colors," "price," "items can be used," "a good gift," "items can be displayed in the
home," "easy to pack and carry with you on a trip," "items can be worn," "a clever
idea," "made in the state you are visiting," and "new, innovative." The scale mean
was 3.67, indicating the tourist sample felt souvenir merchandise categories were
important.
Information Sources Scale
On the Information Sources Scale the majority of items were selected as
important by the respondents. (See Table 4.5 for a complete summary.) Information
sources chosen as having importance (M = 3.51 to 4.50) included: "directory or
map of locations or events," "tourist brochures or state travel packets," "local shops,"
"travel magazines and guide books," "information at galleries, museums, or historical
societies," "magazines or newspapers with articles about the area you are visiting,"
"local townspeople," and "information at your hotel, either written or from hotel
personnel."
66
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5 00 Tt ( S — Tt -^ 00 ON
ON CM C^ q ON
NO' uS iri CM C-' f*^ pn cn ^ P'^
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VO ^^ VO NO 00 00 00 00 00 NO p'^ t^ p*^ pp> p'^
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68
Souvenir Shopping Locations
On the Souvenir Shopping Locations Scale the majority of items were selected
as neither likely or unlikely as a shopping location, by the respondents. (See Table
4.6 for a complete summary.) Souvenir Shopping Locations chosen as likely to shop
at (M = 3.51 to 4.50) included: "gift shop" and "craft fair or festival." The scale
mean was 3.22, indicating the tourist sample felt neutral toward souvenir shopping
locations.
Tourist Patronage Motives
A majority of items on the Tourist Patronage Motives Scale were selected as
very important or important, by the respondents. (See Table 4.7 for a complete
summary.) Very important (M = 4.51 to 5.00) patronage motives included "quality."
Tourist patronage motives chosen as important (M = 3.51 to 4.50) by the
majority of respondents included: "salespeople who allow customers to browse,"
"competitive prices," "knowledgeable salespeople who can provide information about
the items," "selection and variety," "uniqueness," "friendly salespeople who initiate
pleasant conversation," "items arranged selectively and neatly," "visual displays," and
"reputation of craftsperson or artisan producers." The scale mean was 3.66,
indicating the tourist sample felt patronage motives were important.
Tourist Reasons for Travel Scale
On the Reasons for Travel Scale the majority of tourist respondents chose
responses indicating the reason was neither important or unimportant for travel
69
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73
M = 2.51 to 3.50). (See Table 4.8 for a complete summary.) One reason for travel
item was selected as very important (M = 4.51 to 5.00) by the majority of
respondents, "seeing spectacular scenery." Reasons for travel items selected as
important by the largest proportion of respondents included: "taking part in
adventuresome activities," "being close to nature," "visiting exciting places,"
"escaping daily routine," "gaining a new perspective on people and history," "visiting
family and friends," "not having a schedule," "visiting places I've never been
before," "going to famous places in the U.S.," "going to places off-the-beaten track,"
and "doing things with my travel companions." The scale mean was 3.50, indicating
the tourist sample felt neutral toward reasons for travel.
Tourist Travel Activities Scale
On the Travel Activities Scale most tourist respondents chose responses
indicating neither important or unimportant. (See Table 4.9 for a complete
summary.) Tourist travel activities selected as important (M = 3.51 to 4.50) by the
largest proportion of respondents included: "eating at special restaurants," "visiting
state or national parks," "eating foods of the region," "walking around in a town or a
city," "visiting historic homes, sites, or museums," "shopping," "taking
photographs," and "people-watching." The scale mean was 3.28, indicating the
tourist sample felt neutral toward travel activities.
74
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Retail Scales
Merchandise Assortment Scale
On the Merchandise Assortment Scale the majority of merchandise categories
were indicated as unimportant by most retailer respondents with a scale mean of 2.36.
(See Table 4.10 for a complete summary.) Merchandise assortment categories
considered unimportant (M = 1.51 to 2.50) included: "crafts," "art," "fine jewelry
or jewelry native to the region," "other artistic or authentic clothing," "books about
the area, state, history or attractions," "toys," "antiques," and "local foods."
Merchandise Selection Factors Scale
On the Merchandise Selection Factors Scale the majority of items were
selected as important by the respondents. (See Table 4.11 for a complete summary.)
Merchandise selection factors chosen as having importance (M = 3.51 to 4.50)
included: "appealing design," "appealing color," "a good gift," "price,"
"workmanship is of high quality," "item can be used," "item can be displayed in the
home," "has a name, motif, or design, related to the place the tourist is visiting,"
"item can be worn," "new, innovative," "a clever idea," and "unique, one of a kind.
or limited edition." The scale mean was 3.64, indicating the retailer sample
considered merchandise selection factors important.
Retail Patronage Motives
A majority of the items on the Retail Patronage Motives Scale were selected
as important or very important by the respondents. (See Table 4.12 for a complete
79
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summary.) Very important (M = 4.50 to 5.00) patronage motives included:
"friendly salespeople who initiate pleasant conversation," and "salespeople who allow
customers to browse." Important patronage motives (M = 3.51 to 4.50) included:
"knowledgeable salespeople who can provide information about the items," "quality,"
"selection and variety," "uniqueness," "competitive prices," "items arranged
selectively and neatly," "other items (besides souvenirs) carried in your store,"
"visual displays," "high pedestrian traffic area," and "location in or near tourist
attraction." The scale mean was 3.83, indicating the retailer sample rated patronage
motives important.
Identification of Tourist Groups and Retailer Groups
The data from two scales, Souvenir Merchandise (tourist sample) and
Merchandise Assortment Scale (retailer sample), were submitted to factor analysis
using the Principal-Components Analysis available in SPSS for the purpose of
identifying tourist souvenir consumer groups and souvenir retailer groups,
respectively. The selection of the scales was due to their reference to souvenir
merchandise. The scale items on both scales were identical. For each scale, factor
analysis resulted in factors based upon eigenvalues of greater than 1.
Tourist Groups
A factor analysis of the Souvenir Merchandise Scale resulted in three groups
of tourists: home-oriented, destination-oriented, and aesthetic-oriented. The
84
cumulative percentage for the analysis was 51.5%. Factor loadings are shown for
each of the three factor groups in Table 4.13.
Retailer Groups
The results of factor analysis of the Merchandise Assortment Scale indicated
four retailer groups: tourist-directed, artistic/cultural-directed, adornment-directed,
and collection-directed. The cumulative percentage for the analysis was 61.3%.
Factor loadings are shown in Table 4.14.
Analysis of Research Ouestions
Seven research questions were proposed for the study. Data were statistically
analyzed for application to the specific research questions of the study using the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The research questions were
analyzed in the following ways:
1. Research Question 1: t-tests;
2. Research Question 2: t-tests;
3. Research Question 3: t-tests;
4. Research Question 4: ANOVA;
5. Research Question 5: descriptive;
6. Research Question 6: ANOVA;
7. Research Question 7: descriptive.
Table 4.13
Factor Loading: Souvenir Merchandise Scale Varimax Rotated Solutions
85
VARIABLES EIGENVALUES
.73446
.68289
.60735
.53555
.49502
.45235
Factor 1 - Home-oriented Tourists Books about the area, state, history or attractions Art Crafts Local foods (such as wild rice, jams) Collectibles Antiques
Factor 2 - Destination-oriented Tourists Other mementos of the location or attraction (such as pens, bumper stickers,
balloons, key chains) T-shirts, sweatshirts or other clothes with the name or picture of a
location or attraction Postcards or booklets Toys
Factor 3 - Aesthetic-oriented Tourists Other artistic or authentic clothing Fine jewelry or jewelry native to the region (such as black hills gold) Costume jewelry or accessories
.79322
.65776
.62719
.57489
.72321
.69708
.68574
n = 398
Table 4.14
86
Factor Loading: Merchandise Assortment Scale Varimax Rotated Solutions
VARIABLES EIGENVALUES
Factor 1 - Tourist-directed Retailers Books about the area, state, history, or attractions Postcards or booklets Local foods (such as wild rice, jams) Other mementos of the location or attraction (such as pens,
bumper stickers, balloons, key chains)
Factor 2 - Artistic/Cultural-directed Retailers Art Fine jewelry or jewelry native to the region (such as black hills gold) Crafts
.77755
.70435
.68824
.64101
.74492
.73435
.72180
Factor 3 - Adornment-directed Retailers Other artistic or authentic clothing T-shirts, sweatshirts or other clothes with the name or picture of a
location or attraction Costume jewelry or accessories
.81845
.72846
.61751
Factor 4 - Collection-directed Retailers Collectibles Toys Antiques
.71714
.71184
.67953
n = 307
87
Research Question 1
Is there a difference between merchandise purchased by souvenir consumers
and merchandise sold by souvenir retailers?
Research Question 1 was analyzed using t-tests. Results of the t-tests are
shown in Table 4.15. There were significant differences between merchandise
purchased by souvenir consumers and merchandise sold by retailers in 9 of the 13
merchandise categories. All differences were evident at the .001 level of
significance. With the exception of "collectibles" and "toys," the tourist mean was
higher than the retailer mean indicating the merchandise categories were more
important to the tourists than the retailers.
Research Question 2
Is there a difference between souvenir consumers and souvenir retailers with
respect to souvenir merchandise selection factors?
Research Question 2 was analyzed using t-tests and results are shown in Table
4.16. There were differences in the importance of souvenir merchandise selection
factors between souvenir consumers and retailers in 4 of the 18 selection factors.
"Item can be used," was significant at the .01 level. The remaining significant
differences were evident at the .001 level.
Research Question 3
Is there a difference between souvenir consumers and souvenir retailers with
respect to retail patronage motives?
88
Table 4.15
Summary Table for Retailer and Tourist Merchandise Category t-tests
CATEGORY Retailer Retailer Tourist Tourist t-value (n = 307) (n = 398)
M SD M SD
Crafts Antiques T-Shirts, sweatshirts or other clothes
with the name or picture of a location or attraction
Other artistic or authentic clothing Costume jewelry or accessories
Fine jewelry or jewelry native to the region
Other mementos of the location or attraction
Art Local foods Books about the area, state, history
or attractions
Postcards or booklets Collectibles Toys
2.4932 1.7938
2.8826 2.5171 2.6389
2.4236
2.3048 2.4913 1.6862
2.2990
2.6928 2.9254 2.2696
1.528 1.234
1.687 1.468 1.461
1.557
1.421 1.451 1.223
1.430
1.609 1.521 1.290
3.1979 2.5257
3.2760 2.8703 2.6814
3.2139
2.4197 3.0753 3.1505
3.5000
3.5875 2.9247 2.1610
1.217 1.287
1.295 1.124 1.216
1.263
1.325 1.181 1.208
1.043
1.115 1.242 1.168
-6.48*** -7.48***
-3.34*** -3.40***
-.40
-7.22***
-1.07 -5.56***
-15.36***
-12.07***
-8.14*** .01
1.15
** *E < .001
89
Table 4.16
Summary Table for Retailer and Tourist Merchandise Selection Factors t-tests
CATEGORY Retailer Retailer Tourist Tourist t-value (n = 307) (n = 398)
M SD M SD
Appealing design Appealing colors Item can be worn Item can be used Item can be displayed in the home
4.3146 4.2791 3.5646 3.6939 3.6780
Has a name, motif, or design related to the place the tourist is visiting
Unique, one of a kind, or limited edition A clever idea Price Easy to care for or clean
Made by a well-known craftsperson or artisan from the area
Workmanship is of high quality New, innovative Made in the state the tourist is visiting Humorous
Easy to pack and carry on a trip Fits into a tourist's collection A good gift
E < .01** E < .001***
3.6357 3.5204 3.5442 4.0273 3.1207
3.0205 3.9865 3.5685 3.464 2.8690
3.8121 3.4075 4.0369
.899
.899 1.264 1.137 1.152
1.331 1.182 1.053 .917
1.169
1.247 .962
1.071 1.238 1.077
1.017 1.069 .881
4.2423 4.2376 3.6624 3.9098 3.7216
3.4413 3.3799 3.5627 3.9713 3.4628
3.3806 4.2578 3.5079 3.5506 2.9062
3.7147 3.4661 3.9003
.885
.891 1.048
.948 1.047
1.235 1.163 1.045 1.004 1.140
1.107 .817 .971
1.113 1.131
1.139 1.236 1..024
1.06 .60
-1.08 -2.64**
-.57
1.94 1.54 -.23 .75
-3.79***
-3.90*** -3.89***
.76 -.94 -.43
1.18
-.66 1.88
90
Research Question 3 was analyzed using t-tests. Results of the t-tests are
shown in Table 4.17. There were differences in the importance of retail patronage
motives between souvenir consumers and souvenir retailers in 13 of the 18 categories.
Factors were significant at the .01 level, .05 level, and .001 level. The majority of
patronage factor means were higher for the retailer sample indicating patronage
motives were more important to retailers than tourists.
Research Question 4
Are there differences among souvenir consumer groups with regard to the
following: (a) merchandise selection factors, (b) information sources, (c)
souvenir shopping locations, (d) patronage motives, (e) reasons for travel, and
(f) travel activities?
Research Question 4 was analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Results of the ANOVA comparing the three tourist groups are shown in Table 4.18.
The calculated F value between groups was 1.556 which was <3.15 resulting in the
acceptance that the means are equal and there was no significant difference between
groups. This finding indicates the three souvenir consumer groups were similar in
characteristics used to select merchandise, the sources used in obtaining information,
where they shopped for souvenirs, the characteristics used in selecting retail
establishments and reasons for travel activities.
Table 4.17
Summary Table for Retailer and Tourist Patronage Motives t-tests
91
CATEGORY Retailer Retailer Tourist Tourist (n = 307) (n = 398)
t-value
M SD M SD
Selection and variety Competitive prices (Quality Uniqueness Special in-store events
Location near major highway Visual displays Reputation of craftsperson or
artisan producers High pedestrian traffic area Location in or near tourist attraction
Other items (besides souvenirs) carried in your store
Store with modem appearance Items filling every space ~ tables,
shelves tucked in nooks and crannies
Items in settings that show how they
4.3322 4.1096 4.3787 4.1809 2.6014
3.2308 3.9288
3.0473 3.8243 3.5464
4.0034 3.1290
.802
.904
.746
.814 1.120
1.352 .968
1.240 1.180 1.260
1.095 1.185
4.1799 4.2990 4.5420 4.1491 3.1376
3.2558 3.6580
3.5289 2.9504 3.3255
3.3099 2.8609
.878
.882
.658
.930 1.052
1.202 .960
1.103 1.081 1.093
1.079 1.142
2.37* -2.75** -3.01**
.47 -6.30***
-2.5 3.62***
-5.26*** 9.92*** 2.38
8.25*** 4.99***
3.2407 1.155 2.5859 1.078 7.54 ***
would be used Items arranged selectively and neatly
Knowledgeable salespeople who can ] information about the items
Friendly salespeople who initiate pleasant conversation
Salespeople who allow customers to browse
*E < .05 **2 < .01 ***2 < .001
3.4558 4.0875
provide 4.4300
4.6146
4.5215
1.079 .881
.766
.677
.677
3.4215 3.8682
4.2646
4.1285
4.734
.943
.824
.777
.910
.720
.43 3.32***
2.80*
8.04***
.97
92
Table 4.18
Summary ANOVA Table for Souvenir Tourist Groups Unequal Sample Sizes
Source of Variation Sum of Squares d.f. Mean Square F F.95
Total 41325 83
Between-means 1529 2 765 1.556 3.15
Within-samples 39796 81 491
93
Research Question 5
Do the following demographic characteristics differ among souvenir consumer
groups: (a) state(s) visited, (b) purpose of trip, (c) gender, (d) age, (e)
income, (f) education, and (g) home state?
Research Question 5 was analyzed using descriptive statistics. Data were
reviewed and the highest percentage for each demographic characteristic was noted.
As shown in Table 4.19, differences in demographic characteristics of souvenir tourist
groups were noted in states visited by tourists, age range, and gross family income.
The highest percentage (65.5%) of home-oriented tourists traveled to New Mexico.
Destination-oriented tourists (60.0%) traveled to Colorado, and Arizona was traveled
to by the highest percentage of aesthetic-oriented tourists (64.5%).
Destination-oriented tourists differed from the other two groups in age range,
39.2% were 30-44 years of age. Home-oriented tourists (41.2%) and aesthetic-
oriented tourists (42.0%) were most frequently 45-64 years of age. Destination-
oriented tourists differed from the other two groups in gross family income, the
highest percentage (25.0%) had an income of $30,000-$39,999. The income level of
home-oriented tourists (27.9%) and aesthetic-oriented tourists (24.6%) was reported
as $60,000 and above by the highest percentage. All other demographic data
analyzed revealed no differences when the greater number per group was compared.
Research Question 6
Are there differences among souvenir retailer groups with regard to the
following: (a) merchandise selection factors, and (b) retail patronage motives?
94
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Research Question 6 was analyzed by using analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Results of ANOVA, comparing the four retailer groups are shown in Table 4.20.
The calculated F value between groups was 1.245 (<2.76) resulting in the acceptance
that the means are equal and there was no significant difference between groups.
This finding indicates the four souvenir retailer groups were similar in characteristics
used to determine merchandise selection and elements of the retail environment.
Research Question 7
Do the following demographic characteristics differ among souvenir retailer
groups: (a) state(s) in which located, (b) merchandise price range, (c) 1992
sales volume, (d) type of ownership, (e) cultural heritage, (f) gender, (g)
percentage of tourist customers, and (h) percentage of sales generated from
tourists?
Research Question 7 was analyzed using descriptive statistics shown in Table
4.21. Using the four retailer groups identified, demographic characteristics were
reviewed for differences among the groups. Tourist-directed retailers were most often
(45.6%) corporation in type of ownership, where as, all other retailer groups were
sole ownership. The highest percentage of artistic/cultural-directed retailers (27.8%)
considered 51-75% of the people purchasing items from their stores to be tourists.
All other retailers groups considered 0-25 % of the people making purchases to be
tourists. The remaining demographic characteristics showed no visible differences
when highest percentages were compared.
97
Table 4.20
Summary ANOVA Table for Souvenir Retailer Groups Unequal Sample Sizes
Source of Variation Sum of Squares d.f. Mean Square F F.95
Total 365760 65
Between-means 20778 3 6926 1.245 2.76
Within-samples 344982 62 5564
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100
Summary of Findings for Research Ouestions
Using factor analysis, three souvenir tourist groups were identified from the
Souvenir Merchandise Scale as home-oriented tourists, destination-oriented tourists,
and aesthetic-oriented tourists. Four souvenir retailer groups were identified from the
Merchandise Assortment Scale as tourist-directed retailers, artistic/cultural-directed
retailers, adornment-directed retailers, and collections-directed retailers.
Seven research questions were designed for the study and tested by a variety of
statistical methods. A significant difference between merchandise purchased by
souvenir consumers and merchandise sold by retailers was identified in Research
Question 1. The findings also indicated merchandise categories were more important
to the tourist than the retailer. A difference in 4 of the 18 merchandise selection
factors was identified between souvenir consumers and retailers in Research
Question 2. A difference in the importance of retail patronage motives between
souvenir consumers and retailers was identified in Research Question 3. The findings
also indicated retail patronage motives were more important to retailers than tourists.
Using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for Research Question 4, the data did
not show significant differences among the three souvenir tourist groups. Differences
in demographic characteristics. Research Question 5, were noted for states traveled
to, age, and income level.
With regard to Research Question 6, the data did not show significant
differences among the four souvenir retailer groups when ANOVA applications were
calculated. Differences in demographic characteristics of the four souvenir retailer
101
groups were identified as type of ownership and percentage of people who made
purchases who were tourists in Research Question 7.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Souvenirs are economically important to retail businesses located at or near
tourism destinations as a way for tourists to remember the vacation experience. A
review of tourism literature had predicted individuals would behave differently during
leisure periods than during work time, and souvenirs would be used to remember the
leisure state. The literature related to souvenir phenomena revealed little research had
been conducted to identify shopper behavior in the leisure state or retailer techniques
to attract the leisure shopper.
The problem addressed by this research was to explore Southwestem United
States' souvenir consumers and retailers to determine the extent to which current
retailers were meeting the needs of souvenir consumers. By understanding the
relationship between tourists and retailers, businesses in tourist communities may
increase economic activity as host communities. Additionally, retailers who are able
to identify tourist needs may be able to gain a competitive advantage over their
competitors.
Summary of the Study
The purposes of this study were to determine shopping orientations of tourists
in the Southwest using souvenir purchase behavior as a base measurement and assess
Southwestem retailers' knowledge of tourists visiting the Southwest. Tourist
shopping segments were identified using souvenir merchandise purchases, souvenir
102
103
merchandise selection factors, souvenir information sources, souvenir shopping
locations, retail patronage motives, reasons for travel, travel activities, and
demographic characteristics. In order to determine retailers' awareness of tourists'
buying behavior, differences in souvenir merchandise offered and purchased, souvenir
merchandise selection factors, and retail patronage motives were compared. Tourists
who visited Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, and retailers, in operation in
Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, between July 1, 1992, and June 30,
1993, were sampled. Two survey instruments, one directed at tourists, and one
directed at retailers, were distributed. Tourist survey instruments elicited information
from survey respondents conceming demographic information, souvenir merchandise,
merchandise selection factors, information sources, souvenir shopping locations,
patronage motives, reasons for travel and travel activities. Retailer instruments
elicited information from survey respondents conceming demographic information,
merchandise assortment, merchandise selection factors, and patronage motives.
A pilot study of each instrument was conducted prior to the distribution of the
questionnaires. Minor modifications were made to the survey instmments as a result
of the pilot study and the questionnaires were distributed to potential survey
participants using the Dillman (1978) method for mail surveys. After three mailings,
398 usable tourist questionnaires and 307 usable retailer questionnaires were received.
A variety of statistical procedures were employed to analyze the data.
Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficients were calculated for scale consistency and
104
intemal reliability. Frequency distributions, t-tests, and analysis of variance were
used as statistical methods.
Findings
Based upon the analyses of the data, the findings may be summarized in the
following manner:
1. The Tourist Souvenir Merchandise Scale had intemal validity of a = .79.
This would indicate that the Souvenir Merchandise Categories Scale is a
dependable instmment that can be used to measure strength of souvenir
merchandise classifications in early research.
2. The Retailer Souvenir Merchandise Assortment Scale had intemal validity of
a = .75. This would indicate that the Souvenir Merchandise Assortment
Scale is a dependable instmment that can be used to measure the strength of
souvenir merchandise classifications in early research.
3. Differences in the merchandise purchased by souvenir consumers and
merchandise sold by retailers were evident.
4. The majority of merchandise categories were more important to tourists than
retailers.
5. The following product categories were determined to be more important to
tourists than retailers:
(a) crafts,
(b) antiques.
105
(c) T-shirts, sweatshirts or other clothes with the name or picture of a
location or attraction,
(d) other artistic or authentic clothing,
(e) fine jewelry or jewelry native to the region,
(f) art,
(g) local foods,
(h) books about the area, state, history or attractions, and
(i) postcards or booklets.
6. The Tourist Merchandise Selection Factors Scale had intemal validity of
a = .87. The Retailer Merchandise Selection Factors Scale had intemal
validity of a = .85. This would indicate that the Merchandise Selection
Factor Scale is a dependable instmment that can be used to measure
merchandise selection characteristics.
7. Differences in the importance of souvenir merchandise selection factors
between souvenir consumers and souvenir retailers were apparent.
8. Tourists and retailers agreed in the importance of the majority of merchandise
selection factors.
9. Less differences were evident between tourists and retailers with regard to
merchandise selection factors than merchandise assortment or retail patronage
motives.
10. The following merchandise selection factors were determined to be more
important to tourists than retailers:
106
(a) item can be used,
(b) easy to care for and clean,
(c) made by a well-known craftsperson or artisan from the area, and
(d) workmanship is of high quality.
11. The Tourist Patronage Motives Scale had intemal validity of a = .87. The
Retailer Patronage Motives Scale had intemal validity of a = .85. This would
indicate that the Patronage Motives Scale would be a dependable instmment to
measure motives for shopping at specific retail environments.
12. Differences in the importance of retail patronage motives between souvenir
consumers and retailers were evident.
13. The majority of patronage motives were more important to retailers than
tourists.
14. The following retail patronage motives were determined to be more important
to retailers than tourists:
(a) selection and variety,
(b) competitive prices,
(c) quality,
(d) special in-store events,
(e) visual displays,
(f) reputation of craftsperson or artisan producers,
(g) high pedestrian traffic area,
(h) other items (besides souvenirs) carried in store,
107
(i) store with modem appearance,
(j) items filling every space - tables, shelves tucked in nooks and
crannies,
(k) items arranged selectively and neatly,
(1) knowledgeable salespeople who can provide information about the
items, and
(m) friendly salespeople who initiate pleasant conversation.
15. The Tourist Information Sources Scale had intemal validity of a = .86. this
would indicate that the Information Sources Scale would be a dependable
instmment to measure information choices.
16. The Tourist Souvenir Shopping Locations Scale had intemal validity of
Of = .85. This would indicate that the Souvenir Shopping Locations Scale
would be a dependable instmment to measure shopping location choices.
17. The Tourist Reasons for Travel Scale had intemal validity of a = .86. This
would indicate that the Tourist Reasons for Travel Scale would be a
dependable instmment to measure tourists reasons for travel.
18. The Tourist Travel Activities Scale had intemal validity of a = .85. This
would indicate that the Travel Activities Scale would be a dependable
instmment the measure activities of tourists while they are on vacation.
19. Factor analysis of responses to the Tourist Souvenir Merchandise Scale
resulted in three tourist groupings: home-oriented, destination-oriented, and
aesthetic-oriented.
108
20. The profile characteristics of the three groupings of the tourist sample were
not significantly different.
21. The largest percentages of the tourist respondents had the following
demographic profile: (a) female (63.1%), (b) 45-64 years in age (42.2%), (c)
$60,000 and above gross family income (23.1%), (d) 1-3 years technical,
vocational, or college education (34.9%), (e) currently reside in New Mexico
(27.6%), (f) most often visited Arizona (62.6%), and (g) vacationed as the
purpose for their trip (74.1%).
22. Factor analysis of data generated by the Merchandise Assortment Scale
resulted in four retailer groupings: tourist-directed, artistic/cultural-directed,
adomment-directed, and collection-directed.
23. The profile characteristics of the four groupings of the retailer sample were not
significantly different.
24. The largest percentages of the retailer respondents had the following
demographic profile: (a) female (53.1%), (b) white (85.7%), (c) sole owners
of the business (49.2%), (d) moderately priced merchandise (75.2%), (e) more
than $100,0(X) in 1992 sales volume percentage, (f) 0-25% people who made
purchases were tourists percentage, and (g) 0-25 % of annual gross sales were
made from tourists (51.5%).
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Interpretation of the Results
Tourist Sample and Retailer Sample Differences
Souvenirs are universally associated with tourism as a commercially produced
and purchased item to remind the tourist of an experience. The right merchandise
mix offered by retailers must be tangible articles which satisfy the intangible images
of sacred experiences remembered by tourists. Psyarchik (1989) concluded that
tourism retailers had conducted minimal market research to determine the wants and
needs of tourists, and, therefore the development of appropriate merchandise
assortments was difficult and may or may not be profitable. Results of the present
study indicate a difference in the merchandise purchased by souvenir consumers and
merchandise sold by retailers. The results demonstrate by example Psyarchik's
concems for systematically creating a profitable merchandise mix which will match
retailer offerings to consumer needs and wants.
Results further indicate the majority of merchandise categories are more
important to tourists than retailers. The review of literature provided a framework for
examining the meanings souvenirs have to the possessor and the importance tourists
place on purchasing a souvenir to remember an experience. It would seem reasonable
that tourists would place more importance on the merchandise categories than would
souvenir retailers.
Gordon's (1986) souvenir typology specified Pictorial Images as the most
common type of contemporary souvenir. Pictorial images included postcards "the
'universal souvenir'" (p. 140), and illustrated books. Pictorial image souvenirs.
no postcards or booklets; and books about the area, state history or attractions, were
determined by tourists to be the two most important merchandise categories in the
present study.
Characteristics or components of a merchandise item that influence a
customers decision to purchase or forgo the item are considered selection factors.
Standardized lists of selection factors are based on market research of individuals in
an ordinary environment. Results of the present study suggest the following selection
factors to be important characteristics to tourists in a nonordinary environment: "item
can be used," "easy to care for or clean," "made by a well-known craftsperson or
artisan from the area," and "workmanship is of high quality." These same selection
factors were not considered important by their retail counterparts. The four
merchandise selection factors considered important to tourists in the present study
were also considered important to respondents in the study by Littrell et al. (1990) in
which four tourism styles were isolated. Ethnic, Arts, and People-Oriented Tourists
identified "workmanship of the item" and "made by a well-known producer" to be
important merchandise selection factors. History and Parks-Oriented Tourists
identified functional characteristics as important, and Urban Entertainment-Oriented
Tourists, the group most likely to purchase apparel items, considered cleaning and
care of the item essential.
The rational used by consumers to determine at which store to shop are
considered patronage motives. Differences in the importance of retail patronage
motives between souvenir consumers and souvenir retailers were evident in the
Il l
present study. Retailers considered characteristics of the sales personnel,
"knowledgeable salespeople who can provide information about the items," "friendly
salespeople who initiate pleasant conversation," and "salespeople who allow customers
to browse," to be the three most important factors in the retail environment. Tourists
considered the ability of salespeople to allow customers to browse as the most
important characteristic but also considered the quality of the merchandise available in
the retail environment to be very important. Results of the present study confirm
Mcintosh and Goeldner (1990) suggestions that tourists are more willing to spend
money on souvenirs if the salespeople are courteous and do not pressure the
consumer.
Additionally, retailer respondents considered retail patronage motives to be
more important than tourist respondents. Tourists who purchase souvenirs are doing
so to remember their travel experience and consequently place a high value on the
souvenir item and characteristics of the souvenir. In contrast, retailers who want to
attract consumers place a high value on the retail environment to create a positive
shopping environment. It would seem reasonable that retailers would place more
importance on the retail patronage motives than would souvenir consumers. The
present results indicate that souvenir retailers have taken notice of the importance of
store image as pioneered by Berry (1969).
The present study compared responses from tourist consumers to responses
from souvenir retailers about tourist consumers. Results indicated that what retailers
perceived as important to tourists was in reality not what tourists thought to be
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important. These results are similar to those of Witter (1985) who concluded retailers
were not a good source to determine what attributes were important to tourists during
a nonordinary experience.
Souvenir Consumer Groups
Results of the current study segmented the tourist sample into three groupings:
home-oriented tourist, destination-oriented tourist, and aesthetic-oriented tourist.
Home-oriented tourists were more likely to purchase items to be used or displayed in
the home including: books about the area, state, history or attractions; art; crafts;
local foods (such as wild rice, jams); collectibles; and, antiques. Destination-oriented
tourists were more likely to purchase items which symbolized the vacation destination
through a visible name, motif, or design on the product. Items included: other
mementos of the location or attraction (such as pens, bumper stickers, balloons, key
chains); T-shirts, sweatshirts or other clothes with the name or picture of a location or
attraction; postcards or booklets; and toys. Aesthetic-oriented tourists were most
likely to purchase items to adom the body in an aesthetic manner. Items included:
other artistic or authentic clothing, fine jewelry or jewelry native to the region (such
as Black Hills gold), and, costume jewelry or accessories.
Portions of the three groupings identified in the present study duplicate the
findings of other typologies suggested in the review of literature. Based on evaluation
of craft merchandise descriptors, Littrell et al. (1990) isolated four tourism styles:
ethnic, arts, and people style; history and parks style; urban entertainment style; and
active outdoor style. Descriptions of the tourism styles suggested tourists were
113
classified according to activities and experiences. Home-oriented tourists, identified
in the present study, although not identical, are similar to the ethnic, arts, and people-
oriented tourists identified by Littrell et al. (1990). Similar characteristics include:
purchase of items to use in the home, local foods, antiques, and books about the area.
In the present study, destination-oriented tourists are similar in purchasing behavior to
Littrell's et al. (1990) urban entertainment-oriented tourist. Purchases of items which
represent the destination of the traveler were evident in both groups including: T-
shirts, bumper stickers, and other mementos with the name of the destination printed
on the item. Gordon (1986) refers to souvenirs which are inscribed with words which
locate the souvenir in time and place as markers. Markers become "memory-triggers,
filled with associations" (p. 142) from the travel experience. Tourist styles in the
present study were classified according to merchandise assortment purchases. The
aesthetic oriented-tourists of the present study extended across the activities and
experiences of the Littrell et al. (1990) tourism styles and did not resemble any one
particular tourism style identified by Littrell et al. (1990).
The profile characteristics of the three groupings were not significantly
different from one another in the present study. Many of the respondent
characteristics used to identify differences in the Littrell et al. (1990) tourism styles
were evident as important characteristics to all three tourist styles proposed in the
present study. Merchandise selection factors related to aesthetic criteria of appealing
design, color, and workmanship of high quality were important to all tourist
consumers, in addition to price, usability of the item, and appropriateness of the item
114
as a gift. Characteristics of the retail environment including quality and price
perceptions, selection and variety of merchandise, product criteria that the items be
unique, and salespeople attributes were important to all tourist consumers.
The distinguishing characteristic of a tourist is the nonordinary mind set of the
individuals as they travel from home. The tourist "seeks various psychic and physical
experiences and satisfactions" (Mcintosh & Goeldner, 1990, p. 4), the nature of
which will largely be determined by motivations for travel and travel activities.
Souvenir consumers in the present study considered seeing spectacular scenery to be
the most important reason for traveling. This finding substantiates Goodrich's (1977)
finding that scenic beauty was the most important tourist-attracting attribute of tourist
locations.
Souvenir consumers considered visiting exciting places they had never been,
escaping daily routine, and doing things with family or traveling companions to be
important reasons for travel. Souvenir consumers in the present study were
influenced by cultural and interpersonal motivators as defined by Mcintosh and
Goeldner (1990). Mcintosh and Goeldner (1990) considered the desire to know about
other areas to be a cultural motivator. Visiting family or friends and escaping from
daily routine were considered interpersonal motivators.
The most popular travel activities for souvenir consumers in the present study
included visiting state or national parks and taking photographs. For tourists,
photographs become tangible frozen-in-time reminders, "concretizing their travel
experience" (Gordon, 1986, p. 140).
115
Consumers have many different sources available from which to find
information about products. Results from the current study found directory or map of
locations and events to be the most important information source for respondents.
Tour leaders were considered the most unimportant information source by
respondents. Destination-oriented tourists in the present study considered tourist
brochures or state travel packets to be important information sources confirming
results by Kean (1991). Results reporting newspapers advertisements and travel
magazines to be the most important information source by Jao, Thomas, and Javalgi
(1992) were not confirmed in the present study.
The profile characteristics of the three souvenir consumer groupings were not
significantly different from one another in the present study. Mason and Mayor
(1984) proposed that men are taking on more of the shopping roles once reserved for
women. In the present study almost two-thirds of the respondents were female.
Littrell, Reilly, and Stout (1992) found similar results, 92% of their sample was
female. Results indicated women more then men still purchase a larger majority of
souvenir goods when on vacation. Mason and Mayor (1984) also proposed the
population of consumers is aging. Davis (1986) found the largest proportion of
respondents to be 35-64 years old. Results of the present study indicated that the
largest proportion of souvenir consumers to be between the ages of 45-65 years.
Several respondents in the 18-29 age category wrote that their income level did not
allow them to purchase souvenirs. Several respondents of the 65 and above age
116
category wrote that they no longer purchased souvenirs and therefore did not shop
when traveling.
Mason and Mayor (1984) proposed that the highest and lowest income
segments in society were increasing while middle-class income segments were
diminishing. The majority of respondents in the current study had a gross family
income of $60,000 or more implying that the higher income segment purchases
souvenirs. Results of the present study are similar to Davis (1986) in which 35% of
the respondents had some college education.
Souvenir Retailer Groups
Results of the current study segmented the retailer sample into four groupings:
tourist-directed retailers, artistic/cultural-directed retailers, adomment-directed
retailers, and collection-directed retailers. Tourist-directed retailers marketed items
essentially at the tourist market representing the tourist site including: books about
the area, state, history or attractions; postcards or booklets; local foods (such as wild
rice, jams); and other mementos of the location or attraction (such as pens, bumper
stickers, balloons, key chains). Artistic/cultural-directed retailers marketed specialty
items of an artistic or cultural nature including art, fine jewelry, and crafts.
Adomment-directed retailers marketed items to adom the body including: other
artistic or authentic clothing; T-shirts, sweatshirts or other clothes with the name or
picture of a location or attraction; and costume jewelry or accessories. Collection-
directed retailers marketed highly specialized items with appeal because of their
collective value including collectibles and antiques.
117
The profile characteristics of the four groupings were not significantly
different in the present study. Solomon (1986) reported that most small businesses
are privately owned mom-and-pop shops or small corporations. The present study
found the largest number of respondents to be sole owners. Solomon (1986) also
suggested that small businesses cannot dictate price. Most souvenir retailers in the
present study sold moderately priced merchandise. The retailers did not take a
leadership role in lowering or raising price points of merchandise. Results of the
present study implied 11.9% of the businesses to be minority-owned, slightly less than
Solomon's (1986) report. The researcher underestimated the annual sales volume of
souvenir retailers in the current study. The majority of the retailers in the present
study had an annual sales volume of over $100,000.
Conclusions and Implications
Based upon the analyses of data and interpretations of the findings, the
following conclusions and implications appear appropriate:
1. The scales used on the tourist questionnaire were dependable instmments to
measure tourist shopping orientations based on intemal validity statistical
evaluation.
2. The results of the analysis of variance among the three souvenir consumer
groups in this study were similar to one another in shopping orientations and
demographic characteristics. This would imply that the findings could be used
to confirm the existence of a distinct tourist consumer market segment.
118
3. The scales used on the retailer questionnaire were dependable instmments to
measure retailer merchandising strategies based on intemal validity statistical
evaluation.
4. The results of the analysis of variance among the four souvenir retailer groups
in this study were similar to one another in marketing approaches and
demographic characteristics. This would imply that the findings could be used
to confirm the existence of a distinct souvenir retailer segment.
5. The review of literature indicated shopping behavior of individuals in a leisure
state was different than shopping behavior of individuals in a work state.
Findings in this study, indicating that differences are evident between tourists
and retailers, would imply that shopping behavior differences between the
leisure state and the work state exist.
6. The evidence from this study, indicating differences exist between retailers and
tourists, would imply retailers of souvenir goods were not meeting the needs
of their target market. Several possible retail strategies are suggested for
retailers to more closely meet the needs of their target market.
(a) diversify product offerings beyond curio type items regularly
considered souvenirs;
(b) place more emphasis on crafts, antiques, T-shirts and apparel, fine
jewelry, art, local foods, books, and postcards when determining
inventory;
119
(c) place more emphasis on items which can be used, items that are easy to
care for and clean, items made by well-known artisans, and high
quality merchandise when determining inventory,
(d) specialize within the market.
7. Findings from this study indicated tourists considered quality of the
merchandise to be an important selection factor, more important than
comparative prices. This would imply that retailers could sell merchandise of
exceptional quality at higher price points.
8. Findings from this study indicated tourists considered mannerisms and
intelligence of the retail sales personnel to be very important. This would
imply that retailers should seek to find competent sales personnel and
compensate them accordingly to assure loyalty.
9. Demographic results of the tourist sample would indicate that retailers should
target an older, educated, financially well-off target market.
10. Results indicated retailers underestimate the number of, and potential income
from tourists. This would imply that institutions and organizations which
inform and educate retailers (small business institutes, Main Street
organizations. Chambers of Commerce, and others) should emphasize the
importance of the tourist customer to their constituents.
Recommendations for Further Study
The following are suggestions for further research related to results of this
study of souvenir consumers and souvenir retailers in the Southwest:
120
1. Further explore the Tourist Consumer Market Segment to refine shopping
orientations.
2. Further explore the Souvenir Retailer Segment to refine marketing approaches.
3. Further explore the Souvenir Retailer Segment to determine if target offerings,
locations, and/or promotional efforts are meeting the needs of the identified
tourist consumer market segment.
4. In the present study, data were collected from the tourist sample after they had
retumed from the nonordinary environment to the ordinary environment.
Methods could be developed to elicit responses from tourists while they are in
the nonordinary environment.
5. Collect data from tourists and retailers at the point of purchase to validate or
refute the present study findings.
6. In the present study, some retailer participants responded that they did not sell
souvenir items although the name of their business implied that they did sell
souvenirs. Methods could be developed to elicit responses from retailers
regardless of their opinion of their merchandise selection.
7. Using the leisure tourist classifications established by Smith (1977), collect
data to determine if characteristics of merchandise or characteristics of retail
environments differ based on the leisure classification of the tourist.
121
8. Using Gordon's (1986) typology of souvenirs, inventory souvenir merchandise
to determine which type of souvenirs (a) generate highest number of sales, (b)
generate greatest gross volume, (c) consume most physical space, and other
characteristics.
9. Using qualitative research methods, determine why specific souvenirs have
meaning to their owner and use this information to create selling techniques
for use in retail environments.
10. Collect data based on expenditures and determine the economic impact of each
type of souvenir classifications in the Gordon (1986) typology.
11. Repeat the study in a different geographical location.
12. Each segment of the study, as determined by the scales used, has the potential
to be studied independently of the whole. For example: information sources
or shopping locations have the potential to be studied independently from
other shopping characteristics.
13. Use souvenirs and/or souvenir retailing as a subject matter in which
quantitative and qualitative research methods are collaboratively used.
Souvenir Phenomena
Souvenirs and souvenir retailing is for the most part an untapped field of
research. This researcher intended to stimulate in the minds of researchers and
retailers the marketing potential of souvenirs. Gordon (1984) made the conclusion
that the souvenirs she studied (whimsies) were considered kitsch and therefore
devalued. A similar experience was evident in the present study. Several retailer
122
respondents sent back the questionnaire saying they did not sell souvenir products,
although the name of their business implied that they did sell memento, gift type
items. Additionally, the majority of retailers who did respond in the current study
stated that 0-25% people who made purchases at their stores were tourists, and 0-25%
of their annual gross sales were made from tourists. This researcher is of the opinion
that the generic, stereotypical meaning of souvenir, that of a curio-type item of little
value and shoddy workmanship, influenced these retailers to say they did not sell
souvenirs. Similarly, several consumer respondents sent back questionnaires with
lettering across the front stating they did not buy souvenirs. Therefore, if retailers
and consumers were to more broadly define souvenir as an item purchased because of
the value it has in remembering a special time, a nonordinary experience, the
souvenir item would not be considered in such a negative manner.
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APPENDIX A: TOURIST COVER LETTER
AND SURVEY INSTRUMENT
128
129
July 30, 1993
Dear Traveler,
Souvenirs are a universal reminder of travel experiences. Travelers often purchase items when on vacation to remember the experience when they retum home. You have been chosen to be part of a special group of travelers asked to give information about purchases made when traveling.
I know your time is valuable, but would you please complete the following questionnaire relating to souvenir purchases. The questionnaire will take approximately 15-20 minutes to complete. It is important that an adult at least 18 years of age complete the questionnaire. Please retum the completed questionnaire in the enclosed self-addressed envelope.
You may be assured complete confidentiality. The questionnaire has an identification number for mailing purposes only. Upon retum of the questionnaire the identification number will be detached from the questionnaire and used to remove your name from a follow-up mailing list. Your name will not be associated with the questionnaire itself.
This project has been undertaken to complete requirements for a doctoral degree in merchandising. Your comments and participation are very important to me. You may receive a summary of the results by writing your name and address on the back of the retum envelope.
I would appreciate having the questionnaire retumed before August 20, 1993. Thank-you for your help with this project.
Sincerely,
Kris Swanson Project Director
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SOUVEIMIR MARKETING IIM THE SOUTHWEST
Souvenirs are a universal renninder of special monnents or events. The purchase of a souvenir serves as a tangible way of remembering an otherwise intangible experience. Effective retailing of souvenirs requires an understanding of souvenir consumers.
This survey is conducted to gain information on the souvenir market in the Southwest. The questionnaire should be completed by an individual 18 years or older who has traveled in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, or Utah between July 1, 1992 and June 30, 1993 and purchased souvenirs.
Please respond to each question or statement, assistance.
Thank you for your
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Part 1: Travel in the Southwest
I am interested in developing a profile of tourists who have traveled in the Southwest between July 1, 1992 and June 30, 1993, and purchased souvenirs. A Tourist is defined as a temporarily leisured person who voluntarily visits a different geographical location to experience a change. This experience may include traveling for the purpose of a vacation, visiting family and/or friends, attending a convention or conducting business, or other reasons for travel. A Souvenir is defined as a universal reminder of a special moment or event such as a vacation.
If you have taken more than one trip to the Southwest states since July 1, 1992, please select the trip that was most memorable in which you purchased a souvenir.
T-1. Have you traveled in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, or Utah as a tourist between July 1, 1992 and June 30, 1993 and purchased a souvenir? (Circle one)
1 YES PLEASE CONTINUE
2 NO IF YOU ANSWERED NO, PLEASE RETURN THE QUESTIONNAIRE IN THE ENCLOSED ENVELOPE EVEN IF YOU DID NOT VISIT THE STATES IDENTIFIED IN THIS STUDY OR PURCHASED A SOUVENIR.
T-2. Which state(s) did you visit? (Circle as many numbers as apply)
1 ARIZONA 2 COLORADO 3 NEW MEXICO 4 UTAH
T-3. What was the major purpose for your trip? (Circle as many numbers as apply
1 VACATION 2 VISITING FAMILY AND/OR FRIENDS 3 BUSINESS 4 ATTENDING A CONVENTION 5 ACCOMPANYING A PERSON WHO WAS ON BUSINESS OR
ATTENDING A CONVENTION 6 TRAVELING TO/FROM WINTER HOME 7 OTHER (Please specify)
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Part 2: Souvenir Merchandise
Travelers buy many types of souvenirs to bring home for themselves or for others. Here is a list of some common souvenir products. How important is it to you to purchase any of these products when you travel? In the space to the right of each statement, circle the number that best describes how important each product is to you.
circle 5 if the product is VERY IMPORTANT to you circle 4 if the product is IMPORTANT to you circle 3 if the product is NEITHER IMPORTANT OR UNIMPORTANT
to you circle 2 if the product is UNIMPORTANT to you circle 1 if the product is VERY UNIMPORTANT to you
T-4 How important are these products to you... Circle the number
1 CRAFTS 5 4 3 2 1 2 ANTIQUES 5 4 3 2 1 3 T-SHIRTS, SWEATSHIRTS OR OTHER CLOTHES
WITH THE NAME OR PICTURE OF A LOCATION OR ATTRACTION 5 4 3 2 1
4 OTHER ARTISTIC OR AUTHENTIC CLOTHING 5 4 3 2 1 5 COSTUME JEWELRY OR ACCESSORIES 5 4 3 2 1 6 FINE JEWELRY OR JEWELRY NATIVE TO THE
REGION (SUCH AS BLACK HILLS GOLD) 5 4 3 2 1 7 OTHER MEMENTOS OF THE LOCATION OR
ATTRACTION (SUCH AS PENS, BUMPER STICKERS, BALLOONS, KEY CHAINS) 5 4 3 2 1
8 ART 5 4 3 2 1 9 LOCAL FOODS (SUCH AS WILD RICE, JAMS) 5 4 3 2 1 10 BOOKS ABOUT THE AREA, STATE, HISTORY
OR ATTRACTIONS 5 4 3 2 1 11 POSTCARDS OR BOOKLETS 5 4 3 2 1 12 COLLECTIBLES 5 4 3 2 1 13 TOYS 5 4 3 2 1
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Part 3: Merchandise Selection Factors
Listed below are criteria you may use when selecting souvenirs when you travel. Circle the number that best describes how important each criterion is to you when selecting souvenirs.
circle 5 if the criterion is VERY IMPORTANT to you circle 4 if the criterion is IMPORTANT to you circle 3 if the criterion is NEITHER IMPORTANT OR
UNIMPORTANT to you circle 2 if the criterion is UNIMPORTANT to you circle 1 if the criterion is VERY UNIMPORTANT to you
T-5 How important are these criteria. Circle the number
1 APPEALING DESIGN 2 APPEALING COLORS 3 ITEM CAN BE WORN 4 ITEM CAN BE USED 5 ITEM CAN BE DISPLAYED IN THE HOME 6 HAS A NAME, MOTIF, OR DESIGN RELATED
TO THE PLACE YOU ARE VISITING 7 UNIQUE, ONE OF A KIND, OR LIMITED EDITION 8 A CLEVER IDEA 9 PRICE 10 EASY TO CARE FOR OR CLEAN 11 MADE BY A WELL-KNOWN CRAFTSPERSON
OR ARTISAN FROM THE AREA 12 WORKMANSHIP IS OF HIGH QUALITY 13 NEW, INNOVATIVE 14 MADE IN THE STATE YOU ARE VISITING 15 HUMOROUS 16 EASY TO PACK AND CARRY WITH YOU
ON THE TRIP 17 FITS INTO YOUR COLLECTION 18 A GOOD GIFT
5 5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5 5
5 5 5
4 4 4 4 4
4 4 4 4 4
4 4 4 4 4
4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
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Part 4: Information Sources
There are many different sources available which you may use to determine information about souvenirs in the area you are visiting. Here is a list of common information sources people use to learn about souvenir offerings. How important are each of these sources to you when you travel? In the space to the right of each statement, circle the number that best describes how important each source is to you.
circle 5 if the source is VERY IMPORTANT to you circle 4 if the source is IMPORTANT to you circle 3 if the source is NEITHER IMPORTANT OR UNIMPORTANT
to you circle 2 if the source is UNIMPORTANT to you circle 1 if the source is VERY UNIMPORTANT to you
T-6 How important are these sources of information to you...
Circle the number
1 TRAVEL MAGAZINES AND GUIDE BOOKS 5 4 3 2 1 2 TOURIST BROCHURES OR STATE
TRAVEL PACKETS 5 4 3 2 1 3 TRAVEL AGENTS 5 4 3 2 1 4 MAGAZINES OR NEWSPAPERS WITH
ARTICLES ABOUT THE AREA YOU ARE VISITING 5 4 3 2 1
5 ADVERTISEMENTS IN LOCAL NEWSPAPERS 5 4 3 2 1 6 BOOKS ABOUT TYPES OF SOUVENIRS
THAT INTEREST YOU 5 4 3 2 1 7 PEOPLE WHO HAVE BEEN HERE BEFORE 5 4 3 2 1 8 TOUR LEADERS 5 4 3 2 1 9 INFORMATION AT YOUR HOTEL, EITHER
WRITTEN OR FROM HOTEL PERSONNEL 5 4 3 2 1 10 LOCAL TOWNSPEOPLE 5 4 3 2 1 11 LOCAL SHOPS 5 4 3 2 1 12 INFORMATION AT GALLERIES, MUSEUMS, OR
HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 5 4 3 2 1 13 TELEPHONE BOOK - WHITE OR YELLOW PAGES 5 4 3 2 1 14 DIRECTORY OR MAP OF LOCATIONS OR
EVENTS 5 4 3 2 1
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Part 5: Souvenir Shopping Locations
Next, I have listed places where you might shop for souvenirs when you travel. How likelv are you to shop in these places for souvenirs when you travel?
circle 5 if you are VERY LIKELY to shop there for souvenirs circle 4 if you are LIKELY to shop there for souvenirs circle 3 if you are NEITHER LIKELY OR UNLIKELY to shop
there for souvenirs circle 2 if you are UNLIKELY to shop there for souvenirs circle 1 if you are VERY UNLIKELY to shop there for
souvenirs
T-7 How likely are you to shop at... Circle the number
1 CRAFTSPERSON OR ARTISAN'S STUDIO OR WORKSHOP
2 GIFT SHOP 3 VARIETY SHOP 4 ART GALLERY OR MUSEUM SHOP 5 CLOTHING BOUTIQUE 6 T-SHIRT SHOP 7 JEWELRY OR ACCESSORY SHOP 8 RESTAURANT OR TAVERN 9 ANTIQUE SHOP 10 NATIONAL OR REGIONAL DISCOUNT, CHAIN,
OR DEPARTMENT STORE 11 BAZAAR OR FLEA MARKET 12 CRAFT FAIR OR FESTIVAL 1 3 SHOP AT A TOURIST SITE OR THEME PARK 14 GENERAL STORE SERVING A RESORT OR
CAMPING AREA 15 GAS STATION OR CONVENIENCE SHOP 16 PARKS AND RECREATION GIFT SHOP 17 HOTEL, MOTEL, OR BED & BREAKFAST
GIFT AREA OR SHOP 18 TOURIST VISITOR CENTER, WELCOME
CENTER, OR HIGHWAY REST STOP 19 AIRPORT
5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2
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Part 6: Patronage Motives
Think about the retail environment where souvenirs are sold. Different kinds of settings appeal to different people. The researcher would like to know how important these factors are to you when you shop for souvenirs while traveling.
circle 5 if the factor is VERY IMPORTANT in attracting you to a store
circle 4 if the factor is IMPORTANT in attracting you to a store circle 3 if the factor is NEITHER IMPORTANT OR UNIMPORTANT in
attracting you to a store circle 2 if the factor is UNIMPORTANT in attracting you to a store circle 1 if the factor is VERY UNIMPORTANT in attracting you to a
store
T-8 How important are these factors to you. Circle the number
1 SELECTION AND VARIETY 2 COMPETITIVE PRICES 3 QUALITY 4 UNIQUENESS 5 SPECIAL IN-STORE EVENTS 6 LOCATION NEAR MAJOR HIGHWAY 7 VISUAL DISPLAYS 8 REPUTATION OF CRAFTSPERSON OR
ARTISAN PRODUCERS 9 HIGH PEDESTRIAN TRAFFIC AREA 10 LOCATION IN OR NEAR TOURIST ATTRACTION 11 OTHER ITEMS (BESIDES SOUVENIRS)
SOLD IN ESTABLISHMENT 12 STORE WITH A MODERN APPEARANCE 13 ITEMS FILLING EVERY SPACE ~ TABLES,
SHELVES TUCKED IN NOOKS AND CRANNIES
14 ITEMS IN SETTINGS THAT SHOW HOW THEY WOULD BE USED OR DISPLAYED
15 ITEMS ARRANGED SELECTIVELY AND NEATLY 16 KNOWLEDGEABLE SALESPEOPLE WHO CAN
PROVIDE INFORMATION ABOUT THE ITEMS
17 FRIENDLY SALESPEOPLE WHO INITIATE PLEASANT CONVERSATION
18 SALESPEOPLE WHO ALLOW CUSTOMERS TO BROWSE
5 5 5 5 5 5 5
5 5 5
5 5
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
4 4 4
4 4
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3
3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
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Part 7: Reasons for Travel and Travel Activities
Below is a list of reasons tourists may have for traveling in the United States. Some of these reasons for travel may or may not be important to you. In the space to the right of each statement, circle the number that best describes how important each reason is to you for a satisfying trip.
circle 5 if the reason is VERY IMPORTANT for a satisfying trip circle 4 if the reason is IMPORTANT for a satisfying trip circle 3 if the reason is NEITHER IMPORTANT OR UNIMPORTANT
for a satisfying trip circle 2 if the reason is UNIMPORTANT for a satisfying trip circle 1 if the reason is VERY UNIMPORTANT for a satisfying trip
T-9 How important is ... Circle the number
1 PURSUING A HOBBY 2 TAKING PART IN ADVENTURESOME ACTIVITIES 3 PURSUING FAMILY HISTORY AND ROOTS 4 EXERCISING, KEEPING PHYSICALLY FIT 5 HAVING TIME TO BE BY MYSELF 6 STUDYING IN A CLASS FOR ENRICHMENT 7 BEING CLOSE TO NATURE 8 VISITING EXCITING PLACES 9 ESCAPING FROM DAILY ROUTINE 10 SEEING SPECTACULAR SCENERY 11 GAINING A NEW PERSPECTIVE ON PEOPLE
AND HISTORY 12 GETTING PLENTY OF REST OR SLEEP 13 VISITING FAMILY OR FRIENDS 14 FINDING ACTIVITIES FOR CHILDREN 15 HAVING TIME FOR ROMANCE 16 NOT HAVING A SCHEDULE 17 VISITING PLACES I'VE NEVER BEEN BEFORE 18 DEVELOPING SKILL IN A SPORT OR ART 19 EXPERIENCING PHYSICAL CHALLENGES 20 LIVING IN LUXURY WHILE ON A TRIP 21 GOING TO AS MANY DIFFERENT PLACES
AS POSSIBLE IN A TRIP 22 GOING TO FAMOUS PLACES IN THE U.S. 23 GOING TO PLACES OFF-THE-BEATEN TRACK 24 RETURNING TO PLACES 25 DOING THINGS WITH MY FAMILY OR
TRAVELING COMPANIONS 5 4 3 2 1
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
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Below are activities that tourists might take part in while traveling in the United States. Some of these activities may or may not be important to you as you travel. In the space to the right of each statement circle the number that best describes how important each activity is to you for a satisfying trip.
circle 5 if the activity circle 4 if the activity circle 3 if the activity circle 2 if the activity circle 1 if the activity
s VERY IMPORTANT as you travel s IMPORTANT as you travel s NEITHER IMPORTANT OR UNIMPORTANT s UNIMPORTANT as you travel s VERY UNIMPORTANT as you travel
T-10 How important is ... Circle the number
1 SOCIALIZING WITH FELLOW TRAVELERS 2 FISHING OR HUNTING 3 VISITING WITH LOCAL RESIDENTS 4 EATING IN SPECIAL RESTAURANTS 5 TAKING GUIDED TOURS TO SPECIAL SITES 6 GOING OUT DANCING OR TO NIGHTCLUBS 7 VISITING STATE OR NATIONAL PARKS 8 EATING FOODS OF THE REGION 9 VISITING THEME PARKS 10 WALKING AROUND IN A TOWN OR CITY 11 ANTIQUING 12 ATTENDING FESTIVALS OR FAIRS 13 VISITING HISTORIC HOMES, SITES,
OR MUSEUMS 14 ATTENDING CONCERTS OR THE THEATER 15 VISITING ART GALLERIES, MUSEUMS,
OR ART STUDIOS 16 SHOPPING 17 ATTENDING SPORTS EVENTS 18 ATTENDING ART OR CRAFT FAIRS 19 TAKING PHOTOGRAPHS 20 PEOPLE-WATCHING 21 CAMPING 22 ATTENDING RELIGIOUS SERVICES 23 HIKING, BACKPACKING, OR TAKING
NATURE WALKS 24 BUYING LOCAL ARTS AND CRAFTS 25 SWIMMING, TENNIS, GOLF, SKIING
BICYCLING, BOATING OR SAILING 26 BRINGING HOME SOUVENIRS FROM THE TRIP
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
5 5
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
5 5
5 5
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
4 4
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
4 4
4 4
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3
3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1
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Part 8: Background Questions
I would like to ask a few questions about you to help interpret the results of this study.
T-11 Your gender. (Circle one)
1 FEMALE
2 MALE
T-12 Your age. (Circle one)
4 65 AND ABOVE
3 45 TO 64 2 30 TO 44 1 18 TO 29
T-13 What was your gross family income from all sources in 1992? (Circle one)
7 $60,000 AND ABOVE 6 $50,000 TO $59,999 5 $40,000 TO $49,999 4 $30,000 TO $39,999 3 $20,000 TO $29,999 2 $10,000 TO $19,999 1 LESS THAN $9,999
T-14 Which is your highest level of education completed? (Circle one)
6 A GRADUATE DEGREE 5 SOME GRADUATE WORK 4 COMPLETED COLLEGE OR UNIVERSITY 3 1-3 YEARS TECHNICAL, VOCATIONAL, OR COLLEGE 2 COMPLETED HIGH SCHOOL 1 LESS THAN 12 YEARS
T-15 In what state do you currently reside? (Circle one)
1 ARIZONA 2 COLORADO 3 NEW MEXICO 4 UTAH 5 OTHER (Please specify)
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If there is anything else you would like to tell me about buying souvenirs when you travel, please use this space for additional comments.
Thank you very much for your help with this project!
Your contribution to this effort is greatly appreciated. If you would like a summary of results, please print your name and address on the back of the return envelope (NOT on this questionnaire). I will see that you get a summary of the results.
If the stamped, addressed envelope for returning the questionnaire has been misplaced, please return to:
Souvenir Marketing in the Southwest Kris Swanson 2380 CO Bar Trail Flagstaff, Arizona 86001
This project is done in cooperation with:
Texas Tech University Department of Merchandising, Environmental
Design & Consumer Economics Lubbock, Texas 79409-1162
APPENDIX B: RETAILER COVER LETTER
AND SURVEY INSTRUMENT
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July 30, 1993
Dear Retailer,
Souvenirs are a universal reminder of travel experiences. Travelers often purchase items when on vacation to remember the experience when they retum home. You have been chosen to be part of a special group of retailers asked to give information about merchandise provided to travelers.
I know your time is valuable, but would you please complete the following questionnaire relating to souvenir merchandise. The questionnaire will take approximately 10 minutes to complete. It is important that the business owner complete the questionnaire. Please retum the completed questionnaire in the enclosed self-addressed envelope.
You may be assured complete confidentiality. The questionnaire has an identification number for mailing purposes only. Upon retum of the questionnaire the identification number will be detached from the questionnaire and used to remove your name from a follow-up mailing list. Your name will not be associated with the questionnaire itself.
This project has been undertaken to complete requirements for a doctoral degree in merchandising. Your comments and participation are very important to me. You may receive a summary of the results by printing your name and address on the back of the retum envelop.
I would appreciate having the questionnaire retumed before August 20, 1993. Thank-you for your help with this project.
Sincerely,
Kris Swanson Project Director
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SOUVENIR MARKETING IN THE SOUTHWEST
Souvenirs are a universal reminder of special moments or events. The purchase of a souvenir serves as a tangible way of remembering an otherwise intangible experience. Effective retailing of souvenirs requires an understanding of souvenir consumers.
This survey is conducted to gain information on the souvenir market In the Southwest. The questionnaire should be completed by an owner of a business located in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, or Utah and active between July 1, 1992 and June 30, 1993.
Please respond to each question or statement. Thank you for your assistance.
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Part 1: Business Information
I am interested in developing a profile of retailers who sell souvenirs to tourists specifically in the four Southwest states of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. A Tourist is defined as a temporarily leisured person who voluntarily visits a different geographical location to experience a change. This experience may include traveling for the purpose of a vacation, visiting family and/or friends, attending a convention or other business, or other reasons for travel. A Souvenir is defined as a universal reminder of a special moment or event such as a vacation.
R-1 Have you been in retail operation in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico,
or Utah between July 1, 1992 and June 30, 1993? (Circle one)
1 YES PLEASE CONTINUE
2 NO IF YOU ANSWERED NO, PLEASE RETURN THE QUESTIONNAIRE IN THE ENCLOSED ENVELOPE EVEN IF YOU WERE NOT IN RETAIL OPERATION FOR THIS STUDY.
R-2 Which state(s) are you located in? (Circle as many numbers as apply)
1 2 3 4
ARIZONA COLORADO NEW MEXICO UTAH
R-3 What is the price range of your merchandise? (Circle one)
3 HIGH END 2 MODERATE 1 LOW END
R-4 Please indicate the range which best represents your 1992 sales volume. (Circle one)
6 MORE THAN $100,000 5 $75,000 UP TO $ 100,000 4 $50,000 UP TO $74,999 3 $25,000 UP TO $49,999 2 $15,000 UP TO $24,999 1 LESS THAN $15,000
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R-5 Which type of ownership best describes your business? (Circle one)
1 SOLE OWNERSHIP 2 PARTNERSHIP 3 FRANCHISE 4 CORPORATION 5 OTHER (PLEASE EXPLAIN)
R-6 How would you describe your cultural heritage? (Circle one)
1 BLACK/AFRICAN AMERICAN 2 HISPANIC/MEXICAN AMERICAN 3 NATIVE AMERICAN 4 ORIENTAL/ASIAN AMERICAN 5 WHITE 6 OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY)
R-7 Your gender. (Circle one)
1 FEMALE 2 MALE
R-8 In your estimation, what percentage of people who purchase items from your store are tourists? (Circle one)
4 76 - 100 PERCENT 3 51-75 PERCENT 2 26-50 PERCENT 1 0-25 PERCENT
R-9 In your estimation, what percentage of annual gross sales from your store are made by tourists? (Circle one)
4 76 - 100 PERCENT 3 51-75 PERCENT 2 26-50 PERCENT 1 0-25 PERCENT
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Part 2: Merchandise Assortment
Many products can be considered souvenirs. A list of products follows. How important is carrying these products in your store? In the space to the right of each statement, circle the number that best describes how important each product is for your store.
circle 5 if the product is VERY IMPORTANT for your store circle 4 if the product is IMPORTANT for your store circle 3 if the product is NEITHER IMPORTANT OR UNIMPORTANT
for your store circle 2 if the product is UNIMPORTANT for your store circle 1 if the product is VERY UNIMPORTANT for your store
R-10 How important are these products... Circle the number
1 CRAFTS 5 4 3 2 1 2 ANTIQUES 5 4 3 2 1 3 T-SHIRTS, SWEATSHIRTS OR OTHER CLOTHES
WITH THE NAME OR PICTURE OF A LOCATION OR ATTRACTION 5 4 3 2 1
4 OTHER ARTISTIC OR AUTHENTIC CLOTHING 5 4 3 2 1 5 COSTUME JEWELRY OR ACCESSORIES 5 4 3 2 1 6 FINE JEWELRY OR JEWELRY NATIVE TO THE
REGION (SUCH AS BLACK HILLS GOLD) 5 4 3 2 1 7 OTHER MEMENTOS OF THE LOCATION OR
ATTRACTION (SUCH AS PENS, BUMPER STICKERS, BALLOONS, KEY CHAINS) 5 4 3 2 1
8 ART 5 4 3 2 1 9 LOCAL FOODS (SUCH AS WILD RICE, JAMS) 5 4 3 2 1 10 BOOKS ABOUT THE AREA, STATE, HISTORY,
OR ATTRACTIONS 5 4 3 2 1 11 POSTCARDS OR BOOKLETS 5 4 3 2 1 12 COLLECTIBLES 5 4 3 2 1 13 TOYS 5 4 3 2 1
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Part 3: Merchandise Selection Factors
Listed below are criteria tourists might use in making souvenir purchases. Circle the number that best describes how important you think each of the criteria are to tourists when selecting souvenirs.
circle 5 if the criterion is VERY IMPORTANT to tourists circle 4 if the criterion is IMPORTANT to tourists circle 3 if the criterion is NEITHER IMPORTANT OR UNIMPORTANT
to tourists circle 2 if the criterion is UNIMPORTANT to tourists circle 1 if the criterion is VERY UNIMPORTANT to tourists
R-11 How important are these criteria. Circle the number
1 APPEALING DESIGN 2 APPEALING COLORS 3 ITEM CAN BE WORN 4 ITEM CAN BE USED 5 ITEM CAN BE DISPLAYED IN THE HOME 6 HAS A NAME, MOTIF, OR DESIGN RELATED TO
THE PLACE THE TOURIST IS VISITING 7 UNIQUE, ONE OF A KIND, OR LIMITED EDITION 8 A CLEVER IDEA 9 PRICE 10 EASY TO CARE FOR OR CLEAN 11 MADE BY A WELL-KNOWN CRAFTSPERSON
OR ARTISAN FROM THE AREA 12 WORKMANSHIP IS OF HIGH QUALITY 13 NEW, INNOVATIVE 14 MADE IN THE STATE THE TOURIST IS VISITING 15 HUMOROUS 16 EASY FOR TOURIST TO PACK AND
CARRY ON A TRIP 17 FITS INTO A TOURIST'S COLLECTION 18 IS A GOOD GIFT
5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2
Part 4: Patronage Motives
How important are each of the following factors in attracting tourists to your store to buy souvenirs? In the space to the right of each statement, circle the number that best describes how important each statement is in attracting tourists to your store to purchase souvenirs.
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circle 5 if the factor is VERY IMPORTANT in attracting tourists circle 4 if the factor is IMPORTANT in attracting tourists circle 3 if the factor is NEITHER IMPORTANT OR UNIMPORTANT
attracting tourists circle 2 if the factor is UNIMPORTANT in attracting tourists circle 1 if the factor is VERY UNIMPORTANT in attracting tourists
n
R-12 How important are these factors. Circle the number
1 SELECTION AND VARIETY 2 COMPETITIVE PRICES 3 QUALITY 4 UNIQUENESS 5 SPECIAL IN-STORE EVENTS 6 LOCATION NEAR MAJOR HIGHWAY 7 VISUAL DISPLAYS 8 REPUTATION OF CRAFTSPERSON OR
ARTISAN PRODUCERS 9 HIGH PEDESTRIAN TRAFFIC AREA 10 LOCATION IN OR NEAR TOURIST ATTRACTION 11 OTHER ITEMS (BESIDES SOUVENIRS)
CARRIED IN YOUR STORE 12 STORE WITH A MODERN APPEARANCE 13 ITEMS FILLING EVERY SPACE - TABLES,
SHELVES TUCKED IN NOOKS AND CRANNIES
14 ITEMS IN SETTINGS THAT SHOW HOW THEY WOULD BE USED OR DISPLAYED
1 5 ITEMS ARRANGED SELECTIVELY AND NEATLY 16 KNOWLEDGEABLE SALESPEOPLE WHO CAN
PROVIDE INFORMATION ABOUT THE ITEMS
17 FRIENDLY SALESPEOPLE WHO INITIATE PLEASANT CONVERSATION
18 SALESPEOPLE WHO ALLOW CUSTOMERS TO BROWSE
5 5 5 5 5 5 5
5 5 5
5 5
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
4 4 4
4 4
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3
3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
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If there is anything else you would like to tell the researcher about your souvenir business, please use this space for additional comments.
Thank you very much for your help with this project!
Your contribution to this effort is greatly appreciated. If you would like a summary of results, please print your name and address on the back of the return envelope (NOT on this questionnaire). I will see that you get a summary of the results.
If the stamped, addressed envelope for returning the questionnaire has been misplaced, please return to:
Souvenir Marketing in the Southwest Kris Swanson 2380 CO Bar Trail Flagstaff, Arizona 86001
This project is done in cooperation with:
Texas Tech University Department of Merchandising, Environmental
Design & Consumer Economics Lubbock, Texas 79409-1162
APPENDIX C: USE OF CLUSTER ANALYSIS
AND FACTOR ANALYSIS
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151
Factor analysis refers to a variety of statistical techniques whose common
objective is to represent a set of variables in terms of a smaller set of hypothetical
variables. Factor analysis can be used for a number of purposes, the most common
are:
(1) revealing pattems of interrelationships among variables,
(2) detecting clusters of variables that are strongly intercorrelated and
therefore somewhat redundant,
(3) reducing a large number of variables to a smaller number of
statistically independent variables (factors) that are linearly related to
the original variables.
"Cluster Analysis" is a generic name for a wide variety of statistical methods
that can be used to create classifications or taxonomies where groups are formed on
the basis of highly similar entities. According to Aldenderfer and Blashfield, most of
the varied uses of cluster analysis can be subsumed under four principal goals:
(1) development of a typology or classification,
(2) investigation of useful conceptual schemes for grouping entities,
(3) hypothesis generation through data exploration, and
(4) hypothesis testing, or the attempt to determine if types defined through
other procedures are in fact present in the data.
The methods section of the original proposal called for the use of cluster
analysis to develop taxonomies of tourists vis-a-vis their patronage and merchandise
choice motives. In the initial proposal stage, cluster analysis was deemed to be an
152
appropriate technique for analysis since the study was conceptually patterned after
Littrell et al. (1991) "Tourism and craft marketing: Producers, Retailers, and
Consumers" which used cluster analysis to derive groupings of tourists patronage,
merchandise choice and travel and activity motivations.
Once the data were collected a simple agglomerative cluster analysis was
applied to covariance matrices developed for both tourist motivations and activities.
When cluster analysis was performed on the tourist motivation and activity variables
the clusters were relatively inconclusive and difficult to interpret. Another problem
was that the clusters formed did not adhere to any previous motivation or activity
attributes in the tourism research literature.
In an effort to shed some light on the tourist clusters that were formed,
exploratory factor analysis was applied to the covariance matrices. The factor analysis
yielded groupings of tourists motivations and activities that were more conclusive in
the light of tourism research literature.
In terms of patronage motives and merchandise choice there were no
statistically significant difference, between the groupings formed by either cluster or
factor analysis. Since there was concurrence between the merchandise choice and
patronage factors for either method, a decision was made to use factor analysis to
describe tourist motivations and activity choices. The resultant factors derived to
describe tourist motivations and activity choices are consistent with other studies of
tourist motivations, namely Iso-Ahola (1980, 1989) who condensed tourism and
recreation into two major dimensions namely, seeking and escaping. Leiper (1984)
153
also distinguishes between recreational leisure (which restores) and creative leisure
(which produces something new) which is consistent with the factor groupings
developed in the study.
While the original method proposed for the study identified cluster analysis as
the procedure of choice, the resultant clusters derived from the data did not prove to
be conclusive. Factor analysis revealed groupings of tourist motivations and activities
that were both stable and consistent with the tourism literature.