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Southwest High School Model United Nations 2016

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World Health Organization

Background Guide


Table of Contents

Letter from the secretary-general …………………………………… 4

Letter from the director ……………………………………………… 6

History of the committee ……………………………………………………8 Topic Area ABrief Introduction……………………………………………… 10Statement of the problem …………………………………… 10Category of the diseases …………………………………… 17Relevant UN actions ………………………………………… 25Questions a resolution must concern……………………… 27

Topic Area BBrief Introduction……………………………………………… 29Statement of the problem …………………………………… 29History of the problem…………………………………………30Current situation……………………………………………… 33Regional situation………………………………………………36Illegal trade on specific drugs…………………………………39

International drug trades………………………………………46

Relevant UN actions ………………………………………… 47

Position paper requirement……………………………………………… 47

Closing remark…………………………………………………………… 48

Citations…………………………………………………………………… 51�3


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LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY-GENERAL

Dear Delegates,

It’s my distinct pleasure to welcome you to Southwest High School Model United Nations 2016! I can’t wait to meet you in this February and look forward to your contributions made to the conference and committee.

As a new-born MUN conference, SWHSMUN 2016 has a strong academics team. We invited outstanding MUNers from across the country to bring their committees to Chongqing. I promise that they will serve as a patient and professional guide in the committee as well as an enthusiastic partner out of the committee. And I highly suggest you make full use of their expertise and passion for their chosen subject area.

At SWHSMUN 2016, you will discuss the complex issues and discover the real world. I hope that you can indeed enjoy the moments spent on MUN and cherish every chance to communicate with other delegates or stuff in SWHSMUN 2016. Personally, I consider MUN as not only an academic stimulation but also a combination of speech making, debate gaining, social skills strengthening, knowledge broadening, and most importantly, friend making. Teenagers gather together to make their own voice about the society. I can’t really think of a more passionate incident.

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The year 2016 will be one in which the global community continues to debate some of the major issues that the world faces today. The conference will bring some of these current issues to the forefront, including the refugee crisis, international terrorism, global epidemic disease, conflict in the Southern Asia and an evaluation of the Millennium Development goals. The dais of each committee have done very comprehensive research on the corresponding topic area and composed the invaluable background guide. But it’s still crucial for you to supplement the information based on your further research.

I hope you can get involved into the conference. And once you do so, you are involved into the world at the same time. That’s the exact magic of Model UN.

On behalf of Southwest High School MUN 2016, I welcome you to our conference!

Sincerely, Kexin LeeSecretary-General Southwest High School Model United Nations 2016

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LETTER FROM THE DIRECTOR Dear delegates,

It is my great pleasure to welcome you to the 1st session of Southwest High School Model United Nations China as the director of the United Nations World Health Organization. My name is Wu yueqiao and also you can call me Heinare. I am a current senior three student in Chongqing Foreign Language School AP program. I am an authentic Chongqing person and I grew up in Chongqing. I spent my junior high and high school all in Chongqing Foreign Language School.

My whole passion for MUN started in my 10th grade when I first joined the competition in USA as a delegate in the United Nations Development Programme. But I truly expect to be the director of World Health Organization. These two topics that I chose can represent the cosmopolitan aspects of World Health Organization.These two topics contain multiple elements in different areas, such as ecomical, political and agricultural area. I am really excited to see how you approach to solve these problems.

Outside of UN, I love to do various kinds of things. I dance jazz, play tennis and obsess with music . I especially love to go adventure and to discover whole new things and of course traveling is in my favorite lists. In schools, I joined a lot of academic and social activities and I really love how I present myself. Besides these activities, I enjoy reading some interesting articles and news, especially romance novels.

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I am extremely honored to your director this time and i want to see a conference which is full of innovative ideas and collaborated actions. I will see you in this hot city Chongqing and you will meet some passionate and enthusiastic people here too.

Sincerely

Yueqiao Wu

Director, World Health Organization

[email protected]

Southwest High School Model United Nations

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History of the committee

A worldwide UN global health organization was established in 1945. Three years later, the efforts came into reality. On 7 April 1948-- a date we now celebrate year as World Health Day. With its huge entity, more than 7000 people from more than 150 countries work for the organization in over 150 WHO country offices, 6 regional offices, at the Global Service Centre in Malaysia and at the headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. As The First World Health Assembly, members met together in 1948 established the priorities for the organization：Malaria, tuberculosis, venereal diseases, maternal, child health, sanitary engineering, and nutrition were all in the agendas. World Health Organization was involved in wide variety diseases prevention and control efforts including mass campaigns against yaws, endemic syphilis, leprosy and trachoma.

Nowadays, the World Health Organization has grown to 194 member states and two associate members. They met every year at the World Health Assembly in Geneva to set policy for the Organization, approve the Organization’s budget, and every five years, to appoint the Director- General. Their work is supported by the 34- member Executive Board, which is elected by the Health Assembly. Six regional committees focus on health matters of a regional nature. WHO’s funding comes from two main sources: assessed contributions from member states and voluntary contributions from members

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and others. Assessed contribution came to about $850,000,000 for 2002-03; voluntary contributions for the same period totaled over $1,380,000,000.

As the refresh of data and publications for specific measures, focuses for the WHO are changing through time. Previously recorded, WHO mainly put its several focuses on the prediction of endemic diseases, trend and inclination of the diseases and also the eradication of disease. Recent years have been changed into special care for the children less than eighteen years old children, care towards the adolescences for which the children are most likely been attacked by the infectious diseases.

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Topic area A: Solution and prevention to the abruption of World Infectious Diseases

Brief introduction

Global infectious diseases has always been an intractable issue that perplexed scholars and specialists for a long time. The rapid outburst of new form of diseases and refresh of the situation were hard to predict and control.

Statement of the problem

Threat to Individuals

At a fundamental level, infectious diseases give out a threat to the health of individuals. Infectious diseases are responsible for 16.2 percent of deaths annually, making them the second leading cause of death in the world today.13 even when not fatal, infectious diseases will post huge and imaginable effects on individuals. Some infectious diseases, such as Lyme or polio, can cause lasting disabilities that hinder an individual’s ability to function as a productive and self-sufficient member of society. The medical costs and time associated with infectious disease can also prove detrimental to individuals even if full recovery is achieved. Victims of infectious disease may find themselves unemployed, indebted, or impoverished due to lost work time and expensive medical treatments. For example, victims of tuberculosis lose an average of 3-4 months of work time annually, translating to a 20-30 percent decrease in earnings.

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Threat to Society

Besides impacting individuals, infectious diseases often have extensive impacts on society. Epidemics, pandemics and high rates of non epidemic/pandemic infectious diseases can contribute to social, economic, and political instability. Infectious diseases destabilize societies by instilling fear of contracting illnesses from other people and creating a general sense of unrest. Economic impacts are more tangible, with infectious diseases contributing to lost productivity and impeding global economic activities (i.e. trade and tourism) in the event of an epidemic or pandemic. Incidences of infectious disease can also discourage foreign investment in a country, leading to slowed development. Political instability often arises from the social and economic insecurity caused by infectious diseases and can impede efforts to combat the spread or treatment of these diseases.

Globalisation

Globalisation, the flow of information, goods, capital and people across political and geographic boundaries, has helped spread some of the deadliest infectious diseases known to humans. The spread of diseases across wide geographic scales has increased through history. Early diseases that spread from Asia to Europe were bubonic plague, influenza of various types, and similar infectious disease. In the current era of globalisation, the world is more interdependent than at any other time. Efficient and inexpensive transportation has left few places

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inaccessible, and increased global trade in agricultural products has brought more and more people into contact with animal diseases that have subsequently jumped species barriers (see zoonosis).

Globalization intensified during the Age of Exploration, but trading routes had long been established between Asia and Europe, along which diseases were also transmitted. An increase in travel has helped spread diseases to natives of lands who had not previously been exposed. When a native population is infected with a new disease, where they have not developed antibodies through generations of previous exposure, the new disease tends to run rampant within the population.

Challenges and currently causes

Globally, the challenges of the infectious diseases have never been bated and even worse. In the world, every three seconds a young child dies - in most cases from an infectious disease. In some countries, one in five children die before their fifth birthday. Every day 3, 000 people die from malaria - three out of four of them children. Every year 1.5 million people die from tuberculosis and another eight million are newly infected" (World Health Organization, 1999). Diarrheal diseases, HIV/AIDS, malaria, measles, pneumonia and tuberculosis cause 90% of infectious disease deaths. Much of the burden is borne by developing countries especially those areas with poor sanitation and unsafe drinking water. Table 1 shows this burden as a percentage borne by developing countries for three selected diseases (WHO, 2002a).

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Around the globe, international health organizations, individual countries, private enterprises, non-governmental organizations, and many others are actively engaged in addressing these public health issues (WHO, 2002b). Additionally, other steps to address factors impacting health and the spread of infectious diseases, such as poverty, literacy, environmental status and hunger, are being taken under the framework of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (United Nations, 2005). This topic’s articles move us forward in assisting with these efforts through expansion of our knowledge and provision of useful tools for our work.

Factors contributing to the emergence of new infectious diseases are categorized into 13 distinct but related areas. Infectious diseases include hemorrhagic fevers, monkey pox, transmissible spongiform encephalopathy, severe acute respiratory syndrome, West Nile virus, and avian influenza. Lately underscores the need, before the next pandemic strikes, for health professionals to become educated about potential diseases, their diagnosis and treatment, and infection control procedures for preventing the spread of infection. Multi-sector collaboration—finance, behavioral health, media, rapid exchange of scientific information—will be essential in dealing with pandemics. Two broad areas cited for further development are ethical and social issues.

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Circumstantial Challenges

Natural Disaster

Infectious disease outbursts are common in the aftermath of natural disasters, such as hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, and landslides. Population displacement has been identified as the chief cause of the spread of infectious disease following natural disasters. Various factors, including the existing prevalence of communicable diseases, living conditions of the affected population, access to safe water and sanitation, existent nutritional and immunization status of the population, and availability of healthcare greatly influence the risk of disease spread in the event of displacement. Many epidemics following natural disasters, flooding in particular, involve diseases such as cholera and E. Coli that are spread through contaminated drinking water. Other epidemics can be attributed to more crowded living conditions, which can increase the risk of transmission for diseases such as measles, meningitis, and acute respiratory infection. Interruption of healthcare services and growth of a vector population (eg. increased breeding grounds for mosquitoes following flooding) can also increase the risk of communicable disease following a natural disaster.18 It is important to note that these risk factors are most likely to influence the spread of infectious diseases in already disadvantaged nations in the event of a natural disaster.

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Conflict

Conflict has been implicated in the spread of infectious disease throughout history. Like natural disasters, armed conflicts can increase the risk of infectious disease spread through mass displacement, decreased access to clean water and sanitation, and a breakdown of medical services. Even conflicts that cause movement within local communities, rather than mass displacement can increase the risk of disease transmission. In general, conflicts impede prevention and control measures for infectious disease through the erosion of public services. Outbreaks of disease that go on to have an international impact often originate in conflict zones. Lack of control measures in these areas can also influence the emergence of new, previously eradicated, or treatment resistant disease, and impede the eradication of diseases such as polio.

Effects of globalization on infectious diseases

Modern modes of transportation allow more people and products to travel around the world at a faster pace; they also open the airways to the transcontinental movement of infectious disease vectors. One example is the West Nile Virus. It is believed that this disease reached the United States via “mosquitoes that crossed the ocean by riding in airplane wheel wells and arrived in New York City in 1999.” With the use of air travel, people are able to go to foreign lands, contract a disease and not have any symptoms of illness until after they get home, and having exposed others to the disease along the way.

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As medicine has progressed, many vaccines and cures have been developed for some of the worst diseases (plague, syphilis, typhus, cholera, malaria) which people suffer. But, because the evolution of disease organisms is very rapid, even with vaccines, there is difficulty providing full immunity to many diseases. Finding vaccines at all for some diseases remains extremely difficult. Without vaccines, the global world remains vulnerable to infectious diseases.

Evolution of disease presents a major threat in modern times. For example, the current "swine flu" or H1N1 virus is a new strain of an old form of flu, known for centuries as Asian flu based on its origin on that continent. From 1918–1920, a post-World War I global influenza epidemic killed an estimated 50–100 million people. H1N1 is a virus that has evolved from and partially combined with portions of avian, swine, and human flu.

Globalization has increased the spread of infectious diseases from countries to countries, but also the risk of non-communicable diseases by transmission of culture and behavior from. It is important to target and reduce the spread of infectious diseases in developing countries. However, addressing the risk factors of non-comunicable diseases and lifestyle risks in that cause disease, such as use or consumption of tobacco, alcohol, and unhealthy foods, is important as well.

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Category of the diseases

Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) that most often affect the lungs. Tuberculosis is curable and preventable. TB is spread from person to person through the air. When people with lung TB cough, sneeze or spit, they propel the TB germs into the air. A person needs to inhale only a few of these germs to become infected. About one-third of the world's population has latent TB, which means people have been infected by TB bacteria but are not (yet) ill with the disease and cannot transmit the disease. People infected with TB bacteria have a 10% lifetime risk of falling ill with TB.

Current situation:

Tuberculosis (TB) is a top infectious disease killer worldwide. In 2014, 9.6 million people fell ill with TB and 1.5 million died from the disease. Over 95% of TB deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries, and it is among the top 5 causes of death for women aged 15 to 44.In 2014, an estimated 1 million children became ill with TB and 140 000 children died of TB. Globally in 2014, an estimated 480 000 people developed multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB). The Millennium Development Goal target of halting and reversing the TB epidemic by 2015 has been met globally. TB incidence has fallen by an average of 1.5% per year since 2000 and is now 18% lower than the level of 2000.An estimated 43 million lives were saved through TB diagnosis and treatment between

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2000 and 2014. Ending the TB epidemic by 2030 is among the health targets of the newly adopted Sustainable Development Goals.

Global impact:

TB occurs in every part of the world. In 2014, the largest number of new TB cases occurred in the South-East Asia and Western Pacific Regions, accounting for 58% of new cases globally. However, Africa carried the most severe burden, with 281 cases per 100,000 population in 2014 In 2014, about 80% of reported TB cases occurred in 22 countries. The 6 countries that stand out as having the largest number of incident cases in 2014 were India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Pakistan, People’s Republic of China and South Africa. Some countries are experiencing a major decline in cases, while in others the numbers are dropping very slowly. Brazil and China for example, are among the 22 countries with a sustained decline in TB cases over the past 20 years.

HIV/AIDS

HIV and AIDS are among the newest and deadliest diseases. According to the World Health Organization, it is unknown where the HIV virus originated, but it appeared to move from animals to humans. It may have been isolated within many groups throughout the world. It is believed that HIV arose from another, less harmful virus that mutated and became more virulent. The first two AIDS/HIV cases were detected in 1981. As of 2013, an estimated 1.3 million persons in the United States were living with HIV or AIDS, almost 110,000 in the UK and

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an estimated 35 million people worldwide are living with HIV”.

Current situation

HIV continues to be a major global public health issue, having claimed more than 34 million lives so far. In 2014, 1.2 (980 000–1.6 million) million people died from HIV-related causes globally. There were approximately 36.9 (34.3–41.4) million people living with HIV at the end of 2014 with 2.0 (1.9–2.2) million people becoming newly infected with HIV in 2014 globally. Sub-Saharan Africa is the most affected region, with 25.8 (24.0–28.7) million people living with HIV in 2014. Also sub-Saharan Africa accounts for almost 70% of the global total of new HIV infections.HIV infection is often diagnosed through rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs), which detect the presence or absence of HIV antibodies. Most often these tests provide same day test results; essential for same day diagnosis and early treatment and care. There is no cure for HIV infection. However, effective antiretroviral (ARV) drugs can control the virus and help prevent transmission so that people with HIV, and those at substantial risk, can enjoy healthy and productive lives. It is estimated that currently only 53% of people with HIV know their status. In 2014, approximately 150 million children and adults in 129 low- and middle-income countries received HIV testing services. By mid-2015, 15.8 million people living with HIV were receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) globally. Between 2000 and 2015, new HIV infections have fallen by 35%, AIDS-related deaths have fallen by 24% with some 7.8 million lives saved as a result of international

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efforts that led the global achievement of the HIV targets of the Millennium Development Goals.

Expanding ART to all people living with HIV and expanding prevention choices can help avert 21 million AIDS-related deaths and 28 million new infections by 2030.

Global impact

According to this picture, we could know how harsh and severe the situation of HIV/AIDS in the world now and in the future. All the scientists and specialists are always endeavor to find the better treatment and solutions for the diseases.

Measles

Measles is a highly contagious airborne virus spread by contact with infected oral and nasal fluids. When a person with measles coughs or sneezes, he releases microscopic particles into the air. During the 4–12 day incubation period, an infected individual shows no symptoms, but as the disease progresses, the following symptoms appear: runny nose, cough, red eyes, extremely high fever and a rash.

Measles is an endemic disease, meaning that it has been continually present in a community, and many people developed resistance. In populations that have not been exposed to measles, exposure to the new disease can be devastating. In 1529, a measles outbreak in Cuba killed two-thirds of the natives who had previously survived

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smallpox. Two years later measles was responsible for the deaths of half the indigenous population of Honduras, and ravaged Mexico, Central America, and the Inca civilization.

Current situation

Measles was very prevalent throughout the world, as it is highly contagious. According to the National Immunization Program, 90% of people were infected with measles by age 15, acquiring immunity to further outbreaks. Until a vaccine was developed in 1963, measles was considered to be deadlier than smallpox. Vaccination reduced the number of reported occurrences by 98%. Major epidemics have predominantly occurred in unvaccinated populations, particularly among nonwhite Hispanic and African American children under 5 years old. In 2000 a group of experts determined that measles was no longer endemic in the United States. The majority of cases that occur are among immigrants from other countries.

Malaria

On Nov. 6, 1880 Alphonse Laveran discovered that malaria (then called "Marsh Fever") was a protozoan parasite, and that mosquitoes carry and transmit malaria.Malaria is a protozoan infectious disease that is generally transmitted to humans by mosquitoes between dusk and dawn. The European variety, known as "vivax" after the Plasmodium vivax parasite, causes a relatively mild, yet chronically aggravating disease. The West African variety is caused by the sporozoan parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, and results in a severely debilitating and deadly disease.

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Current situation

In spite of all the horrifying data, recently people have made a huge step towards the Malaria. 15 January 2016 – Rapid scale up of malaria vector control interventions, especially with the use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs), has contributed significantly to the reduction of malaria cases and deaths in the past 15 years. However, growing resistance to pyrethroid insecticides in malaria vectors could jeopardize these gains. These new recommendations focus on the potential use of LLINs treated with a pyrethroid insecticide and piperonyl butoxide, and on the need to gather more evidence on conditions and settings where they have increased efficacy compared to pyrethroid-only LLINs. These recommendations will be revised periodically, on the basis of emerging evidence.9 January 2016 – WHO, the Foundation for Innovative New Diagnostics (FIND) and the United States Centers for Disease Control have released the latest report in a series of laboratory-based evaluations of rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) for malaria. Published in conjunction with a summary overview of results of rounds 1–6, the report provides a comparative measure of RDT performance in a standardized way to distinguish between well and poorly performing tests.

Ebola Virus Disease

Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever, is a severe, often fatal illness in humans. The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission.The average EVD case

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fatality rate is around 50%. Case fatality rates have varied from 25% to 90% in past outbreaks.

Current Situation

The first EVD outbreaks occurred in remote villages in Central Africa, near tropical rainforests, but the most recent outbreak in West Africa has involved major urban as well as rural areas.Community engagement is key to successfully controlling outbreaks. Good outbreak control relies on applying a package of interventions, namely case management, surveillance and contact tracing, a good laboratory service, safe burials and social mobilisation. Early supportive care with rehydration, symptomatic treatment improves survival. There is as yet no licensed treatment proven to neutralise the virus but a range of blood, immunological and drug therapies are under development. There are currently no licensed Ebola vaccines but 2 potential candidates are undergoing evaluation. Today 22 January 2016, there are over 10 000 survivors of Ebola virus disease. A number of medical problems have been reported in survivors, including mental health issues. Ebola virus may persist in some body fluids, including semen. Ebola survivors need comprehensive support for the medical and psychosocial challenges they face and also to minimize the risk of continued Ebola virus transmission. WHO has developed this document to guide health services on how to provide quality care to survivors of Ebola virus disease.

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Relevant UN Actions

Since the adoption of its charter, which set lofty goals for eradicating tuberculosis and malaria, the World Health Organization has been a leader in the battle against infectious diseases. Although it is active in preventing and mitigating disease outbreaks, it plays a more important role in research, education, surveillance and communication, statistical analysis, ethical consideration and institutional development in regards to infectious diseases. The World Health Organization is a driving force behind infectious disease research initiatives that probe important topics such as the impact of globalization on disease epidemiology and the increased threat of vector borne diseases such as malaria due to climate change. Research is carried out by various World Health Organization Programs, such as the Special Program for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR), that channel funding from other UN agencies, governments, and nongovernmental organizations. Putting research to use, the World Health Organization provides usable information to the governments, medical professionals and the general public in areas affected by infectious diseases. For example, in response to the recent Ebola outbreak, the World Health Organization has issued publications on better practices for drawing blood and advice for travelers in an attempt to prevent disease spread. Other educational efforts provide information about malaria prevention and reducing antimicrobial resistance. The World Health Organization’s involvement in disease surveillance and communication is

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also evident in its publications which provide up-to-date information about disease outbreaks, fatalities, geographic prevalence, re-emergence, and treatment resistance, among other topics. This information is essential for alerting communities to evolving disease threats, allowing for timely action to prevent or treat disease. Analysis of information gathered from surveillance efforts informs research initiatives by identifying trends with unknown or poorly understood causes and allows the World Health Organization to evaluate the success of disease mitigation efforts. The World Health Organization is also instrumental in strengthening institutional capabilities for addressing specific diseases. Region specific programs provide guidelines for strengthening medical, communications, and surveillance infrastructure in ways which are economically, socially, and technically viable (For example, the Integrated Disease Surveillance (IDS) Programme in Africa provides technical support for improving disease surveillance and has issued publications such as a Guide for Establishing Laboratory Based Surveillance for Antimicrobial Resistance. Over all of these activities, the World Health Organization maintains a vital role in addressing infectious disease-related ethical questions. Recently, it considered the risks and benefits of using experimental Ebola drugs. It has also challenged the disproportionately small amount of funding allocated to infectious disease research, among other important issues. The World Health Organization plays a vital role in infectious disease control. An understanding of its varied activities will enable resolutions which World Health Organization take full advantage of the organization’s global influence and capabilities.

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Questions a Resolution Must Concern

• What methods can be used to combat the emergence and spread of treatment resistant pathogens or the re-emergence of previously eliminated/controlled diseases?

• Which emergency response mechanisms are best able to mitigate the spread of disease in the event of a natural or manmade disaster? How can these mechanisms be more efficiently deployed?

• What elements should be included in comprehensive plans for preventing or addressing epidemics and pandemics?

• How can societies address the economic, social, and political impacts of infectious diseases?

• What are possible ways for enhancing the effectiveness of infectious disease control and treatment capabilities in underdeveloped nations?

• What role, if any, should the World Health Organization play in providing financial or knowledge based resources for addressing infectious diseases in the future?

Bloc position

Recent years, with the excessive use of natural resources and the wild spread of all trendy influential infectious diseases, people’s daily life were threatened by the infectious diseases. The whole WHO’s aim is to find the solution and to prevent much more bursts of new formed diseases.

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And the six most important geographic regions are Africa, Region of the Americas, Europe, Eastern Mediterranean, and Western Pacific. Disease burdens vary from one region to another, based on socioeconomic and climatic differences, justifying de-centralized efforts to control infectious disease. However, as global climate change and other factors influence the spread of disease to new regions, these geographic categories may become less relevant. Disease burden may become more homogenous throughout the world. Besides these general classifications, nations may find common ground in similar healthcare systems and socioeconomic advantages and disadvantages. When conducting research on this topic, identify other countries who have similar characteristics in these areas. For this topic in particular, however, bloc positions are less important than collaboration. Most nations are willing to provide and accept help in combating infectious diseases. The more important issue is how to actually mitigate disease.

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Topic area B: The control over the illegal trade on the illicit drugs and medications

Brief introduction

Drug trafficking is a global illicit trade involving the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of substances which are subject to drug prohibition laws. UNODC is continuously monitoring and researching global illicit drug markets in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of their dynamics. Drug trafficking is a key part of this research. Further information can be found in the yearly World Drug Report.

Statement of the problem

Drug Trafficking refers to the production, selling, transportation, and illegal import of unlawful controlled substances (Alcohol, Tobacco, and illicit drugs, 2008). Trafficked drugs are dated back to the early 19th century where drugs, were and still is being produced in thousands of countries around the world. Many popular drugs that are being used today were produced and used back then also, but mostly only for medical reasons. Many of the restricted drugs today were once completely legal, including marijuana, cocaine, heroin, LSD also known as acid, opium and methamphetamine just to name a few. The United States law enforcement has been working very diligently to reduce the imported drugs that are being distributed throughout the neighborhoods of this country.

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Among all the traffic in and out of the U.S. here are the most common drugs that traffickers conceal: cocaine, heroin, marijuana, ecstasy and Methamphetamine (US Drug Enforcement Agency, 2004). According to the National Drug Control in the year 2000, drug abuse cost American society an estimated 160 billion dollars. Drug abuse and prevention programs are America’s most costly social problems including child abuse, domestic violence, chronic mental illnesses, and rapid spread of HIV/AIDS, homelessness, drug treatment cost and hospitalization for long-term drug-related illnesses/diseases. Criminal justice laws would likely increase as well if drugs are legalized. According to the U.S. Department of Justice, six times as many homicides are committed by people under the influence of drugs as by those who are looking for money to buy drugs. And the problems can be huge. First, people are lack of law awareness so that many people consider trading illegal drugs as a way to earn money. Second, the officials and staffs are all lack of specific actions and orders to solve the problem. Last, we need more strict and specific compacts.

History of the problem

Chinese edicts against opium smoking were made in 1729, 1796 and 1800. Addictive drugs were prohibited in the west in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the early 19th century, an illegal drug trade in China emerged. The Chinese government retaliated by enforcing a ban on the import of opium that led to the First Opium War (1839–1842) between the United

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Kingdom and Qing dynastyChina. Chinese authorities had banned opium, but the United Kingdom forced China to allow British merchants to trade opium. Trading in opium was lucrative, and smoking opium had become common in the 19th Century, so British merchants increased trade with the Chinese. As a result of this illegal trade, by 1838 the number of Chinese opium addicts had grown to between four and twelve million. The Second Opium War broke out in 1856, with the British joined this time by the French. After the two opium wars, the British Crown, via the treaties of Nanking and Tianjin, took large sums of money from the Chinese government through this illegal trade, which were referred to as "reparations”. In 1868, as a result of the increased use of opium, the UK restricted the sale of opium in Britain by implementing the 1868 Pharmacy Act. In the United States, control of opium was a state responsibility until the introduction of the Harrison Act in 1914, following the passing of the International Opium Convention in 1912.Between 1920 and 1933, alcohol was banned in the United States. This law was considered to have been very difficult to enforce and resulted in the growth of many criminal organizations, including the modern American Mafia.The Australian Crime Commission's illicit drug data report for 2011–2012 was released in Western Sydney on 20 May 2013, and revealed that the seizures of illegal substances in Australia during the reporting period were the largest in a decade, due to record interceptions

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of amphetamines, cocaine and steroids.The beginning of the 21st century saw a drug use increase in North America and Europe, with a particularly increased demand for marijuana and cocaine. As a result, international organized crime syndicates such as the Sinaloa Cartel and 'Ndrangheta have increased cooperation among each other in order to facilitate trans-Atlantic drug trafficking. Another illicit drug with increased demand in Europe is hashish, which is generally smuggled from Morocco to Spain, where it is later exported to its final markets (mostly France and Western Europe). The UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND), the chief drug policymaking body of the United Nations, held its annual meeting in Vienna, Austria in mid-March 2014, following a period of historic drug policy reforms throughout the world—such as the decision of the Uruguay government to become the first national jurisdiction in the world to legalize cannabis. The International Drug Policy Consortium stated in the lead-up to the meeting that "[t]he meeting itself is likely to feature standoffs between reform-oriented countries and governments that favour failed criminal justice models, which have resulted in mass incarceration and rampant human rights abuses such as the death penalty for non-violent drug offences." The support of drug policy reform by Joanne Csete, deputy director of the Open Society Global Drug Policy Program, was also published in the consortium's media release that “[t]here will be no

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shortage of governments that seek to bury their heads in the sand and pretend these drug policy reforms aren’t happening. But try as they might, the movement for drug law reform is unstoppable.”

Current situation

At current levels, world heroin consumption (340 tons)

and seizures represent an annual flow of 430-450 tons of

heroin into the global heroin market. Of that total, opium

from Myanmar and the Lao People's Democratic Republic

yields some 50 tons, while the rest, some 380 tons of

heroin and morphine, is produced exclusively from

Afghan opium. While approximately 5 tons are consumed

and seized in Afghanistan, the remaining bulk of 375 tons

is trafficked worldwide via routes flowing into and

through the countries neighbouring Afghanistan.The

Balkan and northern routes are the main heroin trafficking

corridors linking Afghanistan to the huge markets of the

Russian Federation and Western Europe. The Balkan route

traverses the Islamic Republic of Iran (often via Pakistan),

Turkey, Greece and Bulgaria across South-East Europe to

the Western European market, with an annual market

value of some $20 billion. The northern route runs mainly

through Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan (or Uzbekistan or �32


Turkmenistan) to Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation.

The size of that market is estimated to total $13 billion per

year.

Global heroin flows from Asian points of origin Source: UNODC World Drug Report 2010

In 2008, global heroin seizures reached a record level of

73.7 metric tons. Most of the heroin was seized in the

Near and Middle East and South-West Asia (39 per cent

of the global total), South-East Europe (24 per cent) and

Western and Central Europe (10 per cent). The global

increase in heroin seizures over the period 2006-2008 was

driven mainly by continued burgeoning seizures in the

Islamic Republic of Iran and Turkey. In 2008, those two

countries accounted for more than half of global heroin

seizures and registered, for the third consecutive year, the

highest and second highest seizures worldwide,

respectively.

In 2007 and 2008, cocaine was used by some 16 to 17

million people worldwide, similar to the number of global

opiate users. North America accounted for more than 40

per cent of global cocaine consumption (the total was

estimated at around 470 tons), while the 27 European �33


Union and four European Free Trade Association

countries accounted for more than a quarter of total

consumption. These two regions account for more than 80

per cent of the total value of the global cocaine market,

which was estimated at $88 billion in 2008.

For the North American market, cocaine is typically

transported from Colombia to Mexico or Central America

by sea and then onwards by land to the United States and

Canada. Cocaine is trafficked to Europe mostly by sea,

often in container shipments. Colombia remains the main

source of the cocaine found in Europe, but direct

shipments from Peru and the Plurinational State of Bolivia

are far more common than in the United States market.

Main global cocaine flows, 2008 Source: UNODC World Drug Report 2010

Following a significant increase over the period

2002-2005, global cocaine seizure totals have recently

followed a stable trend, amounting to 712 tons in 2007

and 711 tons in 2008. Seizures continued to be

concentrated in the Americas and Europe. However, the

transition from 2007 to 2008 brought about a geographical

shift in seizures towards the source countries for cocaine. �34


Seizures in South America accounted for 59 per cent of

the global total for 2008, compared with 45 per cent in

2007.

Regional situation

Central Asia Afghanistan has dominated the worldwide opium market

for more than a decade. In 2009, the total quantity of

opium produced in that country was 6,900 metric tons,

accounting for 90 per cent of global supply. Afghan heroin

feeds a global market worth some $55 billion annually,

and most of the profits of the trade are made outside

Afghanistan. Afghanistan and its neighbors are affected

by trafficking as the drugs are moved to their key

destination markets of Western Europe and the Russian

Federation. About a third of the heroin produced in

Afghanistan is transported to Europe via the Balkan route,

while a quarter is trafficked north to Central Asia and the

Russian Federation along the northern route. Afghan

heroin is also increasingly meeting a rapidly growing

share of Asian demand. Approximately 15-20 metric tons

are estimated to be trafficked to China, while a further 35

metric tons are trafficked to other South and South-East �35


Asian countries. Some 35 metric tons are thought to be

shipped to Africa, while the remainder supplies markets in

other parts of Asia, North America and Oceania.

East Asia and Pacific

The 2009-2014 Regional Programme for East Asia and the Pacific covers UNODC work in the region in the 34 countries and territories across East Asia. The Regional Programme supports two broad thematic areas - Rule of Law (illicit trafficking, governance, and criminal justice issues), and Health and Development, comprising drug demand reduction, HIV/AIDS, and sustainable livelihood issues. The integrated approach of the Regional Programme encompasses UNODC's responses to illicit trafficking in the region, including drug trafficking.

Drug trafficking, among other drug-related issues, has grown in recent years, a trend which will continue in the absence of resources needed for UNODC to help Governments in the region give priority to finding effective interventions. In a region experiencing economic expansion, law enforcement authorities, in spite of improved cross-border coordination and cooperation, have generally lagged behind organized criminal groups that relentlessly traffic drugs, such as amphetamine type stimulants (ATS) across borders in the region. UNODC has used its Global Synthetics Monitoring: Analysis, Reporting and Trends (SMART) Programme to work with Governments to develop assess and report data and information on synthetic drugs, enabling countries to plan prevention and effective law enforcement responses.

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The Regional Programme therefore calls attention to increasing institutional capability for law enforcement agencies both within and across borders in order to better respond to transnational drug trafficking and other crimes through capacity building of institutional actors, promoting cooperation and aligning domestic legislation with international instruments

Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean Many of these countries are transit countries for cocaine

bound for the main consumer markets in North America

and Europe. For the North American market, cocaine is

typically transported from Colombia to Mexico or Central

America by sea and then onwards by land to the United

States and Canada. The US authorities estimate that close

to 90% of the cocaine entering the country crosses the US/

Mexico land border, most of it entering the state of Texas.

According to US estimates, some 70% of the cocaine

leaves Colombia via the Pacific.

Colombia remains the main source of the cocaine found in Europe, but direct shipments from Peru and the Plurinational State of Bolivia are far more common than in the US market. The relative importance of Colombia seems to be in decline. For example, in 2002, the UK authorities reported that 90% of the cocaine seized originated in Colombia, but by 2008, the figure fell to

�37


65%. In a number of other European countries, Peru and the Plurinational State of Bolivia seem to be the primary source countries of cocaine Middle East and North Africa

The Near and Middle East has reported high levels of amphetamine seizures in recent years. Reports of amphetamine seizures from countries in the Middle East continue to refer predominantly to tablets bearing the Captagon logo. The nature of the psychoactive ingredients in such tablets is not always clear, but reports suggest that amphetamine trafficked from South-East Europe is the main ingredient in Captagon tablets found in the consumer markets of the Middle East (notably Saudi Arabia), frequently alongside caffeine. Laboratories may also exist in countries along this route, possibly carrying out the conversion into tablet form. Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey and the Syrian Arab Republic serve as important transit points. Moreover, Turkey is a prominent transit country for heroin. In North Africa, large seizures of cannabis herb are reported from Morocco.

IlIegal trade in specific drugs

Cannabis

Four ounces of cannabis

While the recreational use of (and consequently the distribution of) cannabis is illegal in most countries throughout the world, it is available by prescription or recommendation in many places, including Canada and some US states, with Washington state and Colorado

�38


being the two first states to legalize marijuana for recreational use, although importation and distribution is prohibited at the federal level. Beginning in 2014, Uruguay will be the first country to legalize cultivation, sale, and consumption of cannabis for recreational use for adult residents.

Cannabis use is tolerated in some areas, most notably the Netherlands which has legalized the possession and licensed sale (but not cultivation) of the drug. Many nations have decriminalized the possession of small amounts of marijuana. Due to the hardy nature of the cannabis plant, marijuana is grown all across the world and is today the world's most popular illegal drug with the highest level of availability. Cannabis is grown legally in many countries for industrial, non-drug use (known as hemp) as well. Cannabis-hemp may also be planted for other non-drug domestic purposes, such as seasoning that occurs in Aceh.

The demand for cannabis around the world, coupled with the drug's relative ease of cultivation, makes the illicit cannabis trade one of the primary ways in which organized criminal groups finance many of their activities. In Mexico, for example, the illicit trafficking of cannabis is thought to constitute the majority of many of the cartels' earnings, and the main way in which the cartels finance

�39


many other illegal activities; including the purchase of other illegal drugs for trafficking, and for acquiring weapons that are ultimately used to commit murders (causing a burgeoning in the homicide rates of many areas of the world, but particularly Latin America).

Alcohol

Alcohol, in the context of alcoholic beverages rather than denatured alcohol, is illegal in a number of countries, such as Saudi Arabia, and this has resulted in a thriving illegal trade in alcohol. The manufacture, sale, transportation, importation and exportation of alcoholic beverage were illegal in the United States during the time known as the Prohibition in the 1920s and early 1930s.

Heroin

A field of opium poppies in Burma

Heroin woven into a hand-made carpet seized at Manchester Airport, 2012

Up until around 2004 the majority of the world's heroin was produced in an area known as the Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia). However, by 2007, 93% of the opiates on the world market originated in Afghanistan. This amounted to an export value of about US$64 billion, with a quarter being earned by opium farmers and the rest

�40


going to district officials, insurgents, warlords and drug traffickers. Another significant area where poppy fields are grown for the manufacture of heroin is Mexico.

According to the United States Drug Enforcement Administration, the price of heroin is typically valued 8 to 10 times that of cocaine on American streets, making it a high-profit substance for smugglers and dealers. In Europe (except the transit countries Portugal and the Netherlands), for example, a purported gram of street heroin, usually consisting of 700–800 mg of a light to dark brown powder containing 5-10% heroin base, costs €30-70, making the effective value per gram of pure heroin €300-700. Heroin is generally a preferred product for smuggling and distribution—over unrefined opium due to the cost-effectiveness and increased efficacy of heroin.

Because of the high cost per volume, heroin is easily smuggled. A US quarter-sized (2.5 cm) cylindrical vial can contain hundreds of doses. From the 1930s to the early 1970s, the so-called French Connection supplied the majority of US demand. Allegedly, during the Vietnam War, drug lords such as Ike Atkinson used to smuggle hundreds of kilos of heroin to the US in coffins of dead American soldiers (see Cadaver Connection). Since that time it has become more difficult for drugs to be imported into the US than it had been in previous decades, but that

�41


does not stop the heroin smugglers from getting their product across US borders. Purity levels vary greatly by region with Northeastern cities having the most pure heroin in the United States.

Penalties for smuggling heroin or morphine are often harsh in most countries. Some countries will readily hand down a death sentence (e.g. Singapore) or life in prison for the illegal smuggling of heroin or morphine, which are both internationally Schedule I drugs under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.

Caffeine

Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class. It is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug, but — unlike many other psychoactive substances — it is legal and unregulated in nearly all parts of the world. There are several known mechanisms of action to explain the effects of caffeine. The most prominent is that it reversibly blocks the action of adenosine on its receptor and consequently prevents the onset of drowsiness induced by adenosine. Caffeine also stimulates certain portions of the autonomic nervous system.

Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline purine, a methylxanthine alkaloid, and is closely related chemically to the adenine and guanine contained

�42


in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). It is found in the seeds, nuts, or leaves of a number of plants native to South America and East Asia and confers on them several survival and reproductive benefits. The most well known source of caffeine is the coffee bean, a misnomer for the seed of Coffea plants. Beverages containing caffeine are ingested to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve performance. To make these beverages, caffeine is extracted by steeping the plant product in water, a process called infusion. Caffeine-containing beverages, such as coffee, tea, and colas, are very popular; in 2005, 90% of North American adults consumed caffeine daily.

Caffeine can have both positive and negative health effects. It can be used to treat bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity, and to prevent apnea of prematurity: caffeine citrate was placed on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines in 2007. It may confer a modest protective effect against some diseases, including Parkinson's disease and certain types of cancer. One meta-analysis concluded that cardiovascular disease such as coronary artery disease and stroke is less likely with 3–5 cups of non-decaffeinated coffee per day but more likely with over 5 cups per day. Some people experience insomnia or sleep disruption if they consume caffeine, especially during the

�43


evening hours, but others show little disturbance. Evidence of a risk during pregnancy is equivocal; some authorities recommend that pregnant women limit consumption to the equivalent of two cups of coffee per day or less. Caffeine can produce a mild form of drug dependence – associated with withdrawal symptoms such as sleepiness, headache, and irritability – when an individual stops using caffeine after repeated daily intake. Tolerance to the autonomic effects of increased blood pressure and heart rate, and increased urine output, develops with chronic use (i.e., these symptoms become less pronounced or do not occur following consistent use).Caffeine is classified by the Food and Drug Administration as "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS). Toxic doses, over 10 grams per day for an adult, are much higher than typical dose of less than 500 milligrams per day. A cup of coffee contains 80–175 mg of caffeine, depending on what "bean" (seed) is used and how it is prepared (e.g. drip, percolation, or espresso). Thus it requires roughly 50–100 ordinary cups of coffee to reach a lethal dose. However pure powdered caffeine, which is available as a dietary supplement, can be lethal in tablespoon-sized amounts.

�44


International drug trade

Drugs have played an important medicinal role in human society, and “harmless” drugs such as caffeine are widely and legally used in all parts of the globe. The international trade in drugs has a long history; imperial Britain, for example, shaped the 19th-century opium trade by selling Indian-produced opium to China in exchange for tea and silk, and fought “Opium Wars” to defend its right to do so. In the early 20th century, the United States, Britain and other countries began to change their position on drug use, although, as the history of prohibition shows, their concept and acceptance of “dangerous” drugs was not identical to our own.

By the 1970s and 1980s, the international drug trade had taken on many of the key features we recognize today, the most notable of which are its pervasiveness and its scale. According to a United Nations survey, the worldwide dollar value of illegal drugs is second only to the amount spent on the arms trade. Estimating the value of an illegal enterprise carried on in dozens of currencies around the world is tremendously difficult, but the United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention generally describes the production, trafficking and sales of illicit drugs as a $400-billion-a-year industry.Some of these drugs are produced and consumed domestically, but much of the drug trade takes place between states. Unlike the international trade in arms, however, which largely flows

�45


from developed nations that produce arms to less developed nations that use arms, the international drug trade has traditionally flowed from developing to developed nations. At the risk of oversimplification, cocaine production has dominated in Central and South America, while heroin has dominated in both Southeast and Southwest Asia.

Relevant UN Actions

In 1991, the UN International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP) was established to coordinate UN drug control activities and to serve as the focal point for the UN Decade against Drug Abuse (1991-2000). The UNDCP subsequently continued its activities, expanded the scope of its efforts and increased the number of projects it oversees. While international cooperation has traditionally focused on enforcement, some move toward complementary action has taken place. In March 1993, delegates at the 36th session of the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs adopted a resolution calling on governments to give priority to preventing drug abuse and to treating and reintegrating drug abusers in society. This new focus on reducing demand was seen by many countries as a complement to the traditional focus on enforcement, and as an important part of a balanced strategy to combat drug abuse.The UNDCP’s budget is now about US$160 million a year – slightly less than in the late 1990s – and a substantive portion of that budget goes towards reducing the supply of drugs through alternative development. Apart from the general decline in regular budget resources that is affecting all parts of the UN, 90% of the UNDCP’s funds come from voluntary

�46


contributions by seven governments and the European Union. This raises questions about both the nature of future expertise and the international “ownership” of the UNDCP.

Position Paper Requirement

Each delegation is required to submit two position papers, each covering one of the topic areas. Please send it to [email protected] by the time of Feb. 13th. Each position paper should be one and a half pages, single-spaced, twelve-point Times New Roman font (approximately 750 words). Your names, country name, school, and topic area should be in the upper right hand corner. The paper should be outlined in three paragraphs. The first two paragraphs should make up about half of the paper; the third and final paragraph should make up the remainder, and bulk, of your paper. These paragraphs are in a logical procession, and each paragraph should build analytically on the last. The first paragraph should consist of your country’s experience or particular connection to the topic. For instance, how has your country been affected by recent climate changes and infectious diseases? Is your nation in a particularly vulnerable position going forward, or surrounded by vulnerable countries? The second paragraph should discuss your nation’s policy on the issues, as supported by relevant national documents. This differs from the first paragraph because it should also include a short description of agreements, statements, and lessons learned from your history and choices in the past. You should also discuss your current diplomatic arrangements with relevant

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mailto:[email protected]


nations in this paragraph. Research for this paragraph could include speeches given by heads of state or ambassadors, or national studies and policy statements. The third, final, and most important paragraph is your country’s plan going forward. Given your history and your policy going forward, what does your country believe is the best course of action to pursue? This should be a unique mixture of international work and your country’s personal past and experiences. For example, given risk factors and past experiences, what is the most logical and effective way to address disease risks? What priorities does your country assign to different matters, and why? These length guidelines are meant to focus your research in the places that will be most productive for committee debate. Understanding your country, however, is important for creating a plan to undertake on an international level, and I highly encourage you to conduct your investigations and learning with vigor and curiosity. Please cite all your sources with endnotes. And of course absolutely do not hesitate to contact me with questions.

Closing remark Dear delegates, I wish all the information presented in this guide will give you a basic but fundamental foundation on both topics and hopefully the guide can lead you to a right direction. Both two topics are the crucial issues that are been heatedly discussed in all fields and are tightly connected with people's daily life. With time, the refresh news of these two topics can be abundant. I hope all the delegates really dig yourself into the internet to find all kinds of researches as much as you can. By the time we met in February, there must be some novel issues

�48


associated with Infectious Diseases and Illegal Drug Trade. Somehow these new issues may change or help us to reevaluate all the resolutions that existed before, so I encourage all the fellow delegates to go beyond your own countries' position and endeavor to truly understand how these topics relate to the human population as a whole.

Distinguished delegates, I believe that through your own researching, you will find your own ways to the solutions of both topics. Because self-researching is so rewarding as I did in my previous competitions. Be aware that these two topics are not easy. These are not simple or straightforward topics. The more work and research you do, the more possibility will you have to deeply go through the complexities of topics. And this may help to react or sparkle with other delegate. So be ready to show your own brilliant performances in the upcoming conference.

While writing your position papers or preparing for the conference, do not hesitate to ask me any questions. I can be contacted at [email protected] and I will try to reply your inquiries as quickly as I can. Thank you in advance for all of your hard work and I look forward to seeing you in February.

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mailto:[email protected]


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