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Sorghum and Millets Diseases

Edited by

John F. Leslie

Iowa State Press A Blackwell Publishing Company

Preface

In your hands you hold the global sorghum and millet pathology community’s decennial (more or less) summary of diseases and work in progress. It is not a summary of all of the work that has ever been done with sorghum and millet pathology, nor is it a guide to disease identification. Instead, it is a considered summary of the current critical problems and an evaluation of the Community’s progress since its previous meeting in Harare, Zimbabwe in 1988. It is the third of these efforts, and both the meetings and the books that have resulted from them have been important in defining the research agenda for these crops in the succeeding ten-year interval. The contents of this volume are based primarily on contributions to the Third Global Conference on Sorghum and Millet Dis- eases in Guanajuato, Mexico in September 2000. Indeed, all but one of the invited talks and all but one of the working group reports are represented here in some form. I also solicited some additional chapters that were not based on any of the presentations to help round out the volume, and I have included as many contributions as possible from African scientists who were unable to at- tend the meeting due to their inability to obtain visas for travel from the Mexican government.

This volume is somewhat different from its predecessors in that it is not being published by ICRISAT but, instead, by Iowa State Press, with the goal of expanding the readership beyond the immediate sorghum and millet research community. It also is different in that there is only a single editor, and that this editor is not Dick Frederiksen (Fig. P-I), although perhaps it should have been. Dick has been a dominant figure in this field for the last 30-40 years, and a major organizer of what have become nearly institutional meetings. His contacts and efforts in organizing sessions, dispersing participants into effective working groups, and cajoling contributors until they find time to finish a chapter or to strengthen a presentation should be neither underestimated nor underval- ued. He has been a good friend and colleague, and as he goes to “fossilize” (his words not mine) in retirement, we can all but wish him the best. The meeting in Guanajuato was his last formal contribution to the sorghum and millet research community, but for those who know him, there undoubtedly remains more to come.

The chapters in this book have all been reviewed by at least one person, and authors have had an opportunity to make revisions in response to these comments. Al- though I have read each chapter at least four times, the important points raised by other reviewers have made

FIGURE P-1. Richard A. Frederiksen.

this volume much better than it could have been were one person alone responsible for editing its content. I greatly appreciate the help these colleagues have provided and the advice they have given both to me and to the authors of the various chapters. Persons who reviewed at least one chapter (and some did far more) include: Ranajit Bandyopadhyay, Larry E. Claflin, Thomas Crawford, Jeff Dahlberg, Walter A. J. de Milliano, Richard A. Fred- eriksen, Liane R. Gale, Laura M. Giorda, Dale E. Hess, Clint W. Magill, Peter G. Mantle, Walter F. 0. Marasas, Neal W. McLaren, Gary N. Odvody, Rodomiro Ortiz, Sylvia Pabutova, John P. Rheeder, Malcolm J. Ryley, Claude P. Seletrinikoff, Ram P. Thakur, Paul W. Tooley, Jeff Wilson, and John Yohe.

In addition to the reviewers, I owe thanks to the In- ternational Sorghum and Millet Collaborative Research Support Program (INTSORMIL) for its funding of my research on fungal diseases of sorghum and millet, to the Australian-American Fulbright Association, the Royal

1

Botanic Garden-Sydney, and St. Paul’s College of the University of Sydney for their funding and for hosting me while on sabbatical when much of the editing of this book was completed, and to my wife, Ingelin, for sharing my time with all of these manuscripts. I also thank the corresponding authors of all of the chapters, who have been (generally) prompt and efficient in their revisions and gracious in helping me as I learn about systems and methodologies that are not those that I use in my own research.

Looking forward to the successor meeting (and volume) to this one, the meeting’s global geographic rota-

tion should take us to Asia or Australia around 2010. If this volume wears as well as does its predecessor, which is cited numerous times in this volume, and is still of relevance in 2010, then the work required to assemble it will have been time and effort well spent.

John F. Leslie Kansas State University

Manhattan, Kansas, USA November 2002

Addresses of Contributors

A. A. ABBASHER Abu Haraz College University of Gezira Wad Medani, Sudan

IBRAHIM D. K. ATOKPLE Savanna Agricultural Res. Institute P. 0. Box 52 Tamale, Ghana

A. G. T. BABIKER Agricultural Research Corporation P. 0. Box 126 Wad Medani, Sudan

DAVID BACKHOUSE University of New England Armidale, New South Wales 2350 Australia

CHARLES W. BACON Toxicology & Mycotoxin Res. Unit

Russell Agricultural Res. Center Athens, Georgia, 30613, USA

USDA-ARS

RANAJIT BANDYOPADHYAY International Inst. for Trop. Agric. '% L. W. Lamboum & Co. Carolyn House, 26 Dingwall Road Croydon CR9 3EE United Kingdom

F. P. BEJOSANO Cereal Quality Laboratory Dept. of Soil & Crop Sciences Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77843-2474 USA

J. BENADE Grain Crops Institute Agricultural Research Council Private Bag X1251 2520 Potchefstroom, South Africa

SHAMSUL A. BHUIYAN Australian Quarantine & Inspection

Brisbane Airport, Queensland 4007 Australia

Service

MEGAN BLAKE Fusarium Research Laboratory Department of Crop Sciences University of Sydney Sydney, New South Wales 2006 Australia

AMAURI BOGO Biochemistry Department Imperial College of Science,

Technology & Medicine London SW7 2AY United Kingdom

KHAZAN S. BOORA Dept. of Biotechnology &

Molecular Biology CCS Haryana Agricultural Univ. Hisar 125 004, India

P. BOORA Department of Foods & Nutrition CCS Haryana Agricultural Univ. Hisar 125 004, India

ANDREW BORRELL Queensland Dept. of Primary

Agency for Food and Fibre Sci.-

Hermitage Res. Station, MS 407 Warwick, Queensland 4370 Australia

Industries.

Farming Systems

LETICIA BRAVO-LUNA Centro de Desarrollo de Productos

Instituto Politknico Nacional Apartado Postal 24 Yautepec, Morelos 62730, Mexico

Bi6ticos

WENDY A. BREESE Centre for Arid Zone Studies University of Wales Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW United Kingdom

LESTER W. BURGESS Fusarium Research Laboratory Department of Crop Sciences University of Sydney Sydney, New South Wales 2006 Australia

DAVID R. BUTLER Cocoa Research Unit University of West Indies St. Augustine Trinidad and Tobago

ELIZABETH CARDENAS-SORIANO IFIT Colegio de Postgraduados 56230 Montecillo, Texcoco M6xico

CARLOS R. CASELA EMBRAPNCNPMS Caixa Postal 15 1 3570 1-970 Sete Lagoas, MG Brazil

HOWARD. H. CASPER Dept. of Veterin. & Microbiol. Sci. North Dakota State University Fargo, North Dakota, USA

SUKUMAR CHAKRABORTY CRC for Tropical Plant Protection University of Queensland St. Lucia, Queensland 4072 Australia

A. CHANDRASHEKAR Central Food Technol. Res. Inst. Mysore 570 013, India

iii

LARRY E. CLAFLIN Department of Plant Pathology Throckmorton Plant Sci. Center Kansas State University Manhattan, Kansas 66506-5502 USA

S. DELROY COLLINS Dept. of Soil & Crop Sciences Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77843-2474 USA

MELANIE COLVILLE Fusarium Research Laboratory Department of Crop Sciences University of Sydney Sydney, New South Wales 2006 Australia

LUIS R. CONCI INTA IFFIVE Camino 60 Cuadras, Corboba 5000, Argentina

MARK S. CONDON American Seed Trade Association 225 Reinekers Lane, Suite 650 Alexandria, Virginia 223 14-2875 USA

JEFFERY A. DAHLBERG National Grain Sorghum Producers P. 0. Box 5309 Lubbock, Texas 79408, USA

J. L. DE LA GARZA Univ. Aut6noma de Nuevo Leon Facultad de Agronomia Subdireccibn de Estudios de

Carreterra Zuazua-Marin km 17 Marin, Nuevo LeQ, Mexico

Postgrado

WALTER A. J. DE MILLIANO Hoeve Dierkensteen Bakkersstraat 62 NL-4501 RB Oostburg The Netherlands

EIGIL DE NEERGAARD Department of Plant Biology Royal Veterinary & Agric. Univ. Thorvaldsensvej 40 DK- 187 1 Frederiksberg C Copenhagen, Denmark

KATRIEN M. DEVOS John Innes Centre Norwich Research Park Colney, Norwich NR4 7UH United Kingdom

C. DIARRA Institut d’Economie Rurale (IER) B. P. 262 Bamako, Mali

MAMOUROU DIOURTB Institut d’Economie Rurale (IER) B. P. 262 Bamako, Mali

GEBISA EJETA Department of Agronomy Lilly Hall of Life Sciences Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-1 150 USA

A. E. M. ELZEIN Inst. for Plant Prod. & Agroecol. in

the Tropics & Subtropics University of Hohenheim (380) D-70593 Stuttgart, Germany

KIRSTEN ENGELL Botanical Institute University of Copenhagen Gothersgade 140 DK- 1 123 Copenhagen K Denmark

J. PETER ESELE Serere Agricultural & Animal

P. 0. Soroti Soroti, Uganda

Production Res. Inst.

M. G. FEDORISHCHENKO Inst. of Agroengin. Problems of

Black Sea State Agroengin. Acad. Zernograd, Rostov reg., Russia

ALEXANDRE S. FERREIRA EmbrapdCNPMS Caixa Postal 15 1 35701-970 Sete Lagoas, MG Brazil

Azov

HILDA E. FLORES-MOCTEZUMA Centro de Desarrollo de Productos

Instituto Politenico Nacional Apartado Postal 24 Yautepec, Morelos 62730, Mexico

Bi6ticos

DEBRA E. FREDERICKSON ICRISAT Matopos Research Station P. 0. Box 776 Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

RICHARD A. FREDERIKSEN 8248 Raintree Dr., NE Albuquerque, NM 87122, USA

KARJNA FRUTERO CEPROCOR Cordoba 5000, Argentina

LIANE ROSEWICH GALE USDA-ARS Cereal Dis. Lab. University of Minnesota 155 1 Lindig Street St. Paul, Minnesota 55 108-6052 USA

NORA E. GARC~A Univ. Aut6noma de Nuevo Leon Facultad de Agronomia Subdirecch de Estudios de

Carreterra Zuazua-Marin km 17 Marin, Nuevo Le6n, MBxico

Postgrado

ROGER N. GATES USDA-ARS Crop Genetics &

Breeding Res. Unit Coastal Plain Experiment Station University of Georgia Tifton, Georgia 31793, USA

GREG GIBLET Lollybroch, RMB 583 Goonoo Goonoo Road Tamworth, New South Wales 2340 Australia

LAURA M. GIORDA Department of Plant Pathology INTAEEA Manfredi Manfredi Ruta Nac. no. 9, Km 636 5988 Manfredi, Cordoba Argentina

iv

ANTHONY E. GLENN Toxicology & Mycotoxin Res. Unit


USDA-ARS

IAN D. GODWIN School of Land & Food Sciences The University of Queensland St. Lucia, Queensland 4072 Australia

FERNANDO B. GUIMARKES Dow Agrosciences Caixa Postal 47 14680-000 Jardinopolis, SP, Brazil

ANDY H. HALL ICRISAT Patancheru (AP) 502 324, India

C. TOM HASH ICRISAT Patancheru (AP) 502 234, India

NICHOLAS J. HAYDEN Natural Resources Institute University of Greenwich Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB United Kingdom

ROBERT G. HENZELL Queensland Dept. of Primary



Industries

Farming Systems

DAMIAN J. HERDE Queensland Dept. of Primary


P. 0. Box 102 Toowoomba, Queensland 4350 Australia

Industries

Farming Systems

MIGUEL HERNANDEZ-MARTINEZ INIFAP Apartado Postal 1 12 38010 Celaya, Guanajuato, MBxico

DALE E. HESS Department of Agronomy Lilly Hall of Life Sciences Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-1 150 USA

C. J. HOWARTH Inst. for Grassland & Environ. Res. Plas Gogerddan Aberystwyth, Dyfed SY23 3EB United Kingdom

NIPON IAMSUPASIT Thailand Biodiversity Center 539/2 Gypsum Metropolitan Tower,

Sri-Ayudhya Road Bangkok 10400, Thailand

SUNKARA INDIRA National Res. Center for Sorghum ICAR, Rajendranagar Hyderabad (AP) 500 030, India

1 51h Floor

E. V. IONOVA All Russia Res. Inst. for Sorghum

and Other Cereals (ARRISC) Science District 3 Zernograd, Rostov reg. 347740 Russia

TOM ISAKEIT Dept. of Plant Pathol. & Microbiol. Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77843-2132 USA

JAYARAJ JAYARAMAN Department of Biochemistry Chemistry-Biochemistry Building Kansas State University Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA

STAN G. JENSEN

Department of Plant Pathology University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebraska 68583, USA

USDA-ARS

JEOUNG-MEE JEOUNG

800 Buchanan Street, no. 2202 Albany, California 94710, USA

PGEC, USDA-ARS

MARC A. JOHNSON Dean of Agriculture Office Waters Hall Kansas State University Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA

DAVID R. JORDAN Queensland Dept. of Primary



Industries

Farming Systems

LISE BOLT JQRGENSEN Botanical Institute University of Copenhagen Gothersgade 140 DK- 1 123 Copenhagen K, Denmark

Z. JURJEVIC Department of Plant Pathology Coastal Plain Experiment Station University of Georgia Tifton, Georgia 31793, USA

ALIYA S. KASAKOVA All Russia Res. Inst. for Sorghum

and Other Cereals (ARRISC) Science District 3 Zernograd, Rostov Region 347740 Russia

SERIBA 0. KATIL~ Institut d’Economie Rurale (IER) Station de Cinzana B. P. 214 SBgou, Mali

R. R. KLEIN

College Station, Texas 77845, USA SPARC, USDA-ARS

ISSOUFOU A. KOLLO INRAN B. P. 240 Maradi, Niger

BIRTE KOMOLONG CRC Tropical Plant Protection University of Queensland St. Lucia, Queensland 4072 Australia

S. KRISHNAVENI Centre for Plant Molec. Biol. Department of Biochemistry Tamil Nadu Agricultural Univ. Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 64 I 003 India

J. KROSCHEL Inst. for Plant Product. & Agroecol.

in the Tropics & Subtropics University of Hohenheim (380) D-70593 Stuttgart, Germany

GRETCHEN A. KULDAU Department of Plant Pathology The Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania

16802, USA

HUNTER K. C. LAIDLAW School of Land and Food Sciences The University of Queensland St. Lucia, Queensland 4072 Australia

JILLIAN M. L E N N ~ ICRISAT Patancheru (AP) 502 234, India

JOHN F. LESLIE Department of Plant Pathology Throckmorton Plant Sci. Center Kansas State University Manhattan, Kansas 66506-5502 USA

VIBEKE LETH Danish Govern. Inst. of Seed Pathol.

Thorvaldsensvej 57 DK- 187 1 Frederiksberg C, Denmark

for Developing Countries

GEORGE H. LIANG Department of Agronomy Throckrnorton Plant Sci. Center Kansas State University Manhattan, Kansas 66506-5501 USA

E. I. LIPKOVICH All Russia Res. & Develop. Inst. for

Farm Mechanization & Electrification (ARRDIFME)

Zernograd, Rostov reg., Russia

CHRISTOPHER R. LITTLE Dept. of Plant Pathol. & Microbiol. Texas A & M University College Station, Texas 77843-2 132 USA

CLINT W. MAGILL Dept. of Plant Pathol. & Microbiol. Texas A & M University College Station, Texas 77843-2 132 USA

VISWANATHAN MAHALAKSHMI ICRISAT Patancheru (AP) 502 324, India

FELISTER W. MAKINI Kenya Agricultural Res. Institute Kisii Centre Kisii, Kenya

GINO MALAGUTI Natl. Center for Agronomic Res.

Faculty of Agronomy, UCV Maracay, Venezuela

ANACLET S. B. MANSUETUS Department of Biological Sciences University of Swaziland Private Bag Kwaluseni, Swaziland

(CENIAP-FONAIAP)

PETER G. MANTLE Biochemistry Department Imperial College of Science,

Technology & Medicine London SW7 2AY United Kingdom

WALTER F. 0. MARASAS PROMEC Medical Research Council P. 0. Box 19070 7505 Tygerberg, South Africa

PAUL S. MARLEY Institute for Agric. Res. (IAR) Ahmadu Bello University P.M.B. 1044 Zaria, Nigeria

MARIA J. MARTINEZ Department of Plant Pathology INTAEEA Manfredi Manfredi Ruta Nac. no. 9, Km 636 5988 Manfredi, Cordoba, Argentina

KUSUM MATHUR Department of Plant Pathology Maharana Pratap Univ. of Agric. &

RCA, Udaipur, Rajasthan 3 13 00 1 India

Technology

A. BRUCE MAUNDER National Grain Sorghum Producers P. 0. Box 5309 Lubbock, Texas 79408

JOSk LUIS MAYA-DE LE6N ITA Roque Apartado Postal 508 38500 Celaya, Guanajuato, Mdxico

DEMBA F. MBAYE ISRA/CRZ de Kolda B. P. 53 Kolda, Sdndgal

NEAL W. MCLAREN Grain Crops Institute Agricultural Research Council Private Bag X1251 2520 Potchefstroom, South Africa

P. J. MEHTA Dept. of Soil & Crop Sciences Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77843-2474 USA

IGNACIO M~NDEZ-RAM~REZ Inst. de Investigacibn en Math.

Aplicadas y en Sistemas Apartado Postal 0-76 100 Mdxico D.F., Mdxico

LEOPOLDO E. MENWZA-ONOFRE IREGEP, Colegio de Postgraduados 56230 Montecillo, Texcoco, Mdxico

NOE MONTES INIFAP Rio Bravo Experimental Station Apartado Postal 172 88900 Rio Bravo, Tarnaulipas Mdxico

vi

ROBERTO MONTES-BELMONT Centro de Desarrollo de Productos

Instituto Polittnico Nacional Apartado Postal 24 Yautepec, Morelos 62730, Mexico

Bibticos

JORGE L. MORAN Dept. of Soil & Crop Sciences Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77843-2474 USA

ESTER MTISI Plant Protection Research Institute Box CY 550 Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe

V. MUNIYAPPA Department of Plant Pathology College of Agriculture University of Agricultural Sci. GKVK Campus Bangalore, Kamataka 560 065 India

SUBBARATNAM MUTHUKRISHNAN Department of Biochemistry Chemistry-Biochemistry Building Kansas State University Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA

V. MUTHUSUBRAMANIAN 1111424 Chinna Bayalu Lane West Main Street Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu 6 13 009 India

JETTE DAHL M0LLER Botanical Institute University of Copenhagen Gothersgade 140 DK-1123 Copenhagen K Denmark

GNANAMBAL NAIDOO Dept. of Plant & Soil Science 368 Ag Hall Oklahoma State University Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, USA

Y. D. NARAYANA Department of Plant Pathology Univ. of Agricultural Sciences Agricultural Research Station Dharwad, Aland Road Gulbaraga, Karnataka 585 101 India

JESUS NARRO-SANCHEZ INIFAP-Campo Exper. Bajio Apartado Postal 1 12 38010 Celaya, Guanajuato, Mtxico

MIRTHA NASSETTA CEPROCOR Cordoba 5000, Argentina

RAUL NAVA-JUAREZ Centro de Desarrollo de Productos

Instituto Polittnico Nacional Apartado Postal 24 Yautepec, Morelos 62730, Mexico

Bibticos

SHRISHAIL S. NAVI ICRISAT Patanchew (AP) 502 324, India

ADAMA NEYA Institut de 1’Environnement et de

Station Farako-BEl B. P. 910 Bobo-Dioulasso 01, Burkina Faso

Recherches Agricoles (INERA)

ZACHEE NGOKO IRADMCBE, Bambuy Box 80 Bamenda, Cameroon

WILLIAM P. NORRED Toxicology & Mycotoxin Res. Unit

Russell Agricultural Res. Center Athens, Georgia, 306 13, USA

USDA-ARS

S. K. NUTSUGAH Savanna Agricultural Res. Institute P. 0. Box 52 Tamale, Ghana

GARY N. ODVODY Department of Plant Pathology Texas A&M University Texas Agric. Experiment Station 10345 Agnes Street Corpus Christi, Texas 78406-9704 USA

ALEXANDER A. OLEYNICK All Russia Res. Inst. for Sorghum &

Science District 3 Zernograd, Rostov Region 347740 Russia

Other Cereals (ARRISC)

NICHOLE R. O’NEILL USDA-ARS Soybean & Alfalfa

Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA Research Laboratory

RODOMIRO ORTIZ International Inst. for Trop. Agric. % L. W. Lambourn & Co. Carolyn House, 26 Dingwall Road Croydon CR9 3EE United Kingdom

EVELYN ORT~Z-PBREZ Univ. Autbnoma de Nuevo Ldon Facultad de Agronomia Subdireccibn de Estudios de

Carreterra Zuazua-Marin km 17 Marin, Nuevo Lebn, Mdxico

SEIGI OSADA-KAWASOE IFIT, Colegio de Postgraduados 56230 Montecillo, Texcoco, Mdxico

Postgrado

TIRSO PACHECO Hibridos Mejorados C.A.

(HIMECA) Magdaleno, Aragua, Venezuela

V. I. PAKHOMOV All Russia Res. & Develop. Inst. for

Farm Mechanization and Electrification (ARRDIFME)

Zernograd, Rostov reg., Russia

vii

CHARLES K. PALLAGHY Department of Botany LaTrobe University Bundoora, Victoria 3083 Australia

ROBERTO PAREDES-MELESIO INIFAP-Campo Exper. Bajio Apartado Postal 1 12 38500 Celaya, Guanjuato, Mexico

SYLVIE PAZOUTOVA Institute of Microbiology Czech Academy of Sciences Videhskh 1083 142 20 Prague 4, Czech Republic

BONNIE B. PENDLETON Division of Agriculture West Texas A&M University P. 0. Box 60998 Canyon, Texas 79016-0001, USA

DENIS M. PERSLEY Queensland Horticultural Institute Queensland Dept. of Primary


80 Meiers Road Indooroopilly, Queensland 4068 Australia

Industries

Farming Systems

RAMASAMY PERUMAL Tamil Nadu University Coimbatore, India

GARY c. PETERSON Texas A&M Univ. Agric. Res. &

Route 3, Box 219 Lubbock, Texas 79403-9803, USA

Extension Center

GARY L. PETERSON USDA-ARS Foreign Disease-Weed

Science Research Unit Building 130 1 , Fort Detrick Frederick, Maryland 2 1702-5023 USA

JAMES K. PORTER Toxicology & Mycotoxin Res. Unit


USDA-ARS

JUAN ANGEL QUIJANO-CARRANZA INIFAP-Campo Exper. Bajio Apartado Postal 112 38010 Celaya, Guanjuato, Mexico

K. N. RAI ICRISAT Patancheru (AP) 502 234, India

POWIRIO RAM~REZ-VALLEJO IREGEP, Colegio de Postgraduados 56230 Montecillo, Texcoco, Mexico

NANDURI K. RAo ICRISAT Patancheru (AP) 502 324, India

v. P. RAO ICRISAT Patancheru (AP) 502 324, India

BELUM V. S. REDDY ICRISAT Patancheru (AP) 502 324, India

JACOB REED Department of Agronomy Throckmorton Plant Sci. Center Kansas State University Manhattan, Kansas 66506-5501 USA

OSCAR R. RODRIGUEZ-BALLESTEROS Monsanto Sorghum Breeding 982 Highway 77 Bishop, Texas 78343, USA

R. RODRIGUEZ-HERRERA Fray Cristobal de Espinosa 208 Saltillo, Coahuila 2505 1 , Mexico

LLOYD W. ROONEY Cereal Quality Laboratory Dept. of Soil & Crop Sciences Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77843-2474 USA

WILLIAM L. ROONEY Dept. of Soil & Crop Sciences Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77843-2474 USA

DARRELL T. ROSENOW Texas A&M University Agric. Res.

& Extension Center Route 3, Box 219 Lubbock, Texas 79403-9757, USA

MALCOLM J. RYLEY Queensland Dept. of Primary


P. 0. Box 102 Toowoomba, Queensland 4350 Australia

Industries

Farming Systems

JEANETTA SAAYMAN Grain Crops Institute Agricultural Research Council Private Bag X1251 2520 Potchefstroom, South Africa

G. E. SALINAS Univ. Aut6noma de Nuevo Leon Facultad de Agronomia Subdirecci6n de Estudios de

Carreterra Zuazua-Marin km 17 Marin, Nuevo L e h , Mexico

Postgrado

FREDOLINO G. SANTOS EmbrapdCNPMS Caixa Postal 15 1 35701-970 Sete Lagoas, MG, Brazil

JOHN F. SCHEURING Knowledge Management Group Syngenta Corporation R1055.128 Basel 4002, Switzerland

N. SEETHARAMA ICRISAT Patancheru (AP) 502 234, India

P. SG&Mh Institut de I’Environnement et de

04 B. P. 8645 Ouagadougou 04, Burkina Faso

HAM C. SHARMA ICRISAT Patancheru (AP) 502 234, India


viii

VIRENDER SHEORAIN Seagram Manufacturing Limited 128/3 Telco Road Mohan Nagar, Chinchwad Pune, Maharashtra, India

H. S. SHETTY Dept. of Appl. Bot. & Seed Pathol. University of Mysore Mysore, Karnataka 570 006, India

M. MARIN SILVA INIFAP Rio Bravo Experimental Station Apartado Postal 172 Rio Bravo, Tamaulipas 88900 Mexico

A. SINDHU Dept. of Biotechnol. & Molec. Biol. CCS Haryana Agricultural Univ. Hisar 125004, India

S . D. SINGH ICRISAT Patancheru (AP) 502 234, India

S. SIVARAMAKRISHNAN Dept. of Agric. Biotechnology ANGRAU, Rajendranagar Hyderabad (AP) 500 030, India

JILIAN SMITH-WHITE Royal Botanic Gardens Mrs. Macquaries Road Sydney, New South Wales 2000 Australia

JAMES P. STACK South Central Res. & Extension

Center University of Nebraska P. 0. Box 66 Clay Center, Nebraska 68933, USA

BRETT SUMMERELL Royal Botanic Gardens Mrs. Macquaries Road Sydney, New South Wales 2000 Australia

M. A. TARANOV Azov Black Sea State

Agroengineering Academy Zemograd, Rostov reg., Russia

GEORGE L. TEETES Department of Entomology Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77843-2475 USA

TESFAYE T. TEFERRA Department of Agronomy Throckmorton Plant Sci. Center Kansas State University Manhattan, Kansas 66506-5501 USA

NIABA TEME Texas A&M University Agric. Res.

Route 3, Box 219 Lubbock, Texas 79403-9757, USA

& Extension Center

RAM P. THAKUR ICRISAT Patancheru (AP) 502 234, India

PAUL W. TOOLEY USDA-ARS Foreign Disease-Weed

Science Research Unit Building 1301, Fort Detrick Frederick, Maryland 2 1702-5023 USA

J. HERIBERTO TORRES-MONTALVO Hibridos Pioneer de Mexico S.A. de

Centro de Investigaci6n Maiz Km 1.6 al Poniente San Miguel

Tlajomulco de Zuiliga, Jalisco

cv

Cuyutlan

45660, Mexico

DOULAYE TRAORk Institut de I’Environnement et de

Programme Coton 01 B.P. 208 Bobo-Dioulasso 0 1, Burkina Faso


F. K. TSIGBEY Savanna Agricultural Res. Institute P. 0. Box 52 Tamale, Ghana

MITCHELL R. TUINSTRA Department of Agronomy Throckmorton Plant Sci. Center Kansas State University Manhattan, Kansas 66506-5501 USA

MARLENE VAN DER WALT Grain Crops Institute Agricultural Research Council Private Bag X1251 2520 Potchefstroom, South Africa

N. S . VASANTHI Dept. of Applied Bot. & Biotechnol. University of Mysore Mysore, Kamataka, India

RODOLFO VELASQUEZ-VALLE INIFAP-Campo Exper. Pabell6n Apartado Postal 20 20660 Pabellon de Art., Ags. MBxico

R. T. VENKATESHA Department of Pathology School of Dental Medicine University of Pennsylvania 4010 Locust Street Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19 104-

6002, USA

RALPH D. WANISKA Cereal Quality Laboratory Dept. of Soil & Crop Sciences Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77843-2474 USA

ELISABETH WESTER Department of Plant Biology Royal Veterinary & Agric. Univ. Thorvaldsensvej 40 DK-187 1 Frederiksberg C Copenhagen, Denmark

HECTOR WILLIAMS-ALANIS INIFAP Camp0 Experimental No Bravo Carretera Matamoros-Reynosa, km

Apartado Postal 172 88900 Rio Bravo, Tamaulipas MBxico

61

ix

DAVID M. WILSON Department of Plant Pathology Coastal Plain Experiment Station University of Georgia Tifton, Georgia 31793, USA

JEFFREY P. WILSON USDA-ARS Crop Genetics &

Breeding Research Unit Coastal Plain Experiment Station University of Georgia Tifton, Georgia 31793, USA

K. S. L. WILSON Natural Resources Institute University of Greenwich Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB United Kingdom

JOHN R. WITCOMBE Centre for Arid Zone Studies University of Wales Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW United Kingdom

CHARLES A. WOODFIN Texas A&M Univ. Agricultural Res.

& Extension Center Route 3, Box 219 Lubbock, Texas 79403-9757, USA

EMMA M. WRAY Toxicology & Mycotoxin Res. Unit


USDA-ARS

XIUDE Xu Plant Protection Research Institute Liaoning Acad. of Agric. Sci. No. 84 Dongling Road Shenyang City, Liaoning 110161 China

M. M. YANMA Russian Academy of Agric. Sci. Moscow, Russia

DAVID YATES Department of Botany University of Queensland St. Lucia, Queensland 4072 Australia

JOHN M. YOHE INTSORMIL Management Entity 113 Biochemistry Building University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0748 USA

FRANCISCO ZAVALA-GARC~A Univ. Aut6noma de Nuevo LBon Facultad de Agronomia Subdirecci6n de Estudios de

Carretera Zuazua-Marin km 17 Marin, Nuevo L e h , MBxico

JULIO ZYGADLO

Cordoba 5000, Argentina

Postgrado

FCEFyN-UNC


Edited by

John F. Leslie

Iowa State Press A Blackwell Publishing Company

John F. Leslie is a professor in the Department of Plant Pathology at Kansas State University, Manhattan. Much of the editing of this work was completed during a sabbatical at the University of Sydney (Sydney, Australia) and the Royal Botanic Gardens- Sydney as a Senior Fulbright Scholar under the sponsorship of the Australian-American Fulbright Commission.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Sorghum and millets diseasededited by John F. Leslie

Based on contributions to the Thud Global Conference on Sorghum and Millets Diseases in Guanajuato, Mexico September 2000.

.-lst ed. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8138-0389-6 ( a k . paper) 1 . Sorghum-Diseases and pests. 2. Millets-Diseases and pests. I. Leslie, John F., 1953-

SB608.S6 S67 2002 633.1’71934~21

2002 192228.

The last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Table of Contents

Preface ................................................................................................................................................................. .i Addresses of Contributors.. .............................................................................................................. . in

...

1. Transition From the Previous Millennium. ........................................................................... I

1.

2.

11.

3. 4. 5 .

6.

7.

8.

9. 10.

W. A. J. DE MILLIANO. Transition from the Second to the Third World Review of Sorghum and Millet Diseases.. .............................................................................................................................. .3 A. B. MAUNDER. Sorghum Worldwide .......................................................................................... ,11

Millet Biology and Diseases.. .............................................................................................. 19

J. P. ESELE. Diseases of Finger Millet-A Global Overview.. ................................................................. .2 1 C. T. HASH AND J. R. WITCOMBE. Gene Management and Breeding for Downy Mildew Resistance ..................... 27 D. E. HESS, R. P. THAKUR, C. T. HASH, P. SBRI?MB, AND C. W. MAGILL. Pearl Millet Downy Mildew: Prob-

S. K. NUTSUGAH, I. D. K. ATOKPLE, AND V. P. RAO. Identification of Resistance to Downy Mildew and Smut of Pearl Millet in Ghana. ..................................................................................................... 43 J. F. SCHEURING, S. 0. KATILB, AND I. A. KOLLO. Boosting Pearl Millet Yields with Apron Plus@ and Apron Star Seed Treatments.. ..................................................................................................... 47 R. P. THAKUR, C. W. MAGILL, S. SIVARAMAKRISHNAN, C. T. HASH, H. S. SHETTY, AND D. E. HESS. Variability in Sclerospora graminicola, the Pearl Millet Downy Mildew Pathogen.. ....................................... 5 1

R. P. THAKUR AND K. N. RAI. Pearl Millet Ergot Research: Advances and Implications.. ................................. 57 J. P. WILSON AND R. N. GATES. The Dynamic Multiline Population: An Alternative Approach to Durable Resistance?. .......................................................................................................................... .65

lems and Control Strategies for a New Millennium.. ............................................................................ 37

8

111. Sorghum Ergot ................................................................................................................. 71

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

G . N. ODVODY. Recommendations from the Ergot Working Group at the Third Global Conference on Sorghum and Millets Diseases.. .................................................................................................. ..73

S. S. NAVI. Distribution and Diversity of the Sorghum Sugary Disease Pathogens in India.. ............................ .75

Potential Sources of Initial Inoculum., ............................................................................................ 79

R. BANDYOPADHYAY, V. MUTHUSUBRAMANIAN, P. w. TOOLEY, s. CHAKRABORTY, s. PAZOUTOVA, AND

D. E. FREDERICKSON AND G . N. ODVODY. Survival of Inoculum of claviceps africana in Zimbabwe:

M. HERNANDEZ-MART~EZ, L. E. MENDOZA-ONOFRE, P. RAMfREZ-VALLEJO, s. OSADA-KAWASOE, E. CARDENAS-SORIANO, AND F. ZAVALA-GARCfA. Response of Sorghum B and R Lines to Ergot

B. KOMOLONG, S. CHAKRABORTY, M. J. RYLEY, AND D. YATES. Four Genotypes of chviceps spp. Cause

P. G. MANTLE AND A. BOGO. Biosynthesis of Bioactive Honeydew Oligosaccharides by Sorghum Ergot

N. W. MCLAREN. Genotype x Environment Effects on the Response of Sorghum to Ergot and

N. MONTES, G . N. ODVODY, AND M. M. SILVA. Effect of Cold Degree Units on Incidence of Claviceps

(Claviceps ufricanu) at Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico.. ........................................................................ ..83

Sorghum Ergot in Australia., ....................................................................................................... 87

Pathogens.. ........................................................................................................................... .9 1

Repercussions for Disease Screening., ............................................................................................ 95

ufricuna in Sorghum Hybrids,, ................................................................................................... 103 N. MONTES, G . N. ODVODY, AND H. WILLIAMS-ALANIS. Advances in CIaviceps africana Chemical Control ........ 105

20 . N . MONTES. G . N . ODVODY. AND H . WILLIAMS.ALANIS . Relationship Between Climatic Variables and

21 . J . L . MORAN, W . L . ROONEY. R . A . FREDERIKSEN, AND G . N . ODVODY . Differences in Ergot Vulnerability

22 . J . NARRO-SANCHEZ, R . PAREDES-MELESIO, J . A . QUIJANO-CARRANZA, R . VELASQUEZ-VALLE. AND J . L .

23 . G . N . ODVODY. D . E . FREDERICKSON, T . ISAKEIT. N . MONTES. J . A . DAHLBERG, AND G . L . PETERSON .

24 . G . N . ODVODY. N . MONTES, D . E . FREDERICKSON. AND J . NARRO-SANCHEZ . Detection of Sclerotia of

25 . E . ORT~Z-P~REZ, F . ZAVALA-GARCIA, J . L . DE LA GARZA, G . E . SALMAS, AND N . E . GARCIA . Factors Associated with Ergot Resistance in Sorghum ................................................................................... 131

26 . T . PACHECO . Ergot and Its Impact on Hybrid Sorghum Seed Production in Venezuela., ................................ 133

28 . M . J . RYLEY. D . J . HERDE. S . A . BHUIYAN. R . G . HENZELL, AND D . R . JORDAN . An Overview of the

Claviceps africana Incidence on Sorghum Hybrids in Northern Mexico ................................................... 111

Among Sorghum Genotypes and the Relationship Between Stigma Receptivity and Ergot Vulnerability ............. 113

MAYA-DE L E ~ N . Sorghum Ergot (Claviceps africana) in MCxico .......................................................... 121

Quarantine Issues Arising from Contamination of Seed with Ergot: An Update .........................

Claviceps africana in the Western Hemisphere ................................................................................. 129

27 . S . PATOUTOVA . The Genus Claviceps: Evolution at Work .................................................................... 135

Biology of Sorghum Ergot ......................................................................................................... 141 29 . P . W . TOOLEY AND N . R . O’NEILL . Intraspecific Variation in claviceps afiicana .......................................... 151

IV . Striga .............................................................................................................................. 157

30 . A . G . T . BABIKER . Striga Control in Sudan: An Integrated Approach ...................................................... 159 31 . D . E . HESS, J . KROSCHEL, D . TRAOf&, A . E . M . ELZEM, P . S . MARLEY, A . A . ABBASHER, AND C . DIARRA .

Striga: Biological Control Strategies for a New Millenium ................................................................... 165

V . Pathogen Variability ........................ ............................................................................. 171

32 . R . BANDYOPADHYAY, C . R . LITTLE, R . D . WANISKA. AND D . R . BUTLER . Sorghum Grain Mold: Through the 1990s into the New Millenium ........... .............................................................. 173

33 . L . E . CLAFLIN AND L . M . GIORDA . Stalk Rots of Sorghum ............................................................ 34 . L . R . GALE . A Population Genetic Approach to Variation in Colletotrichum graminicola, the Causal Agent

of Sorghum Anthracnose ........................................................................................................... 191 35 . J . F . LESLIE AND W . F . 0 . MARASAS . Will the Real “Fusarium moniliforme” Please Stand Up! ....................... 201 36 . K . MATHUR, R . P . THAKUR, A . NEYA, P . S . MARLEY. AND C . R . CASELA . Sorghum Anthracnose-Problem

and Management Strategies ........................................................................................................ 211 37 . G . NAIDOO AND J . H . TORRES-MONTALVO . Genetic Variability Among and Within Host-Specialized

Isolates of Sporisorium reilianum ................................................................................................ 221 38 . S . K . NUTSUGAH. V . LETH. I . D . K . ATOKPLE. AND F . K . TSIGBEY . Grain Mold Fungi from Sorghum in

Ghana ................................................................................................................................. 227 39 . J . K . PORTER, C . W . BACON, W . P . NORRED. E . M . WRAY. G . A . KULDAU. A . E . GLENN, AND J . F . LESLIE .

Mycotoxins from Fungal-Infected Sorghum: Claviceps. Fusarium. and the Striga Connection ......................... 229

VI . Molecular Biology. Genome Mapping. and Host Plant Resistance .................................... 237

40 . K . S . BOORA. A . SINDHU. P . BOOM. AND C . W . MAGILL . Identification of Molecular Markers for an Oval

41 . W . A . BREESE. C . T . HASH. K . M . DEVOS. AND C . J . HOWARTH . Pearl Millet Genomics and Breeding for

42 . C . W . MAGILL. R . A . FREDERIKSEN. K . BOORA. R . PERUMAL. AND S . SIVAMMAKRISHNAN . Molecular Tags

Leaf Spot Resistance Gene in Sorghum .......................................................................................... 239

Resistance to Downy Mildew ..................................................................................................... 243

for Disease Resistance Genes in Sorghum: Improved Prospects for Mapping .............................................. 247

VII. Sorghum Breeding and Disease Physiology ............................................................... .. 253

43. K. ENGELL, L. B. JBRGENSEN, J. D. MBLLER, E. DENEERGAARD, AND E. WESTER. Developmental Stages of ............... 255

44. I. A. KOLLO. Plant-Parasitic Nematodes of Sorghum and Pearl Millet: Emphasis on Africa .................................. 259 45. N. W. MCLAREN, J. SAAYMAN, J. BENADE, AND M. VAN DER WALT. Evaluation of Reduced Sorghum Seed

Germination.. ............................... 267 46. 0. R. RODRIGUEZ-BALLESTEROS, A. S. B. MANSUETUS, R. A. FREDERIKSEN, G. N. ODVODY, R. D.

WANISKA, AND D. T. ROSENOW. Free and Bound Phenolic Acids in Mature Sorghum Caryopses as

47. W. L. ROONEY, S. D. COLLINS, R. R. KLEIN, P. J. MEHTA, R. A. FREDERIKSEN, AND R. RODRIGUEZ- HERRERA. Breeding Sorghum for Resistance to Anthracnose, Grain Mold, Downy Mildew, and Head Smuts ........................................................................................................................................ 273

48. M. R. TUINSTRA, T. T. TEFERRA, L. E. CLAFLM, R. G. HENZELL, A. BORRELL, N. SEETHARAMA, G. EJETA, AND D. T. ROSENOW. Breeding for Resistance to Root and Stalk Rots in Sorghum ................................................... 281

J. JAYARAMAN, S. MUTHUKRISHNAN, AND G. H. LIANG. Antifungal Proteins and Other Mechanisms in the

Sorghum Caryopses, with Emphasis on the Aleurone Transfer Cell and Placental Sac

.................................................................................

Affected by Inoculation with Fusarium thapsinum .................................................................................................. 269

49. R. D. WANISKA, R. T. VENKATESHA, A. CHANDRASHEKAR, S. KRISHNAVENI, F. P. BEJOSANO, J. JEOUNG,

Control of Sorghum Stalk Rot and Grain Mold ..................................................................................................

VIII. Technology and Approaches to Disease Management.. ......................................................... 299

50. L. W. BURGESS, B. A. SUMMERELL, G. GIBLEIT, D. BACKHOUSE, M. L. BLAKE, J. SMITH-WHITE, AND

M. COLVILLE. Role of Sorghum in the Overseasoning of Gibberella zea 51. J. A. DAHLBERG. Rapid Information Dissemination on the World Wide

53. V. MAHALAKSHMI, B. V. S. REDDY, R. BANDYOPADHYAY, H. C. SHARMA, N. K. RAO, AND R. ORTIZ.

54. R. D. WANISKA A N D L. W. ROONEY. Sorghum Grain Quality for Increased Utilization

52. J. M. LENNE A N D R. ORTIZ. Agrobiodiversity in Pest Management .............

Sorghum On-Line Crop Information ........................................................................................................ 321 ..................... 327

IX. Collaboration and Its Implementation .. .......................................................................... 337

55. M. S. CONDON A N D J. A. DAHLBERG. Public-Private Partnerships in International Agricultural Research:

56. R. A. FREDERIKSEN AND J. M. YOHE. Changing Paradigms in the Design and Implementation of Collab-

57. M. A. JOHNSON. Private Sector and Public Institution Interactions on Sorghum and Pearl Millet Disease

58. R. ORTIZ. Examples of IC

59. G. C. PETERSON, B. B. PENDLETON, AND G. L. TEETES. PROFIT-Productive Rotations On Farms In Texas ............. 365

A Case for Promoting Technology Transfer and Enhancing Global Trade in Sorghum and Millet ......................... 339

orative Research ............................................................................. ........ 343

Management.. ........................ .....................................................................................

Improvement ..................... ............................................................ 351 esearch and Development Partnerships in Sorghum a

X. Country and Regional Disease Reports ................................................... 60. L. M. GIORDA. Recommendations from the Working Group for the Americas at t

ence on Sorghum and Millets Diseases ....................................... 61. D. E. HESS. Recommendations from the African Working Group at the Third Global Conference on Sor-

ghum and Millets Diseases .................................................................................................... 62. S. INDIRA. Recommendations from the Working Group for AsiaIAustralia at the Third Global Conference

on Sorghum and Millets Diseases

63. C. R. CASELA, A. S. FERREIRA, F.

371

373

375

.............................................................................................. 377

379 . B. GUIMARAES. Sorghum Diseases in Brazil

64. J. P. ESELE. Sorghum and Pearl Millet Diseases in the Horn of Africa 65. L. M. GIORDA. Sorghum Diseases in Argentina ......

Diseases of Sorghum and Pearl Millet in Asia .........

.............................. .. 383

............................................................................ 389

............................................................................. 393 66. S. INDIRA, X. XU, N. IAMSUPASIT, H. S. SHETTY, N. S. VASANTHI, S. D. SINtiII, ANDR. BANDYOPADHYAY.

67. S. G. JENSEN A N D L. M. GIORDA. Vii-us Diseases of Sorghum and Millet in the Americas and Australia

68. A. S. KASAKOVA A N D A. A. OLEYNICK. The Status of Sorghum Diseases in Russia ..............................

70. P. S. MARLEY, M. DIOURTE, A. NEYA, S. K. NUTSUGAH, P. SEREME, S. 0. KATlI.i, D. E. HESS, MBAYE, A N D Z. NGOKO. Sorghum and Pearl Millet Diseases in West and Central Africa .....................

71. E. MTISI AND N. W. MCLAREN. Diseases of Sorghum and Pearl Millet in Some Southern African Countries .......... ............ ............................................................................. 427

72. Y . D. NARAYANA, R. BANDYOPADHYAY, S. S. NAVI, AND V. MUNIYAPPA. Sorghum Viruses in Asia and Africa ........................................................................................................................................................................ 43 1

73. M. J. RYLEY, D. M. PERSLEY, D. R. JORDAN, AND R. G. HENZELL. Status of Sorghum and Pearl Millet Dis- eases in Australia ....................................................................................................................................................... 441

74. J. P. STACK. Recurring and Emerging Sorghum Diseases in North America .......................................................... 449 457

76. J. P. WILSON. Diseases of Pearl Millet in the Americas .......................................................................................... 465

69. G. MALAGUTI. Current Status of Sorghum Diseases in Venezuela .............................................................

75. H. WILLIAMS-ALANIS. Sorghum and Millet Diseases in Mexico ........................ ...........

XI. Abstracts ..... .................................................... 471

Stored Pearl Millet Grain ..................... ........ ..... ,473 77. Z. JURIEVIC, D. M. WILSON, H. H. CASPER, AND J. P. WILSON. Fungal Contaminants and Mycotoxins on

78. A. S. KASAKOVA, E. V. IONOVA, V. I. PAKHOMOV, E. I. LIPKOVICH, M. M. YANINA, M. A. TARANOV, AND

M. G. FEDORISHCHENKO. A Physiological Approach to Resistance Breeding for Control of Seed Rot and Seedling Diseases of Grain Sorghum ........................................................................................................................ 473

79. H. K. C. LAIDLAW, D. M. PERSLEY, C. K. PALLAGHY, AND I. D. GODWIN. Development of Durable Johnsongrass Mosaic Virus (JGMV) Resistance in Sorghum via a Transgenic Approach ............

80. F. W. MAKINI A N D N. J. HAYDEN. Farmer Participatory Studies on Finger Millet in Western Kenya .................... 474

81. M. J. MARTINEZ, L. R. CONCI, AND L. M. GIORDA. Differentiation of Fusnrirrm verticillioides and Fusariurn prolferrrtum Isolates Causing Sorghum Grain Mold by Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA

82. M. J. MARTINEZ, L. M. GIORDA, M. NASSETTA, K. FRUTERO, AND J. ZYGADLO. Phytoalexin Synthesis by Sorghum Grain in Response to Grain Mold ... ..................................................................................................... 474

83. R. MONTES-BELMONT, L. BRAVO, E. H. FLORES, I. MENDEZ, AND R. NAVA. Effect of Sorghum Sowing Dates on Grain Mold Development in Morelos State, Mexico ................................................................................. 475

84. 2. NGOKO. Present Status of Sorghum Pathology in Cameroon .............................................................................. 475

85. J. REED, M. TUINSI’RA, A N D L. E. CLAFLIN. Identification of Host Plant Resistance to Ergot in Sorghum ...... 86. D. T. ROSENOW, N. TEME, C. A. WOODFIN, G. N. ODVODY, AND G. C. PETERSON. Relationship of Stay

Green to Charcoal Rot and Lodging in Sorghum ................. ............................................................................. 475 87. V. SHEORAIN A N D A. H. HALL. The Importance of Public-Private Sector Partnerships to Indian Sorghum

Farmers ..................................................................................................................................................................... 476 88. T. TEFERRA, M. TUINSTRA, AND L. E. CLAFLIN. Resistance to Fusarium Stalk Rot in Grain Sorghum .................. 476 89. K. S. L. WILSON A N D N. J. HAYDEN. Access to the Next Generation of Sustainable Control of Covered

Kernel Smut of Sorghum .......................................................................................................................................... 477

(RAPD) Analysis ........ ................................................... 474

Index ......................................................................................................................................................................... 479

Part I

Transition from the Previous Millennium

Transition from the Second to the Third World Review of Sorghum and Millet Diseases

Walter A . J. de Milliano

The present commodity crops, sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] and pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.], are important and sometimes indispensable for the survival of man and domestic animals in austere dry environments. In addition, their genetic diversity and numerous uses (24) are likely to be appealing to citizens of the third millennium searching for food diversification for reasons of enjoyment, health, convenience, eagerness for change, and fashion. This desire for food diversification could extend to other, lesser-known cereals such as Coix lachryma-jobi L., Digitaria exilillis Stapf, finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.], Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter, Panicum spp., Paspalum sp., and Setaria spp. Hopefully these markets will develop further, stimulating both higher levels of production and increased farm income.

Sorghum and millets have been affected by many diseases in the past (51) and still are today (17). Poten- tially, each disease can cause economic losses and jeo- pardize the food security of the farmer and hisher family. Each previous global review (12, 58, 60) has provided the opportunity to make a unique long-term analysis of different issues over the last quarter century.

Venue, Objectives, and Demonstrations The first global single crop reviews were in India, where sorghum and pearl millet are both staple foods. “State of the art” discussions were held on diseases and disease resistance breeding (58,60).

The second review was in Zimbabwe. In this review we were reminded of the widening food gap in the third world, the relative importance of many diseases was established, and strategic plans were developed that were mutually beneficial for both developing and developed nations (12). Technology transfer, seed health, and germplasm utilization were discussed. This meeting also gave

many African scientists a rare chance to meet foreign colleagues in both meeting rooms and the field. The practical demonstrations at Zimbabwean research and development stations showed the importance of selective use of ecological zones, trained manpower, and infra- structure development. The unique, international, disease hot spot screening approach of the SADCC (Southern Africa Development Coordination Conference) region also was demonstrated.

The third global review was in Mexico. It focused on integrated management of sorghum and millet diseases for the twenty-first century and the importance of these crops in agro-ecosystems. Disease status was reviewed in national, regional, and global contexts as priorities were altered for the next decade. Also, the importance of proper pathogen identification and the use of population biology approach was emphasized. Panicle diseases, such as ergot and grain mold, and the plant parasite Striga received special attention. The Mexican host scientists gave on-farm and on-station demonstrations. In this “home of maize,” the area planted to sorghum has been increasing in recent years, and Mexican farmers produce crops with grain yields of up to 15 tha. Millets, however, remain of minor importance.

Participation and Publication in the Global Reviews

No national scientist participated in all three global reviews. For sorghum, only three scientists participated in all three global sorghum reviews: Richard A. Frederiksen, Darrel Rosenow, and Nat Zummo. All three of these scientists were from the United States and were participants in INTSORMIL. For millets, S. D. Singh, Ram P. Thakur, and Walter A. J. de Milliano participated in the three pearl millet reviews in association with either ICRISAT or INTSORMIL. Thus, for sorghum, about 5%

5

4 Part I Transition from the Previous Millennium

TABLE 1-1. Papers by continent, region, and country presented during the previous (12, 58, 60) and current world reviews for sorghum and pearl millet.

1978 1986 1988 2000 Sorghum Pearl millet Sorghum Pearl millet Sorghum Pearl millet - -

Worldwide I

Africa Central Africa East Africa

Ethiopia Malawi

Southern Africa Zimbabwe

Western Africa Mali Niger Nigeria Senegal

Bangladesh India Japan Pakistan Philippines Thailand

Asia

Europe Eastern Europe

Russia Australia Central fk South Amerlca

Central America and Caribbean

El Salvador Mexico

South Amerlca Argentina Brazil Venezuela

North America

Basin

n n n Y Y Y n n n n Y Y n n Y Y n Y Y Y n n n n n

n

Y Y n Y Y Y n

n

Y n n n r Y Y Y Y Y Y Y n n Y n n n n n n n n

n

n

n n n n n n r

n n n Y r r Y Y Y r r r n n n Y Y n Y Y Y n n n n

Y

r Y Y r Y r r

Y n n n n r Y Y Y r r r r n n Y n n n n n n n n

n

n

n n n n n n n

Y n Y Y r n Y r

Y r r r n Y n r n r n r n n

Y Y n

n

n Y n Y Y Y r

n n Y Y r n Y r Y n r r r Y n r n r n n n n n

Y n

n

n Y n n n n r

n = no presentation, y = single-country presentation, r = regional presentation.

(first meeting had > 59 participants) of the scientists were still participating 22 years later, and for millet < 3% (first meeting > 100 participants) were still participating 13 years later. Between 30-40% of the participants attended at least two meetings, including both national scientists and those from the international organizations. For both crops, 30-35% of the authors published in at least two of the reviews.

Why did so few national scientists (< 1%) participate actively in more than two of these ten-year reviews? Part of the problem is financial. Simply finding enough

money to pay for plane fare, hotel, and per diem can be very dificult. A second reason is that active developing- country scientists often are quickly promoted to admin- istrative positions or hired by the private sector. A third problem is inevitable difficulties with visas, schedule conflicts, and travel arrangements. Thus, the fact that over a period of 10 years, 30-40% of the active national and international scientists continue to participate is more impressive than it first appears and, at the least, demon- strates significant continuity. From these statistics, it is clear that the evaluations of regional and continental is-

Chapter 1 Second to Third Global Conference Transition 5

sues and of long-term trends depend heavily on the published literature. In this sense, the published proceedings of this meeting and its predecessors are of particular importance.

The individual reviews of sorghum in 1978 (58) and pearl millet in 1986 (60) were followed by joint reviews in 1988 and 2000. In the joint reviews, there were dis- tinctly (up to five times) more sorghum than millet articles (Table 1-1). That trend continues in this volume. Beginning in 1988, there also were a few manuscripts on finger millet research (e.g., 1, 28). With the progress in molecular mapping, related cereal crops may benefit through synteny. Thus, progress in one crop may benefit the others. In addition, these “minor” cereals may provide an opportunity to identify disease resistance genes that are not available or do not exist in the major cereals.

Both sorghum and pearl millet have become global crops. Because the crops are grown in many countries, it is difficult to have a complete and balanced report of all the new developments. Initially, there were individual country and regional reviews (Table 1-I), in which, as a rule, the host country received some extra attention. There are now some combined reports, both in terms of having regional summaries instead of those only for individual countries (e.g., 15, 23, 34, 39), and in terms of combined reports for both sorghum and millet (e.g., 23, 34, 50). Stronger efforts to combine reports are recom- mended.

In this volume, there is a first global sorghum (35) and also a global finger millet disease review (14). For sorghum and pearl millet there is a single continental review for Asia, including, for the first time, reports for China, Iran, Myanmar, and Syria (23). Africa has no continental review, although there is a summary of the working group’s meeting (20), but there are regional reviews for southern, western, eastern, and central parts of the continent (15,34,39). As a result of political changes since the second world review, South Africa is now actively represented (e.g., 37). Probably as a desire to solve common disease problems, Australia is included in this volume for the first time (SO), as is Russia (26). There was no review from Europe primarily because these cereals are not major crops on that continent. Nevertheless, European scientists made significant tech- nical and scientific contributions (e.g., 5 , 33,45).

Publication results from meeting publication standards timely. Thus, some of the presentations from Mexico are not in these proceedings, and some of the invited papers that could not be presented, usually because the scheduled presenter was unable to obtain a visa from the Mexican government, are in this volume.

Disease Control Method. Duncan and de Milliano (13) suggested that up to modest disease control can be achieved for many sorghum and millet diseases. They compiled assessments by experts in the field for obtainable control and used a scale of 0 to 1, with 0 = no control, 0.1 = limited control, 0.5 = modest control, and 1 = absolute control. Genetic resistance (mean over all diseases = 0.46), seed treatments and tests (mean = 0.42 each), and chemical control in crops and in seed production (mean = 0.39 each) were expected to be the most effective in sorghum. Genetic resistance (mean = 0.5) and chemical control in seed production (mean = 0.35) were expected to be the most effective in pearl millet. Genetic resistance. In the last two global reviews, genetic resistance received considerable attention through reviews of countries and regions or of specific subjects. Considering the high frequency of this type of review, and the many efforts devoted to obtaining suitable genetic lines, genetic resistance was and is an important control method.

Both for sorghum and pearl millet, there are fewer articles on genetic resistance in this volume than in its predecessor. Major specific subjects for sorghum in the preceding volume were the reviews of the use of genetic resistance (49), the use of the world germplasm collection assembled by ICRISAT and INTSORMIL (41, 49), sweet stem sorghums (61), anthracnose (7), grain mold (40), and downy mildew resistance (9). In this volume, disease resistance breeding and screening for several diseases are reviewed (48, 5 9 , but Strigu and ergot dominate for sorghum, and for pearl millet, downy mildew (1 9). Other forms of control, including “Know your en- emy.” In this volume, the emphasis has shifted toward more in-depth subject matter reviews. In the preceding volume, there were reviews for specific disease organisms-their biology, taxonomy (e.g., s), biodiversity (e.g., 7), technology transfer (44), and the toxicology of pearl millet ergot (32). In this volume, there were again reviews of specific disease organisms, but also reviews of interspecific relationships, intraspecific variation (e.g., 4 9 , antifungal proteins (e.g. 57), specific disease tri- angles-host, pathogen and environment (e.g., 37), mycotoxins (e.g., 47), quarantine (43), the use of the Internet (e.g., 1 I), methods to improve collaboration and funding ( e g . , 46), and last, but not least, on the involvement of the private sector (e.g., 10,25).

In the preceding volume, two significant contributions for the future were reported as short commun- ications. Butler (6) provided the first insight into the


host/pathogen relationship that underlies the changes in breeding strategy that have lessened the importance of the Sfriga parasitic weeds. The abstract by Frederickson and Mantle (16) provided the first evidence for the aerial dispersal of conidia of the African sorghum ergot fungus. This research became of global importance when this disease spread to Australia and the Americas in the 1990s. Crop and disease management, including disease for- casting. In this area, two major new examples are des- cribed in this volume: the use of disease prediction models, in particular for the prediction of annual sorghum ergot epidemics (e.g. , 37), and a dynamic multiline for pearl millet (59). In the preceding volume (12), the reviews were only for sorghum and were focused on races of anthracnose (e.g. 7), and a case study was presented on the epidemiology of sorghum diseases in Cen- tral America (56). In this volume, there are reviews of: cultural (including intercropping) and IPM (Integrated Pest Management) strategies for control of Strigu (2 , 21), and of biodiversity as a strategy for both disease and pest management (59). For pearl millet, the management of downy mildew resistance was reviewed (19,22). Other methods of control. Overviews of chemical control (38), seed treatments, biological control, and seed tests receive little or no attention in this volume. Chem- ical control in seed production, which was previously identified as an important disease control method, is barely perceptible in the global reviews. However, seed transmission of sorghum pathogens was a subject of special emphasis in the 1988 conference (36). In the 2000 conference, a determined effort was made to involve the private sector (10, 25, 53), in addition to a presentation on the practical value of a systemic seed treatment against downy mildew in pearl millet (52).

A major change for the control of diseases is the addition of molecular biology-based solutions for all of the crops. Considerable progress has been made since the previous global review and the 1995 strategic meeting in Bellagio (29). Diseases to which such analyses are being applied include sorghum grain molds (3), sorghum anthracnose (18), sorghum head smut (42), sorghum ergot (43 , sorghum leaf blight (31), sorghum oval leaf spot (4), “Fusurium moniliforme” (30), pearl millet downy mildew (54), and finger millet blast (5 ) . The coming challenge is the practical and efficient use of the basic information now being generated.

Sorghum Diseases Sorghum has a number of diseases of continuing importance. Many of the important diseases are caused by fungi including grain molds, anthracnose, stalk rots,

ergot, smuts, and downy mildew. A novelty at the 2000 meeting was the two-man tag-team review of a single fungal species, Fusarium moniliforme, which now is being subdivided into 20+ species and whose present name was retired at this meeting. The importance of various Fusurium spp. in relation to human health, food quality and other post-harvest problems, suggests both threats and opportunities. In relation to maize, is sorghum grain a healthier food because of the mycoflora that it does, or does not, support? Therefore, the Fusuriu deserve continued attention. Striga also continued to receive attention. In particular, research at Purdue University has made steady progress, and prospects for the control of these parasitic weeds are greatly improved.

Viruses received attention in both reviews, and their taxonomy is now established. However, the global importance of these viruses is not well demonstrated. Bacterial diseases were reviewed in the preceding volume (8), but not in this one. Nematodes have received little attention, although a review of sorghum nematode problems is included in this volume (27). Insects have been avoided in these global reviews, as have rodents and birds, but these organisms are important, and, in particular, insects can be vectors and facilitators of fungal, bacterial, and viral diseases. With the movement toward IPM, the inclusion of reviews by entomologists and other biologists in the next global review might encourage the development of research and production synergies.

Millet Diseases Millets also clearly have a number of diseases of continuing importance, of which ergot and downy mildew are receiving the most attention. During the Mexico review, remarkable and somewhat unexpected progress was reported by Breese et al. ( 5 ) on the development of molecular markers for studying finger millet leaf blast (Pyriculuriu spp.). Blast control in finger millet also may benefit from the recent developments in rice (14). Strigu also continued to receive attention (2, 21). Though focus in research is desired, and appears to have been attained, the lack of progress caused by the absence or lack of staff is a concern.

Take-Home Messages In terms of growth measured as planted area or yield, there are few successes with sorghum and millets, as the global popularity of these crops has been decreasing. Yet in Mexico, “the home of maize,” growth in both planted area and grain yield is occurring in sorghum. For millets, major successes have not yet occurred, and these crops continue to languish and remain of minor importance.


The supporting technologies provided unexpected tools and unprecedented progress with the development of molecular maps for both the host crops and the causal agents of some of the diseases. Thus, a move from empir- ical selection for disease resistance to marker-assisted breeding either has or will shortly occur. This shift means that for disease resistance screening, we may no longer be totally dependent on the presence of the pathogen. De- pendence on demanding, and often difficult and unpre- dictable, disease resistance-screening tests also may be reduced. Breeding against quarantine diseases that are not in the country also may be possible if suitably charac- terized resistant and susceptible germplasm is available. We also can distinguish homozygous and heterozygous resistant plants, without the complications caused by “escapes” in the screening process. DNA analysis is usually a nondestructive test that can be done in the laboratory with material from almost any plant tissue or growth stage, and could accelerate the breeding process. In addition, the molecular technology provides a chance to select systematically for QTL quantitative resistances.

Molecular technology also has provided laboratory tools to identify (quarantine) strains. Through the data generated with these tools we can better understand and evaluate the genetic evolution of pathogens and better understand genetic diversity. In particular, the reviews on ergot (45) and Fusariurn spp. (30) could become classic examples. Though the development of genetically modi- fied cereals was not a primary topic of the meeting, new opportunities for control of previously uncontrollable diseases and other biological agents, e.g., insects and nematodes, may be possible.

Clearly in the twenty-first century, more than work in the field will be needed for effective disease control. The key for impact will be the management, design, and implementation of multidisciplinary collaborative research. Several issues are of importance to secure this future:

How can the consumer be involved more effectively? Joint planning of regional targets and activities and regular control of the agreed progress. Joint planning for actions between INTSORMIL, ICRISAT, and the private sector (e.g., the National Grain Sorghum Producers in the United States) could strengthen sorghum and millet research through complementary efforts and provide a better focus for national and regional targets. Food safety, e.g., traceability, methods to measure the quantity of key toxins, food security, and models to predict grain quality all need greater attention.

Academic training of plant pathologists from developed and developing countries in molecular biology should become essential.

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